Unit 1 Tutorials: The Essentials of Writing

INSIDE UNIT 1

Introduction to Writing Principles

ENG1010: The 10 Employability Skills

Overview of the Writing Process
Modes of Writing
Purpose and Audience in Writing
The Role of Language
Tone in Writing
Determining Your Purpose and Audience
Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation

Steps and Strategies in the Writing Process

Brainstorming
Prewriting
Outlining and Drafting
Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
Time Management for Writing
Writing with Technology

Basic Composition Structure

Thesis Statements
Introductions
Body Paragraphs
Conclusions

ENG1010: The 10 Employability Skills

by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will be introduced to the 10 essential employability skills and explore the particular

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 skills you will be learning more about in this course. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Introduction to the 10 Skills
2. Skills in This Course
3. Skills in This Unit

1. Introduction to the 10 Skills

The jobs of today look very different from the jobs our parents had. Whether you work in a cubicle or on a
construction site, technology has changed—and is continuing to change—the ways we connect, communicate,
and create in our careers.

In the past, a college degree was enough to set you up for professional success. Today, employers want job
candidates who also have the right skills to succeed. That‘s why we’ve partnered with top employers,
business leaders, and recruiters to identify 10 skills that are critical to performing your best—not just in one
field, but across all industries.

These are skills that will prepare you for the needs of any future employer and set you up for success in a
world that is constantly evolving:

1. Self and Social Awareness

2. Technology
3. Productivity
4. Initiative
5. Results Driven
6. Communication
7. Relationship Building
8. Problem Solving
9. Innovation
10. Agility

The chart below further explains the meaning and relevance of these skills in the workplace:

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As you work through this and other courses, consider how you can use these 10 skills to achieve your
personal, academic, and professional goals.

2. Skills in This Course

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 If you command language, you command the world.

—John Pollack, presidential speechwriter

All over the world, business leaders, politicians, and activists use the power of their writing to engage and
inform those around them. And you can harness that power in your own life and career by learning how to use
your words to write the future you want.

Almost all professions require writing, but as you may know, not all writing is professional. In the modern
workplace, having a command of the English language and being able to convey your thoughts appropriately -
through emails, memos, reports, and more - can mean the difference between reaching your goals and falling
behind.

In fact, according to the National Writing Project, writing “is the currency of the new workplace and the global
economy. It is essential to communication, learning and citizenship in the digital age.” Don’t worry, though!
The techniques in this course are designed to make sure you’ve got the write (er, right) stuff.

In this course, you’ll practice four of the 10 essential employability skills to help you harness the power of your
words through excellent writing. They are:

Innovation Skill: to use strategies to develop your ideas and create change
Communication Skill: to effectively write about information, your ideas, and your perspective
Productivity Skill: to plan your time and your writing
Technology Skill: to use digital tools and devices to document your writing efficiently and effectively

Together, these four skills will help you inform and persuade others and enact change in your life and career.
If it feels like a lot, rest assured, we’ve got your back. We’ll walk you through what you need to know to stay
ahead. Along the way, you’ll also hear real stories from real people—like a presidential speechwriter, a
professional comedian, and a criminal justice expert—who are using the same skills and techniques in this
course to make big changes in their lives and the world.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Innovation Skill
A skill that helps you use strategies to develop your ideas and create change.

Communication Skill
A skill that helps you effectively write about information, your ideas, and your perspective.

Productivity Skill
A skill that helps you plan your time and your writing.

Technology Skill
A skill that helps you use digital tools and devices to document your writing efficiently and effectively.

3. Skills in This Unit

Unit 1 of this course incorporates all four skills: innovation, communication, productivity, and technology. You

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will see how these skills interact with each other through the writing process.

In particular, we will focus on the following:

Innovation: How you can be creative throughout the writing process, particularly with brainstorming
Communication: How to pull together data, consider your purpose and audience, and go through the
steps of the writing process to write an effective composition
Productivity: How to navigate the writing process more efficiently by using writing management and time
management skills
Technology: How to use technology tools to improve your writing

 BIG IDEA

In the following Sophia Story, you will get a peek at the incendiary power of words throughout history and how
you can wield them to create a lasting impact on your world. You’ll also discover how experts are using the
power of their words to practice excellent communication and reach personal and professional success.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you received an introduction to the 10 skills. Employers seek individuals who possess
these essential employability skills and continue to work to strengthen them. These skills cut across all
professions and career paths. You learned how communication, technology, productivity, and
innovation will be the skills incorporated into this course and this unit and why they are valuable.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Communication Skill
A skill that helps you effectively write about information, your ideas, and your perspective.

Innovation Skill
A skill that helps you use strategies to develop your ideas and create change.

Productivity Skill
A skill that helps you plan your time and your writing.

Technology Skill
A skill that helps you use digital tools and devices to document your writing efficiently and effectively.

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Overview of the Writing Process
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will take a broad look at the writing process, exploring its different stages and how
they work together to produce essays and other writing projects. You will also explore how the writing
process strengthens your communication skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Writing as a Process
2. Stages of the Writing Process
a. Prewriting
b. Drafting
c. Revising
d. Editing
e. Proofreading

1. Writing as a Process
The skills you use to write well-crafted sentences and paragraphs can in turn be used to developessays, or
short pieces of writing on a particular subject, as well as other types of composition.

That means that most writing projects are made up of paragraphs; turning those paragraphs into a full
composition means going through the writing process, which is a series of steps involved in completing a
successful essay or other writing project.

It’s important to remember that writing is a process, not a product, and you won’t necessarily move in a
straight line. Instead, you’ll start and stop, move forward and back, finish and begin all over again. That’s part
of what writing is about, and learning these steps will help you embrace the recursive nature of writing.

Using the writing process will ensure that your essays and other writing projects are clear, well-written, and
accurate, which in turn, will strengthen your communication skill.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Essay
A short piece of writing on a particular subject.

Writing Process
A series of steps that go into writing a successful essay or other writing project.

2. Stages of the Writing Process

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The series of steps that make up the writing process is going to be a little different for every writer. However,
the overall process will follow the same pattern and go through the same overall progression of steps:

Prewriting
Drafting
Revising
Editing
Proofreading

2a. Prewriting
Prewriting is a stage in the writing process during which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan prior to
composing a first draft. In other words, this is the stage where you get to let your mind do its work, generating
and organizing a whole host of ideas about your topic.

Letting yourself spend some time thinking through your opinions on and interests in a topic is key not just to
developing interesting writing, but also to slaying the dragon of writer’s block. As such, brainstorming often
occurs prior to, or as part of, this stage.

There are a few prewriting/brainstorming games that you can play with yourself, such as:

Listing: writing down any ideas as they come

Clustering: creating a map connecting your ideas and support
Free-writing: writing down fully-formed thoughts about the topic

Doing this kind of brainstorming can lead to an outline, which is a crucial element of the prewriting stage.
Outlining is like drawing a sketch of your essay where you plot out the images you’re going to draw on. You’ll
have your main idea, usually in the form of a thesis statement, and then section summaries of what will
become the body paragraphs of your composition.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing project
prior to composing a first draft.

Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the primary
ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

2b. Drafting

Once you’ve generated your ideas and outline in the prewriting stage, you’re ready to startdrafting. Drafting
is the act of composing a piece of writing; it’s where you get to take your sketch and fill in the details.

Remember, just as it might take multiple layers of paint and many tries to get a picture perfect, so too will it
likely take multiple drafts before your ideas are ready.

This is ultimately a good thing, because every draft you build makes the final draft that much better.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

2c. Revising

Revising is the act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project; it’s the stage where you look at the big
picture of the whole essay.

That means you’re re-seeing:

Your ideas
What kind of evidence and support you use
The overall organization of your text

You’re then evaluating how well each of those things is working, and incorporating changes to form a new
draft. This might happen several times as you go back around again and again to get the image perfect.
This is because you are rethinking the thoughts that you’ve already put on paper, reorganizing and
reconsidering what you want to say and how you want to say it, and rewriting and refining your words so that
the text matches the overall big picture of your piece.

 HINT

When revising, you should always start at the thesis statement and ask whether it still matches the direction
that the writing project has taken, and then look at each individual paragraph’s examples to assess their
connection to the main idea.

 TERM TO KNOW

Revising
The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

2d. Editing

After you’ve revised and generated a draft that you think has all the information it needs, it’s time forediting.
Editing is improving the sentences, word choices, and overall style of an essay or other piece of writing.

In your last step, you looked at the big picture; here, you’re zeroing in on the brush strokes that make up that
picture. You’re going to look really closely at the language you use and how clear it is, so you should have
already completed the revision of the big picture. In this sense, editing is a more focused form of revising,
where you're looking at issues on a sentence level rather than a paragraph level.

When you edit, you’re looking for:

How well each piece of language is working

How clear your ideas are
How precise your language is
How effective your choice of words is
How much variety you have in sentence length and structure

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 Whether your sentences are all complete

 TERM TO KNOW

Editing
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other piece
of writing.

2e. Proofreading

Once you have a draft that you’ve revised and edited so that its language and ideas are the best they can be,
you can start proofreading. Proofreading means fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization,
punctuation, commonly confused words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

This is the step where you clean up your work and make sure that it’s ready to be seen by its audience
without any smudges or messes left over from when you were creating.

Proofreading helps you catch these last little errors before you’re ready to show your masterpiece to the
world.

Communication: Why Employers Care

A master chef does not create an impressive meal without first making a plan for preparing the
ingredients and estimating the amount of time until the meal is ready to serve. The same is true for
writing. Even the most talented writer cannot “serve up” a masterpiece without having a plan in place.
Having a plan before you start writing will ensure your writing is clear, concise, thoughtful, and logical.
Planning will also save you from embarrassment or misunderstandings, and it will keep you from
scrambling at the last minute to meet deadlines.

 TERM TO KNOW

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that writing should be thought of as a process, not a product. Thus, there
are several stages of the writing process that are important in creating a successful composition:
Prewriting is the stage in which you lay out all of your ideas on paper in order to create an outline;
drafting is the stage in which you compose your writing project;revising is the process of re-
envisioning and re-imagining your ideas; editing is the process of improving the language, sentences,
and overall style of the piece; proofreading is the process of correcting any errors in grammar or
mechanics. Finally, you discovered how the writing process strengthens your communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

Editing
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other piece
of writing.

Essay
A short piece of writing on a particular subject.

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing project
prior to composing a first draft.

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

Revising
The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

Writing Process
A series of steps that go into writing a successful essay or other writing project.

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Modes of Writing
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the four different modes of writing, and the particular purpose and
features of each. You will also discover how these modes of writing further enhance your
communication skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Narrative Mode
2. Descriptive Mode
3. Informative Mode
4. Persuasive Mode

1. Narrative Mode
A mode is a way of describing an approach to writing that has a specificpurpose, or goal. The narrative mode
is a mode of writing that is driven by a story; it tells what has happened, whether the story is fictional or true.
This might be an opportunity for reflecting upon an event, or maybe just a way to tell an entertaining story
about something interesting that happened.

When would you use this mode? You would definitely use narration to tell the story of a recent vacation, but
you might also use it academically or professionally.

 EXAMPLE If you're writing a paper for a communications class and want to imagine how a conflict
between a manager and a team member could influence office productivity, you might use the narrative
mode.

Because the narrative mode is frequently used in professional and casual social situations, understanding this
approach will strengthen your communication skills across all aspects of your life.

 HINT

Description provides details concerning a specific person, place, or thing, so it’s used to add in details and
really draw a clear and vivid picture. For that reason, it's likely that you would also use the descriptive mode
while telling a story in the narrative mode.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Mode
The manner in which a text is written.

Purpose
The intended goal or value of a text.

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Narrative Mode
A mode of writing that is driven by a story.

2. Descriptive Mode
Description provides details that zero in on a specific person, place, or thing. It’s used to draw a clear and
vivid picture.

As seen in the example above, it can be used along with narration for an academic paper, or in your
professional career.

How else might you use the descriptive mode?

 EXAMPLE In a business setting, you may want to pitch a new product. Using the descriptive mode,
you can clearly describe its features and uses.

Similar to the narrative mode, the descriptive mode is also used in a variety of situations, both professional
and nonprofessional, strengthening your communication skill.

While you won’t be practicing the narrative and descriptive modes specifically in this course, it’s important to
understand how these modes work, as they are often incorporated into other modes of writing.

 TERM TO KNOW

Descriptive Mode
A mode of writing that focuses on details about a specific person, place, or thing.

3. Informative Mode
The informative mode is a mode of writing designed to inform, describe, or explain. It is thus similar in some
ways to narration and description, and may use those modes. It’s also specifically used for informing, which
involves giving the reader facts without offering an opinion about them.

This mode is written with as little bias as possible. Your feelings about the facts cannot change whether or not
they’re true.

 EXAMPLE When writing a history paper, you would likely use the informative mode to inform your
readers about past events. You cannot pick and choose which elements of the truth you’ll include.

 TERM TO KNOW

Informative Mode
A mode of writing designed to inform, describe, or explain.

4. Persuasive Mode
The persuasive mode aims to convince the audience to take a specific course of action. This is where you

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present a thesis statement, or a clearly-stated main point, which takes a position on a topic and uses
reasoning to support that position.

Obviously, you’ll use this mode if you’re assigned an opinion or persuasive paper, but you likely already use
this mode often in your daily life.

 EXAMPLE Your friends want to go out for Chinese food, but you’d rather have a burger, so you try to
convince them to head out for burgers instead. When you do this, you’re using the persuasive mode.

The persuasive mode is very similar to the argumentative mode, which takes a clear position on a debatable
question, and backs up claims with evidence and reasoning. In fact, these terms are often used
interchangeably because of how much they overlap in technique. For the purpose of this course, we will most
often be using the term “persuasive,” as you will ultimately be trying to convince your audience to take a
specific action as a result of your argument.

Communication: Skill in Action

Imagine that Lucia owns a small jewelry-making business and is negotiating with stores to sell her
jewelry. She’ll need to use strong persuasive writing skills that incorporate logical and accurate
evidence. She will also need these skills to purchase supplies, setting legal policies for her
organization, and many other facts for her business to be successful.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Persuasive Mode
A mode of writing that aims to convince the audience to take a specific course of action.

Argumentative Mode
A mode of writing that takes a clear position on a debatable question, and backs up claims with evidence and
reasoning.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the four modes of writing, which each serve a particular purpose that
the author needs to assess. The informative mode offers objective information, while the persuasive
mode uses opinion and reasoning to convince readers of something. The narrative mode is more of a
storytelling approach, and the descriptive mode zeroes in on details about a person, place, or thing.
Finally, you strengthened your communication skill by exploring these four modes of writing.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Argumentative Mode

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 A mode of writing that takes a clear position on a debatable question, and backs up claims with evidence
and reasoning.

Descriptive Mode
A mode of writing that focuses on details about a specific person, place, or thing.

Informative Mode
A mode of writing designed to inform, describe, or explain.

Mode
The manner in which a text is written.

Narrative Mode
A mode of writing that is driven by a story.

Persuasive Mode
A mode of writing that aims to convince the audience to take a specific course of action.

Purpose
The intended goal or value of a text.

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Purpose and Audience in Writing
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the importance of discerning the purpose and audience of texts.
You will also explore how having a clearly defined purpose and audience strengthens your
communication skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose in Writing
a. Connection to Mode
2. Audience in Writing
3. Relationship between Purpose and Audience

1. Purpose in Writing
Before you write, you need to know thepurpose, which is the intended goal or value of a text. This purpose
will govern just about all of the tools you use, including:

Mode
Tone
Level of formality
Structure

To find out what the purpose is, ask yourself what the goal of your text is, and what you hope it will achieve.
Different purposes will create different kinds of writing, and there are many kinds of purposes—entertainment
and information, argument or discussion.

 EXAMPLE Stories are often designed to make people laugh, so their purpose is entertainment.
Instruction manuals are meant to inform and guide, while advertisements are meant to convince you to
buy.

All well-written communications must have a strong purpose in mind in order to clearly articulate their intent. If
a person has strong communication skills, their purpose will come across clearly to the audience.

 TERM TO KNOW

Purpose
The intended goal or value of a text.

1a. Connection to Mode

All of these purposes will change the mode the author will choose. These purposes are also more specific
than the mode itself, but they can be served by that particular mode’s structure, tone, and other features.

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Remember, there are several different modes of writing:

Narrative
Descriptive
Informative
Persuasive

Each mode can be particularly useful for different purposes.

IN CONTEXT
The persuasive mode, for instance, could be deployed when your purpose is to convince your
colleagues that a particular team-building activity would be beneficial to implement at your
company.

However, if your purpose was to describe a group team-building activity to colleagues who are
unfamiliar with it, the persuasive mode wouldn't fit. You're not trying to convince your colleagues to
utilize your idea; you're just trying to tell them about the details of the activity. Thus, you would want
to use the informative mode.

In an academic setting, you may be assigned a particular mode to use, such as when you take a persuasive
writing class. If you’re assigned a persuasive paper, your purpose will need to be persuasion.

 TERM TO KNOW

Mode
The manner in which a text is written.

2. Audience in Writing
In general, the audience of a piece of writing is the reader of a text, which can be intended (targeted by the
author), or unintended (not targeted by the author).

In a writing class, your intended audience is your instructor, who you know is going to read your paper.
Furthermore, you can probably assume that your instructor is an informed audience—a factor that will also
influence the way you write.

However, if you find out you’ll be sharing your paper with peers, you will have a new, additional audience—
one that you hadn’t intended in the first place. Therefore, it’s always important to keep in mind not only your
intended audience, but potential unintended audiences as well.

When writing, you might consider your audience’s:

Age
Gender
Interests
Moral or religious philosophy

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 Political ideology
Level of education or expertise

A skillful writer will navigate these audience traits carefully. Thus, as you assess your audience, ask yourself:

What does my audience already know?

How interested will my audience be in this detail?
Am I describing details in a way that will make sense to my audience?
What characteristics do I think my audience will have?
Given my audience, how can I write the most effective text possible?

Communication: Apply Your Skill

Consider your ideal career and the communications you will have with others in this career. Will you
primarily communicate with coworkers, clients, other organizations, or a mix of all three? How can you
learn more about your audience to ensure that your communications are written in a manner that’s
helpful to them?

 TERM TO KNOW

Audience
The intentional or unintentional reader(s) of a text.

3. Relationship between Purpose and Audience

From what you just learned, you have probably already begun to consider the close relationship between a
text’s purpose and its audience.

You can think of this relationship like a cycle. The purpose is your reason for writing the text, but you hope to
achieve that purpose with a specific audience. Thus, speaking directly to that audience is part of your
purpose. These things are inherently linked.

Because of this, the audience is not something you can consider after you’ve already written. You have to
write with a particular audience in mind, and target your words to them.

IN CONTEXT
If your purpose is to write a training handbook for new employees at your workplace, those
employees themselves are part of your purpose. You would write for new employees differently
than you would for people who have worked at the company for a long time and have expertise in
the systems and procedures used there. In the latter case, you’d maybe choose more technical
vocabulary with less description and explanation.

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  BIG IDEA

Different approaches will work better with different audiences, and you therefore want to think carefully about
both your intended audience and purpose as you write.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that in writing, purpose is the intended goal or value of a text. Purpose has
a strong connection to mode, or the way the text is written. There are several different modes, and
the one you select should be the one that best serves your purpose.

You also learned that in writing, audience is the reader of a text. Audience can be either intended or
unintended, and the effectiveness of a text will depend on how well you reach your audience. The
relationship between purpose and audience is essential to consider, as each will influence the way a
text is written. Finally, you explored how audience and purpose enable you to be a strong
communicator.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Audience
The intentional or unintentional reader(s) of a text.

Mode
The manner in which a text is written.

Purpose
The intended goal or value of a text.

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The Role of Language
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how the language used in a text is influenced by the purpose and
audience of the writing. You will continue to strengthen your communication skill by examining the
role of language. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Connection between Language, Purpose, and Audience
a. Word Choice
b. Connotation and Denotation
c. Level of Formality and Sentence Structure

1. Connection between Language, Purpose, and

Audience
As you learned in previous lessons, you produce a piece of text for a reason. Writing always has a purpose or
goal and an audience. Those two factors will then strongly influence the kind of language you choose in your
writing.

You generally want to make language choices that help your audience to understand your text, as well as to
help you meet your goal for that text.

Thus, you’ll want to pay attention to a few facets of your language, such as:

Your vocabulary level

Meanings of the words you choose
Degree of formality
Complexity or simplicity of your sentence structures

Communication: Apply Your Skill

Imagine that Joaquin is in charge of customer relations for a large retail store. He communicates
changes to the store that will affect customers, such as mask policies put into place due to COVID-19,
new items the store is carrying, and changes in store hours. Considering the store serves a variety of
demographics, what should he consider regarding the language and style of his communications?

1a. Word Choice

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To navigate those challenges in your writing, start by thinking about the words you choose and the ways you
choose them. Word choice refers simply to which words you select in your writing.

Thinking about words and choosing them carefully is one of the hallmarks of a good writer and can help your
writing be more effective and successful. Words do a lot of work for your readers, so be careful to select the
best words to help your readers understand you and have the kind of responses that you are aiming for.

There are many different ways to say something and thus many different vocabularies that can be chosen for
any situation. You want to think about what your audience is going to be able to understand best.

 EXAMPLE In the previous scenario featuring Joaquin, he will want to use words that are common and
around a sixth-grade reading level. Many of the store's customers may speak English as a second
language, or have a reading or verbal disability.

1b. Connotation and Denotation

Although the two terms sound the same, there is a difference betweendenotation and connotation. Even
when you select words that mean the right thing, you want to also think about what they imply.

Denotation is the literal meaning of a word, or what the dictionary says about it. Connotation, on the other
hand, is the associative meaning of the word, or what that word commonly implies or suggests.

You might choose a word that has the correct denotative meaning, but creates connotations that don’t match
your style or purpose—something that makes your audience think what you don’t want them to think.

Some words have strong emotional connotations, which can be both a pitfall and an opportunity.

 EXAMPLE The word “fanatical” means zealous or even obsessive. Yet how many times have you
heard someone describe themselves as fanatical about a popular band or sports team? The denotation is
negative, but the connotation has softened over time. But, as with any word, be careful how you use it,
since it can still be interpreted negatively even if you don't intend it to.

 BIG IDEA

A word’s connotation and its denotation might come to have very different meanings. This may require you to
be very careful about your word choice. There are also words that have similar denotative meanings, but
connote very different things. Knowing how to use both denotation and connotation can lead to rich and
interesting sentences with evocative combinations of words.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Denotation
The literal or dictionary definition of a word.

Connotation
The implied or associative meaning of a word.

1c. Level of Formality and Sentence Structure

Now, think about how to put words together. How do you signal different degrees of formality in your writing?

The level of formality you pick, the rules you follow, and how strictly you adhere to those rules, will be based
on a few different things:

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 Audience needs
Purpose of the text
Subject matter

Each of these factors will influence how formal or informal you need to be. If you’re writing for a personal
audience, you can be informal, whereas if you’re writing for an academic or professional audience, you’ll likely
need to be more formal.
In the case of the latter, you’ll want to avoid using “I” and “you” in your writing. You’ll pick a more
sophisticated vocabulary, temper the emotion of the text, and likely will not include yourself directly in the
content.

In the former, you can be much more personally focused and emotional. You can use a casual vocabulary,
including slang and contractions, and you can break many rules of grammar for stylistic effect. If you really
want, you can use emoticons and exuberant exclamation points to be more friendly and approachable.

As you write and assess your purpose and audience, then, it’s wise to look not just at each individual word, but
also at the way those words are put together in sentences. In formal writing, longer, more complex sentences
are common and even necessary. In contrast, informal writing often features shorter and simpler sentences.

 HINT

Writing that is very engaging and enjoyable to read almost always includes a variety of sentence lengths and
structures, but the particular ratio of long to short and complex to simple that you use will depend on the
audience and purpose.

By considering your audience and purpose of the communication, and adjusting your writing accordingly, your
message will be better understood and more meaningful. This is a quality of individuals who have strong
communication skills.

 BIG IDEA

Having a plan in place is the first step to getting where you want to go in your life and career. In this Sophia
Story, discover how President Bill Clinton’s speechwriter, John Pollack, uses planning to understand his
audience and goal, so he can improve his writing and enact political change.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that there is a strong connection between language, purpose, and
audience in any text. Thus, there are some aspects of language that you as a writer should always
consider in relation to your audience and the purpose.

Depending on your audience, the word choice in your writing will determine how well your message is
understood or received. Likewise, it’s important to know the distinction between the connotation and
denotation of words. While the denotation is the dictionary definition of a word, the connotation is the
commonly implied meaning or association of the word.

The level of formality and sentence structure you choose will also depend on your purpose and
audience. Some writing may require a more academic style with complexly structured sentences,

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 while other pieces may be more conversational with simple sentences. Finally, you discovered how
the practice of adjusting your writing according to purpose and audience will make you a more
effective communicator, and thus, a strong asset as an employee.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Connotation
The implied or associative meaning of a word.

Denotation
The literal or dictionary definition of a word.

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Tone in Writing
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how a text’s purpose and audience influence its tone, as well as how to
assess tone in writing. You will continue to strengthen your communication skill by exploring the
connection between tone and successful writing. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Establishing Tone
a. Word Choice
b. Level of Formality
c. Sentence Structure
2. Identifying Tone in a Piece of Writing

1. Establishing Tone
As you learned previously, your purpose and audience influence everything about your text, particularly:

Word choice
Level of formality
Sentence structure

It’s these factors that in turn determine what your tone, or attitude toward your subject, is. Tone helps create
the feel of the text—everything working together to speak in the author’s voice.

 EXAMPLE Maybe the author’s voice is negative, positive, or neutral. It could be sarcastic or angry,
melancholy or exuberant, nostalgic or hopeful. Just as the inflection in the tone of a person’s voice can
move from naive to jaded to sad, so too can the tone of a piece of writing.

You can even describe the tone of writing in the same way that you describe the tone of voice. In this way,
you can even try to hear writing as if it were being read aloud, if you want to assess its tone.

Thus, listening to the author’s voice is one great way to assess and identify the tone of a piece. You might
read a text aloud to really hear how it sounds and what those sounds make you feel.

Communication: Skill Reflect

Consider the various communications you receive in your personal and professional life. These can
include emails from your teachers, requests from your supervisor, or a notice that a bill is due.
Consider how the word choice, level of formality, and sentence structure varies in each of these
communications. How can you appropriately use these methods to strengthen your communication

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 skill and write effectively?

 TERM TO KNOW

Tone
A writer's attitude toward a subject, as conveyed through a piece of writing.

1a. Word Choice

First, tone is determined by the words the author chooses. Does the author use formal or informal language?
What level is the vocabulary—highly technical and precise or more general and casual?

Think also about the connotations and denotations of these words. Has this author chosen words with
heightened emotional connotations? Or has the author tried to maintain a drier tone, and use words strictly in
their denotative sense?

1b. Level of Formality

Tone is also determined by the level of formality the author uses. Does the text affect a formal tone or a casual
one?

If a piece of writing relies on the personal, uses slang, and takes a relaxed approach to grammar, then that
piece is casual. Conversely, if a text remains neutral in tone, uses more complex vocabulary, and eschews the
personal entirely, then it’s formal.

1c. Sentence Structure

Finally, tone is determined by the complexity of the sentence structure in a text. Are the sentences short and
choppy, long and complex, or a mixture? All of these factors work together to create an overall tone.

Writing dominated by short sentences and highly emotional words is more casual. Formal writing, on the other
hand, tends to feature longer and more complex sentences, as well as vocabulary that includes technical
words.

2. Identifying Tone in a Piece of Writing

How do you figure out what tone a piece is affecting? You might start by reading it aloud to yourself, then
determining if what you hear is positive, negative, or neutral.

Once you’ve established the text’s emotional category, you can start narrowing the tone down to what kind of
positive, negative, or neutral emotion it has created.

Read the following text aloud to yourself, and see if you can identify its tone:

The utter lack of accountability amongst politicians has reached a distressing high, or, we might say,
plummeted to its utter nadir. Previously, term limits ensured that the whims of one politician could
only be granted time for so long, but now that the same monied powers purchase time with each
elected official in turn, the same interests again and again parade through the halls of government.

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 And do we see the voters rising up? No, because they have been bought and paid for themselves, in
the grease of their favorite foods and the glittering spectacle of their video games.

The author sounds angry and disgusted. How do you know where the tone comes from in the language? Look
at the first sentence: The utter lack of accountability amongst politicians has reached a distressing high, or, we
might say, plummeted to its utter nadir.

The phrase “utter lack of accountability” is saying that politicians are not being held responsible for their
behavior. That’s a pretty divisive argument, but the tone of the phrase itself indicates the author’s feelings.
This author could have said something more neutral, and the meaning would’ve been the same. But with
intense words, you can tell that this is angrier. All of that language and tone is meant to drive readers to action
by making them want to change the situation.

The following piece of writing has a very different tone:

Teaching popular texts in college courses can help students be more interested in the lesson.
Students come to college already knowing what they are interested in, so if colleges teach popular
texts about what those students enjoy, they will be more likely to enjoy the lesson. For example, if
students practice writing and reading with a text on a subject they find interesting, such as a sports
article, instead of more traditional texts, such as books about economics or philosophy, they will
already be drawn to the material and likelier to pay attention to the lesson. Giving students reading
about topics of their own interest will help them become more interested in the course, which is the
ultimate goal.

This is a pretty academic piece. You see an argument about teaching popular texts in college courses, so you
know that this is meant to convince the reader of something. But how does it differ from the first example,
which was also trying to persuade the reader of something?

Unlike the first example, this piece isn’t appealing to your emotions by using inflammatory words and intensely
evocative description. Instead, this uses a more neutral tone and walks through the implications of its claims
with a gentler, unemotional affect:

Students come to college already knowing what they are interested in, so if colleges teach popular
texts about what those students enjoy, they will be more likely to enjoy the lesson.

Think about how different this would be if the text instead made the same point this way:

College students are fully capable of understanding what is and is not a priority or interest to them;
denying them the ability to focus on the subject matter about which they are most passionate and
connected will only drive them further away from the very purpose of these classes.

That latter sentence is intense and emotional again. That kind of argumentation would work well on a debate
stage or maybe on a talk radio show. But the original tone would work better in an academic setting where
you know that the tone is usually meant to avoid bias and be more neutral.

Communication: Why Employers Care

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 No matter which career field you enter, you will be communicating with others. Employers want
employees who can communicate effectively and appropriately. Communications with poor word
choice or an overly-casual tone has a negative impact on both the employee and the organization.
Employees who can write professionally and adjust their writing according to audience and purpose
will be an asset to an employer.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that once you determine the purpose and audience of your text, you can
start to think about establishing tone. Tone is the writer’s attitude toward a particular subject, and
there are three main factors that should be considered when establishing tone: word choice, level of
formality, and sentence structure. Considering all three of these will help you choose the most
effective tone for your particular purpose and audience.

Additionally, you practiced identifying tone in a piece of writing. When trying to determine the tone,
it’s often helpful to read the piece aloud and look for tonal clues, such as whether the author uses
emotional or unemotional language, and how the argument or main point is framed. Finally, by
establishing tone, you strengthened your communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Tone
A writer's attitude toward a subject, as conveyed through a piece of writing.

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Determining Your Purpose and Audience
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to identify the purpose and audience of a text by assessing several
particular characteristics. Through this process, you will continue to strengthen your communication
skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Factors That Determine Purpose and Audience
a. Content
b. Mode
c. Word Choice
d. Level of Formality
e. Tone
2. Identifying Purpose and Audience in a Piece of Writing

1. Factors That Determine Purpose and Audience

As you've learned, the purpose is the intended goal or value of a text, and the audience is the reader of the
text, which can be intended (targeted by the author) or unintended (not specifically targeted by the author).

Thus, assessing, identifying, and directing your writing towards the purpose and audience is an essential task.

To figure out what the purpose and audience of a text is, consider the following factors as clues:

Content
Mode of writing
Word choice
Formality level
Overall tone

Doing an analysis of these elements within someone else’s writing helps you better deploy those same tools
in your own writing and provides you with examples of effective ways to target your intended audience and
fulfill your intended purpose.

Communication: Skill Reflect

As you read through the content of this lesson, consider your ideal career. How can you use this
information in your career to determine your purpose and audience? How will this strengthen your
communication skill?

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1a. Content

The content of a text is what the author has chosen as the subject and what the author is telling you about that
subject, which is closely tied to the purpose.

 EXAMPLE If the purpose of a piece is to convince people to buy a certain product, the content will
feature the product’s most attractive selling points.

Sometimes, authors say exactly what their purpose is. But even when the author doesn’t say it outright, there
are other ways you can identify the purpose. Look for the kinds of details, examples, explanations,
descriptions, and arguments the author chooses.

To find the audience, assess the overall subject matter and also the way the author addresses it in order to
make guesses about the intended readers.

1b. Mode

Recall that there are four main modes of writing:

Narrative, which is driven by a story

Descriptive, which is used to provide details
Informative, which provides data without biased opinions
Persuasive, which aims to convince readers

In any piece of writing, you’re bound to see descriptive, informative, and persuasive statements.
But because each mode has its perfect purpose, looking for which modes are used most commonly in any
text will likely lead you in the general direction of the purpose, even though the purpose will be narrower than
the mode itself.

1c. Word Choice

The words you choose, including both the vocabulary level you select and the connotations and denotations
of your words, are related to your audience and purpose.

Vocabulary level can tell you a lot about the intended audience, such as the audience’s level of education or
age range. Additionally, the tone struck by the connotations and denotations of the words gives you clues
about how the reader is meant to feel.

1d. Level of Formality

How formal or informal a text is depends on its audience, and is revealed through the following factors:

Vocabulary level
Sentence complexity
Nature of the content

Academic and professional writing tends to be more formal, while personal writing is usually informal.
1e. Tone

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Remember that tone is a writer’s attitude towards the subject, as conveyed through the piece of writing.

Looking at the tone that the author uses can tell you what that author’s attitude about the subject is, which can
in turn clue you in to the overall purpose and how the author wants the audience to feel about that subject.

 EXAMPLE If the purpose of a text is to inform the reader about a health crisis, then the tone is likely to
be grave and serious.

2. Identifying Purpose and Audience in a Piece of

Writing
Now that you know about the factors that determine purpose and audience, you can practice identifying
purpose and audience in a given text.

Consider the following short piece of writing:

Recently, I had to miss class because of an illness. I am sorry that I wasn't able to inform you of this
absence in advance. However, I was able to contact Alice Stein just after class and she was
generous enough to make copies of her notes and the handout for me. I therefore don't think that I
am considerably behind due to my absence, but I am still hoping that I can attend your office hours
this week to discuss a few areas of this week's assignment that I could use some help on. I
appreciate your understanding!

The tone here is formal, even though this is clearly correspondence. Because this is an email or letter for an
academic setting sent from a student to a professor, it is more formal than other kinds of emails, and the tone
is pretty neutral.

The direct intent is to inform the professor about the student's absence and that the student will visit office
hours. But the underlying purpose seems to be to show the professor how responsible the student is. See
how the student emphasizes the steps she took to ameliorate any negative consequences of missing class:
However, I was able to contact Alice Stein just after class and she was generous enough to make copies of
her notes and the handout for me.

Now practice this on a more substantive paragraph. Remember that you have a tool kit with content, mode,
word choice, formality level, and tone. Using those tools, assess the purpose and audience that the author
intends to serve.

In an ideal world, no one would be barred from attending college for lack of finances. Education
provides benefits both tangible and intangible. Practically, education provides the lessons,
experiences, and training needed to pursue many career paths. Beyond that, college provides
students with a richer store of knowledge about their world. With the career-based knowledge
gleaned from their major's course of study and the additional knowledge gathered during general
education requirements, students set out into the world as more informed citizens. That's where the
biggest intangible benefit arises: an educated citizenry creates a stronger and more productive
society. Thus keeping students from education due to financial means is a tragedy for individuals

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 and communities. An uneducated populace is a deficit for all, so education must be made more
accessible.

Content: It’s pretty clear that this piece is about education and cost, and why education is important.

 EXAMPLE In an ideal world, no one would be barred from attending college for lack of finances.

Mode: Much of this paragraph features informative statements.

 EXAMPLE Practically, education provides the lessons, experiences, and training needed to pursue
many career paths. Beyond that, college provides students with a richer store of knowledge about their
world.

But by the end, the language shifts into a more persuasive mode. Overall, the purpose seems to be to
convince the reader to support universal access to higher education.

 EXAMPLE Thus keeping students from education due to financial means is a tragedy for individuals
and communities. An uneducated populace is a deficit for all, so education must be made more accessible.

Tone: Tone tells you a lot here, as many of the words are more evocative and emotional than those in a
neutral, informative piece might be. But this isn’t inflammatory rhetoric; this is a subtle tone. It’s neither strident
and angry nor wholly dispassionate.

You could characterize the tone, then, as motivated, committed, or energized. This tells you that the precise
purpose is not just to convince the reader, but also to spur the reader into action, perhaps to get people to join
a movement.

Audience: To determine the audience, you can look at the word choice and sentence structure. The
vocabulary is rather precise and intellectual, referring to something as being “tangible” instead of concrete or
describing the “citizenry” instead of citizens or good residents, which indicates a fairly academic word choice.

The sentence structure is equally academic, with some complex and lengthy sentences and some poetic
turns of phrase, as opposed to more simple, conversational sentences. Therefore, we might assume that this
is an educated audience, and perhaps an audience of adults instead of children.

Word choice: You’ve already thought about the overall tone, but are there any words that stand out to you in
their connotative power?

 EXAMPLE The phrase “richer store of knowledge” is pretty evocative. The author could have just said
that students will know more about the world, but by adding implications of financial benefit, this phrase
connotes material wealth.

In this case, the connotations of the words lend themselves to the overall message about worth.

Using all these tools, you’ve now done a pretty thorough analysis of the purpose and audience of this
paragraph.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that there are several factors that determine purpose and audience in a
particular text: content, mode, word choice, level of formality, and tone. You also learned how to

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 identify the purpose and audience in a piece of writing. By studying the determining factors of
content, mode, word choice, level of formality, and tone, you can tell what the piece is trying to say
and who it’s trying to say it to even if the author doesn’t explicitly tell you. This practice also helps you
pull together several writing principles to become a more effective communicator.

Best of luck in your learning!

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Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how awareness of the rhetorical situation can and should impact the
drafting process, leading you to a deeper understanding of yourself and your writing. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. What Is the Rhetorical Situation?
2. Meta-Awareness and the Rhetorical Situation
3. Practicing Meta-Awareness

1. What Is the Rhetorical Situation?

The rhetorical situation encompasses a writer's purpose, presumed audience, personal background, and
cultural-historical context, as well as how that context influences that writer's writing choices.

Readers use the rhetorical situation to deepen their understanding of written work. They rely on empirical
evidence, reason, and guesswork to discern the writer's purposes, presumed audience, and more. This
enables them to engage with the written work and increases their critical awareness.

In turn, writers can make use of the rhetorical situation to prepare and evaluate their writing projects, and to
increase their self-awareness.

 TERM TO KNOW

Rhetorical Situation
In writing, the conditions and environment in which a text is composed, including the writer's purpose,
audience, background, and cultural-historical context, as well as how those factors influence the composition.

2. Meta-Awareness and the Rhetorical Situation

Although the writing process may sometimes seem overly-structured and formulaic, it is a process that you,
the writer, can control completely. You should reflect on the process to understand the choices you make as
you participate in it. This is a type of self-awareness that is referred to as meta-awareness.

"Meta" is the act of thinking about your own thinking. In the context of writing, meta means self-reflection on
your writing, and on your writing process. Whenever writers think about the rhetorical situation of their work,
they perform a meta act. After all, what is writing but a writer's thoughts, made concrete? Meta awareness is a
key component of effective brainstorming and prewriting.

To perform meta-analysis, writers should focus on their work and ask themselves questions about it:

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 1. What are my biases?
a. How do I avoid, embrace, or explain them?
b. If I haven't done so, should I?
c. Have my biases led me to faulty reasoning?
2. What are my assumptions about this topic?
3. Who is my intended audience?
a. What language, approach, and style will persuade them?
b. Have I deliberately alienated my audience?
c. If so, what is the value of doing this?
4. What is my purpose in writing this, and what do I want my audience to know or do after reading it?
5. Which context influenced my writing choices?
6. Is there anything in my background that draws me to this topic or thesis?
7. Is anything happening in my surroundings, personal life, etc. that motivates my interest in, and thoughts
about, this topic?
a. If there is, how can I use this information in my essay?
b. If there is not, how can I show the relevance of my topic?

 HINT

Alienating members of an audience can cause them to be uncomfortable, or it can galvanize them. Both of
these responses can be useful, depending on your purpose.

 TERM TO KNOW

Meta-Awareness
In writing, a writer's consciousness of how the elements of the rhetorical situation have influenced that writer's
composition.

3. Practicing Meta-Awareness
Read the following paragraph from a draft essay on food choices and corporate culture. It was taken from the
middle of the essay, so you will be unaware of some of the context. However, as you read, try to guess the
rhetorical situation in which it was written.

I've done a lot of traveling, and one thing I've learned is that it's best to avoid businesses that cater
exclusively to non-locals. In places like the Turnpike Travel Plaza, it's clear that those in charge of
planning were perfectly aware of the captive nature of their customers, and it's also clear that they
weren't particularly interested in developing lasting relationships with those customers. If they were,
they would have built more options into the services and products they offer. But since everyone
involved understands that there aren't any other options, they didn't, and most of us don't complain.

Do you think that the writer of this paragraph is managing her biases? What if you knew that the writer avoids
fast food and mass-produced food? Would it affect your analysis of the rhetorical situation if you were
provided with additional context, like if the paragraph began with with a scene in which the writer prepared an
omelette in a Burger King parking lot, while passers-by stared? Is the tone of the paragraph preachy?
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It's important for the writer to avoid a preachy tone so that readers are not alienated, especially if her intended
audience isn't limited to people who share her views on food. A less-preachy tone could help the writer to
reach a wider audience, including readers who are tired of being lectured about their food choices.

All writers are influenced by their backgrounds and cultural contexts, which factor into their topic choices and
what they write about those topics.

 EXAMPLE Suppose that the writer of the sample paragraph grew up in a rural area where home-
cooked food was the only food option. What if her parents made it a priority to know where their food
came from, since they were involved in food production? That kind of background would impact the
writer's view of fast food and chain restaurants (like the one in Turnpike Travel Plaza). She would need to
avoid alienating potential readers who might have, say, happy childhood memories of trips to fast-food
restaurants.

The writer of the sample paragraph should develop meta-awareness of her background, and address it in the
essay, to manage any perception of bias by readers. The writer needs to present her views on food choices,
and the corporate environment in which many people currently make their choices, in a balanced way.

 BIG IDEA

It's easier to describe meta-awareness than to accomplish it. It's developed through a continuous process,
one that does not end in complete awareness. However, by beginning and pursuing the process, you can
increase your meta-awareness in an ongoing way.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the rhetorical situation is comprised of the factors that influence a
writer's composition. You also learned about the concept of meta-awareness as it relates to the
rhetorical situation, and the ways in which practicing meta-awareness can expand writers'
understanding of their writing and rhetorical situations.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Meta-Awareness
In writing, a writer's consciousness of how the elements of the rhetorical situation have influenced that
writer's composition.

Rhetorical Situation
In writing, the conditions and environment in which a text is composed, including the writer's purpose,
audience, background, and cultural-historical context, as well as how those factors influence the
composition.

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Brainstorming
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about brainstorming strategies and how they enable writers to begin
writing projects. You will also strengthen your innovation skill as you consider all the possibilities for
your writing. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Brainstorming in the Writing Process
2. Brainstorming Strategies
a. Clustering/Mapping
b. Listing
c. Five Ws
d. Freewriting
e. Directed Writing
3. Choosing a Topic

1. Brainstorming in the Writing Process

As part of the first step in the writing process, brainstorming involves the use of a number of techniques to
generate ideas and clarify thinking.

Writers use these techniques to discover and focus their thoughts about a given subject. In other words,
brainstorming enables writers to discover what they know or believe about a topic. Brainstorming also helps
them to generate ideas.

Once writers discover what they know or believe about a topic, they can use a brainstorming technique to
search through that knowledge for related ideas, and to set boundaries for their topic.

 EXAMPLE Brainstorming can help writers who have been tasked with writing a three-page essay
about a specific topic to determine not only what they can write about, but also what they cannot.

 TERM TO KNOW

Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

2. Brainstorming Strategies
Now that you know what brainstorming is good for, how do you do it? There are a number of different
brainstorming techniques, but all of them share a similar purpose.

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Though it's unlikely that any writer would use all of these techniques at the beginning of every writing project,
consider how each of the following methods might help you with a writing project. It's possible that your
brainstorming needs will be different each time you begin the writing process. By practicing multiple
brainstorming methods across different writing projects, you will strengthen your innovation skill.

2a. Clustering/Mapping

Clustering, or mapping, is a way to generate ideas using words and shapes, and lines that show the
connections between them. To use this technique, begin by thinking about your subject.

 EXAMPLE Suppose that your subject is “job satisfaction.” To create a map (or cluster) of this topic,
write “job satisfaction” and then surround it with all of the other words that you can associate with it.

Clustering is a visualization of how a writer can progress from a broad subject to specific examples, and can
even discover a different translation of the central term—one that is unrelated to any other term in the cluster.

2b. Listing

Lists are also useful for generating thoughts related to a topic, question, or problem. As shown below, lists
can present thoughts in a more structured way than clustering.

Things about job satisfaction:

Healthy workplace culture

Impacts productivity—e.g., positive collaboration, time management
Employee retention
Many different influential factors—salary, job duties, benefits, management

Unlike a cluster, which can take any form, lists tend towards hierarchical arrangement, as the first ideas are
placed higher. Lists are also a great brainstorming technique to use early on if you don’t yet have a topic or
are trying to decide what to write about within a given topic.

2c. Five Ws

The five Ws are:

Who
What
Where
When
Why

To use the five Ws technique, ask these questions about your topic, or in response to a question or problem
you've been asked to write about.
Here's an example of results produced by the five Ws technique:

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 Who: Employees

What: Job satisfaction

When: All the time

Where: At work

Why: Because there are many factors that influence job satisfaction, but we don’t always take the
time to find out what those are.

Some of the writer's responses may not have produced useful information. In response to the last W, however,
the writer made an insightful statement: an answer to a question (why) that may not have been asked without
using the five Ws brainstorming technique.

2d. Freewriting

Freewriting, which is also referred to as stream-of-consciousness writing or free association, is perhaps the
simplest brainstorming technique, but it can produce great results.

To freewrite, just start writing. Write anything and everything that comes to mind as quickly as you can. Keep
writing until you can't think of anything else (or your hand hurts from holding a pencil, or your keyboard is
steaming). Don't slow down (or stop) to correct grammar or even to “make sense.”

Freewriting gives you something to work on. It's much easier to work on something than on nothing (e.g., a
blank page that remains blank while the writer struggles to come up with something that makes sense and is
grammatically correct).

Freewriting might look something like this:

Job satisfaction can mean so many different things to different people—some people might find
salary to be the most important factor in determining job satisfaction, but others might put more
value on their specific job duties or the team they will be working with. I think for me, the most
important thing is feeling valued at my job. Although, there are other things that also feel important
to me, like having a good balance between work and life and getting to work on interesting
projects….

2e. Directed Writing

Directed writing is writing in response to an assignment. Writing assignments often include not only a topic,
but also related questions (or prompts) that are designed to encourage the open-minded thinking involved in
brainstorming.

Here's a response to an assignment to write about what job satisfaction means to you:

I think there are a lot of factors that influence job satisfaction, but to me, the most important is feeling
like a valued member of a team. I need to know that members of my team will support one another

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 and work together effectively in order to feel happy at my job. In turn, this job satisfaction impacts
other aspects of my work, like how productive I am.

Note that this response sounds a bit like an essay. There may be a thesis statement in it, or an interesting
narrative that might help the writer to come up with a thesis statement.

 BIG IDEA

Any of the brainstorming techniques described here can help you to begin the writing process. It's up to you
to find which of them works best in a particular situation. The “best” technique is the one that enables you to
find ideas, generate content, and beat “writer's block” before it starts.

Innovation: Skill in Action

Imagine that Jorge is a massage therapist who is starting his own business. He’ll need to develop
communications for several purposes such as marketing pamphlets for potential clients, information
on his website, and a business plan for his stakeholders. By using the brainstorming methods in this
lesson, he can begin thinking outside the box for these communications, strengthening his innovation
skill.

For instance, he may start clustering different needs of potential clients, such as people recovering
from injury, people with high stress jobs, people with chronic illness, and people with who prioritize
self-care. As he considers various client needs, he’s strengthening his innovation skill.

3. Choosing a Topic
Brainstorming is particularly helpful when you need to find a topic to write about. Writing assignments often
include a broad subject, but not a specific topic. In academic writing, a topic is the focus of an essay or other
written work; it's what the essay is about.

Any of the preceding brainstorming techniques can help writers to identify topics.

 EXAMPLE If you were assigned to write an essay about job satisfaction, you might use clustering or
mapping to decide what you want to write about this topic.

Take another look at the brainstorming examples above. Connections have been drawn between subtopics
like “productivity” and “employee retention.” Those connections might be interesting, but the connections
between happiness at work and the subtopic of “influential factors” might be the most useful. Beginning with
no more than “job satisfaction,” the writer was led to think about different aspects of work that impact
employees’ attitudes toward their jobs.

Perhaps, then, this writer is most interested in what a company can do to increase job satisfaction among its
employees.

 EXAMPLE This brainstorming process could turn into an informative report in which the writer

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 conducts research to determine the top three factors that influence employees’ happiness at work. The
relationship between these factors and job satisfaction can certainly be a topic worth writing about.

 BIG IDEA

Author, comedian, and actress Kim Coles is a writing pro with two bestselling books to her name, and in this
Sophia Story, she’ll share her writing process with you! You’ll discover the writing strategies that keep Kim
productive and help her communicate her best. By applying Kim’s attitude and methods to your own work,
you’ll have what you need to start writing your future.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned how to begin the writing process by brainstorming. There are five main
brainstorming techniques that you can try: clustering/mapping, listing, the five Ws, freewriting, and
directed writing. The technique that will work best for you may vary depending on the specific writing
task at hand. When choosing a topic, brainstorming enables you to organize your thoughts, and to
bring to the surface anything that you might already know about that topic. Finally, you discovered
how brainstorming strengthens your innovation skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

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Prewriting
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about prewriting and the way it is used for organizing thoughts, narrowing
the focus of a writing project, and outlining or planning the essay. You will also discover how the
prewriting process strengthens your productivity skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Prewriting in the Writing Process
2. Narrowing Focus
3. Outlining Methods
a. Traditional
b. Less Defined
c. Storyboarding

1. Prewriting in the Writing Process

There's a lot that has to happen before experienced writers actually begin the drafting process, and much of
that work falls into the category of prewriting.

Prewriting is the planning and organizing that a writer does before actively beginning to write. It features
several distinct phases or purposes, each of which will have to be tailored to a particular writing project.

Prewriting includes:

Planning, conducting, and organizing the research that needs to be done before any real writing can
begin
Narrowing down the writing project's focus and making sure it's one that can be fully explained given the
time and space constraints on the writer or the writing project
Outlining the project, or making a plan for what to write

It's important to do this kind of prewriting, because the organizing and clarifying of thoughts and plans that it
provides gives writers greater control over their projects and usually saves them time in the long run. Effective
prewriting enables the writer to be more productive as the writing process continues.

 TERM TO KNOW

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing project
prior to composing a first draft.

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2. Narrowing Focus
One of the most important benefits a writer can get from prewriting is a narrow, manageable focus. It's
important for the goals of a writing project to be realistic.

The most common way writers get into trouble with writing projects is that they bite off more than they can
chew given the limitations put on their time and the number of allowed pages or words involved.

Keeping a focus narrow makes it possible to fully explain the ideas and fully answer the questions that drive
an essay. There's nothing worse than a writing project that can't take into account the relevant details
involved in its claim, or one that can't support the broad argument it's trying to make.

When planning an essay or other writing project during the prewriting step of the writing process, a writer
should consider her audience and purpose, then ask whether the focus of the argument is tight enough that
she will be able to do it justice in the time and space allowed.

This will help the writer narrow in on a working thesis. As you may know, a thesis is a single sentence that
becomes the driving idea behind a piece of writing. A working thesis is a thesis that the writer develops during
the prewriting stage to be used as the basis of the outline and, eventually, of the essay itself once it has been
fully thought through.

 BIG IDEA

A main reason why writers bother with these early stages of the writing process is to help narrow their focus
and keep that focus during the rest of the writing process.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Working Thesis
A thesis statement that the writer develops during the prewriting stage of the writing process in order to build
initial ideas for an outline.

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a piece of writing.

3. Outlining Methods
Once you've got your focus narrow enough to be manageable, the next thing to do is create anoutline for
your essay or writing project. Outlines vary depending on the writer and the writing project at hand.

Generally speaking, outlines are the prewritten plans for an essay or other piece of writing, and generally
include a working thesis and the primary ideas to be discussed, as well as some form of structural plan or
organization. Metaphorically speaking, an outline is the blueprint, not the house!

Outlining makes for a stronger piece of writing, as well as a faster, more focused writing process. There are
multiple kinds of outlines, just as there are multiple ways of making them. In this lesson, we will cover three
different forms that an outline can take.

As you will see, each of these three methods of outlining would contain more or less the same information

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and be equally useful in writing the essay. Here, as in many other aspects of the writing process, it all comes
down to personal preference or assignment requirements.

Productivity: Skill Tip

Organization is a cornerstone to productivity. The more organized you are, the more productive you
will be. Likewise, the more you can organize your writing, not only will it make sense to the reader, but
it will make the rest of the writing process more efficient. When you develop an outline prior to writing,
you will save substantial time in the writing and editing process, strengthening your productivity skill.

 TERM TO KNOW

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the primary
ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

3a. Traditional

The first type is a traditional outline, which is highly detailed and includes headings and subheadings.

IN CONTEXT
Suppose you are writing a persuasive proposal about unlimited time off policies, and your thesis is
that offering employees unlimited time off is better than having a set amount of sick and vacation
time allotted each year. You might make an outline that plans out the three main headings you'd
need to cover:

1. Problems with existing time off policies. You may include, for example, the impacts of health
emergencies or extended illnesses. Or, you may discuss how companies target mostly the
young, healthy people on whom they'll make the most money.
2. Ways that an unlimited time off system might help both employees and employers.You'd likely
use information about companies that have adopted this policy, and how it has positively
impacted the work environment.
3. Reasons that unlimited time off hasn't been adopted as widely as it could be.This could include
employer concerns that people will take too much time off, as well as the reverse: People may
take less time than they should if they won’t “lose” the days at the end of the year.

3b. Less Defined

Another form of outline, one a little less rigid and detail oriented, might work in certain circumstances.

IN CONTEXT
You might simply write out your thesis, stating that unlimited time off policies should be

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 implemented across companies in the United States, then quickly note down any reasons and
presumed evidence.

Again, this may include the problems you see with many current time off policies, examples of how
companies that have implemented unlimited time off policies have benefited from them, and the
reasons why some companies are hesitant to move toward unlimited time off policies.

3c. Storyboarding

A third, perhaps less common form of outlining, is called storyboarding. This involves drawing a series of
panels or squares with notes and images detailing a writing plan.

IN CONTEXT
For the working thesis on unlimited time off policies, you could break up your outline into three
pieces or panels:

1. Problems with many current time off policies

2. Possible alternatives to current policies
3. Reasons why unlimited time off hasn't been adopted at some workplaces

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about prewriting in the writing process, a stage that helps with narrowing
a focus down to something manageable within the constraints of the writing project's rhetorical
situation. Prewriting also involves outlining, or creating a plan for later drafts. Three possible outlining
methods are traditional outlines, less defined outlines, and storyboarding. Finally, you discovered
how outlining strengthens your productivity skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing project
prior to composing a first draft.

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a piece of writing.

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 Working Thesis
A thesis statement that the writer develops during the prewriting stage of the writing process in order to
build initial ideas for an outline.

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Outlining and Drafting
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to use an outline to move into the drafting stage of the writing
process with control and intent. You will also further strengthen your productivity skill by learning how
to effectively draft a writing project from an outline. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Outlines and Drafts in the Writing Process
2. Using an Outline
3. Preventing Plagiarism

1. Outlines and Drafts in the Writing Process

As you may know, a draft is an individual iteration of an essay or other piece of writing. One thing that
experienced writers assume about their writing process is that multiple drafts are a fact of life, at least if they
want to get anywhere close to meeting their potential.

Thus, writers tend to view an outline as the beginning of a longer and more productive process, as well as a
transition into the drafting stage.

 HINT

Think of the outline as a map telling you where to go next. If you have a map, it's harder to get lost, and it's
less likely that you'll be delayed by an obstacle like writer's block.

However, it's important not to think of your outline as set in stone. It's not a contract, but more like a mental
guide. As with everything else in the writing process, you're in charge of the outline. If you ever feel the need
to add, cut, or rearrange something in your outline, do it.

Remember that your outline, as well as later drafts of the essay itself, should always be driven by the working
thesis, which itself can be changed throughout the writing process.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the primary
ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

2. Using an Outline
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Now that we're a little more clear about what an outline is, let's look at how using one can help you proceed
through the writing process, through drafting and revision.

IN CONTEXT
Suppose you are working on an essay about workplace safety. For the purpose of this hypothetical
essay, let's say your argument is going to be that all workplaces should have designated employees
who help manage safety protocols. A bare bones outline of this essay might look something like this:

1. Designated safety managers necessary in all workplaces

a. Some office settings do not have specific employees who enforce safety measures
b. Safety precautions are essential in all workplaces, not just those involving obvious risks like
large equipment or dangerous chemicals
2. Types of situations where safety managers are needed
a. Fire drills, nature disaster procedures, power outages
b. Include legal issues around safety violations, or no?
3. Conclusion: Make safety a priority in the workplace, not an afterthought
a. Appeal to be proactive rather than reactive

What do you notice? Besides the fact that it's necessarily brief and doesn't use complete sentences, it looks
like a fairly thorough set of notes, right? It's a map for where you want to go with the essay, including the three
main points you want to make. It begins with the thesis about how workplace safety managers are essential,
followed by some examples to make the topic real for your readers.

Next is an exploration into the most common situations in which these safety managers would be needed.
There is also a note in this section, asking whether or not to include a discussion about legal issues related to
safety violations.

 HINT

Not all writers do this, but sometimes when writing an outline, it's helpful to include material like this—subjects
or side arguments that you're not completely sure are necessary for your argument, but that you don't want to
forget. As you're writing, you may find a good way to include this piece of information, or you may not.
Remember that this is your outline, not something you absolutely have to follow. Therefore, it's fine to include
options like this.

Finally, the last planned section includes a call to action for people to be proactive about safety rather than
only reacting when a crisis occurs.

The chances are very good that as you actually begin to write your first draft, you'll find that, for instance, you
need to do much more work in the first section in order to convince your intended audience that designated
safety managers are really that important, and that they're worth writing and reading about. Therefore, one
thing you might end up doing is borrowing some of the material you'd intended to use at the end in order to
front-load your argument about why this matters—the whole part about making safety a priority instead of an
afterthought, and how that is ultimately a much bigger argument that stretches far beyond the need for
designated safety managers in the workplace.

This is absolutely fine. Just because you write an outline one way doesn't mean it is set in stone. After all, part

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of the reason you take a map on a journey is so you'll have multiple options when it comes to reaching your
destination!

Productivity: Apply Your Skill

Imagine that you work for a snack company and you have an idea for a new product. You’re writing a
short description for the leadership team. By using an outline, you have already organized the
information in a way that makes sense. You can now focus on making the writing engaging to meet
your goal of showing the readers why the product is a good idea. Your writing process will be much
faster than it would without an outline, making you a more productive worker.

3. Preventing Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a subject that you're likely familiar with, at least vaguely. In an academic context, plagiarism
involves presenting someone else's ideas or writing as your own, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

Regardless of the intention, this behavior is considered unethical, and sometimes even illegal. Intentional, or
deliberate, plagiarism generally incurs some punitive reaction from a teacher or educational institution.
Unintentional plagiarism comes about when a careless writer fails to give credit to whoever first came up with
the idea or work that's been taken.

It's important to address plagiarism in this discussion because having an original outline and original working
thesis will help prevent both types of plagiarism.

If students, or any writers for that matter, have an outline and a working thesis, they will have already clearly
expressed and organized their ideas in their own words, and will therefore be less likely to unintentionally
take another's ideas or words as their own.

Also, if writers have done their due diligence in the prewriting stage, there will generally be less incentive to
take another's ideas or words intentionally. After all, they'll have already done half the work, right?

 TERM TO KNOW

Plagiarism
The presentation of another person's ideas or writing as your own, either intentionally or unintentionally.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the relationship between outlines and drafts in the writing process.
Outlines provide direction and structure for an essay, so writers can benefit from using an outline to
move into early and later drafts. You also learned how using an outline can help prevent plagiarism,
both intentional and unintentional. Because outlines encourage writers to put their ideas in their own
words early on, plagiarism may be less likely to occur later in the writing process. Finally, you
discovered how using an outline to draft a paper improves your productivity skill.

© 2021 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 47
 Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Plagiarism
The presentation of another person's ideas or writing as your own, either intentionally or unintentionally.

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Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn what the revising, editing, and proofreading steps of the writing process
look like, and how each contributes to creating a successful finished draft. You will also explore how
these steps in the writing process improve your communication skill. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Final Stages of the Writing Process
2. Purpose of Revising
3. Purpose of Editing
4. Purpose of Proofreading

1. Final Stages of the Writing Process

It’s important to remember that writing is a process, not a product. For every finished, polished, solid essay,
there were multiple drafts that developed towards that finished piece. Those drafts are necessary for the final
piece, so you can’t skip any of the steps and still hope to have a successful final version.

After you complete a draft, you’ll need to:

Revise
Edit
Proofread

These steps might sound similar, but they’re actually distinct parts of the process. Considering them one by
one allows you to focus on each individual element carefully. The more work you do after your draft, the
better your essay will be. If you don’t do any of that work, then you might have wasted all of that writing you
did in the first place.
An essay that’s turned in with errors that could have been fixed through editing, revising, or proofreading can
cause you to lose credibility with your reader. Therefore, think about these final stages as the quality control of
your writing process.

2. Purpose of Revising
The first of the final stages of the writing process will be revising. This is a different stage than editing, which
will look at the sentences themselves to assess how well they articulate the argument.

Revising is also different from proofreading, where you’ll check your writing to make sure that it follows the
rules. There’s no sense in doing those two steps, editing and proofreading, if you’re going to take out, add in,

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or otherwise change all those sentences themselves.

Revising is the stage when you think about the big picture of your arguments, assessing your overall
argumentation, support, evidence, assertions, etc.

In this step, you might:

Add in relevant details that you missed the first time through.
Take out irrelevant content that you now realize doesn’t really help your argument.
Reorder the body paragraphs to change the way your reader works through the argument.
Conduct additional research if you find that your argument needs more support or evidence to back up
your claims.
Rethink the thesis statement if it no longer matches your argument.
Rewrite your introduction and conclusion to reflect those changes.

Many people revise by printing out a draft and writing on it with red pen, doing a reverse outline, or looking
through how each paragraph contributes to the thesis. You can do your revision either on paper or on your
computer, depending on your personal preference.

 TERM TO KNOW

Revising
The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

3. Purpose of Editing
Once you’ve revised and have a draft that you’re sure contains all the info that you want and no info that you
don’t want, you’re ready for editing to make sure that the sentences are pulling their weight.

When revising, you focused on re-seeing and rethinking the whole argument’s ideas, support, and
organization. Here, you’re going to zoom in a little more closely, just looking at how those ideas are
expressed in language.

In other words, this is where you get to think about how your words are working—making sure that they mean
what you intend and match the overall tone you want. Editing is also where you assess how your transitions
connect ideas in sentences and paragraphs to create a smooth flow of ideas.

During this stage, you’ll want to check that your essay has all the elements of style:

Clarity of ideas
Precise language
Effective word choice
Sentence variety
Complete sentences

More specifically, you might:

Look to see if you’re repeating your ideas or including redundant information.

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 Replace any words that are vague or imprecise with stronger ones that strike the right tone and create
vivid impressions.
Add in or change up your transitions so that you’re connecting ideas into sentences and paragraphs
intelligently and clearly.
Check that all of your sentences are complete and that you use a variety of sentence lengths and
structures.

 TERM TO KNOW

Editing
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other piece
of writing.

4. Purpose of Proofreading
You’ve now got to do a final check to make sure that everything in your essay is where and how it should be.
Proofreading is where you zoom in your closest to check for the smallest errors in grammar and mechanics.

This is separate from revising and editing, because this is where you’re making sure that your text is ready for
primetime. You’re not adding anything new or fundamentally changing the way things are expressed; you’re
just making sure everything is clean and correct.

Again, remember that writing is a process, not a product. Thus, you might notice something to revise or edit
while you’re proofreading, and that’s fine. Go ahead and fix any issues that you notice, but do focus on the
small nitty-gritty details of grammar and mechanics.

When you proofread, you should look for:

Typographical errors (which are usually called typos)

Grammatical errors, such as shifts in verb tense or errors in plurality or pronoun agreement
Spelling errors
Punctuation errors
Capitalization errors
Any other basic formatting concerns, such as indented paragraphs, double spacing, margins, or font type

 HINT

One method of proofreading is to enlarge the font on your screen to at least 20 points so that you can see
some errors that might have otherwise been hiding in the small print.

After proofreading, your essay is ready to be seen by the world.

Communication: Why Employers Care

Everything you write in your career will reflect your intelligence and professionalism—from the cover
letter you submit when you apply to a job, to emails you write to your supervisor and colleagues, to
formal documents you write for stakeholders. You will want to make sure your writing is clear,

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 cohesive, engaging, and error-free. This will show your professionalism and make you an asset to
your employer because it proves that you have strong communication skills.

 TERM TO KNOW

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that after you finish drafting your essay, the final stages of the writing
process are revising, editing, and proofreading. While these three steps may sound the same, they
each have a separate purpose.

The purpose of revising is to think about the big picture of your arguments by assessing your overall
argumentation, support, evidence, and assertions. The purpose of editing is to look at how your ideas
are expressed in language by evaluating whether your words are working the way you intend. The
purpose of proofreading is to make sure everything is clean and correct by focusing on small details
of grammar and mechanics. Once you’ve completed these steps, your essay is ready for your
readers. Finally, you discovered how the final stages of the writing process strengthen your
communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Editing
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other piece
of writing.

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

Revising
The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

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Time Management for Writing
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about problems and solutions related to managing your writing time. This
will include identifying the challenges time management poses both generally and to writing in
particular, and working to eliminate those habits that tend to waste your time. You will also practice
strategies that will strengthen your productivity skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Importance of Time Management
2. Identifying and Minimizing Time-Wasters
3. Methods of Time Management
a. Creating a Prioritization Matrix
b. Making a To-Do List
c. Using a Calendar

1. The Importance of Time Management

Though sometimes it may seem like your instructors don’t realize it, there is more to life than writing essays for
class. Students have families, jobs, social lives, and hobbies—all of which compete with schoolwork for their
time.

This is why time management is a skill that is essential to your success as a writer both inside and outside the
classroom. You need to budget enough time to spend on all the things that are worth it, and mapping your life
out will make its challenges easier to navigate. Additionally, time management will allow you to execute all of
the steps of the writing process thoroughly in order to end up with the best final product that you can.

If the task of finding enough time for all of your writing assignments—and finding a healthy balance between
your other commitments—seems daunting or even overwhelming, remember that everyone is dealing with
these issues to some degree. That’s why the first step to success is reflecting on your situation and devising a
plan. This will help you to prioritize the demands on your time, eliminating those activities that are not a good
use of your time and devising a plan to budget your time for those that are. By using your time efficiently, you
will improve your productivity and have more time in your personal and professional life.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Give some thought to the way you manage your time now and which areas you think you could improve in
terms of productivity and efficiency. Be honest when considering the following questions:

1. What are the things that are most important to you, both in the short term and the long term?
2. Do you find you have enough time to give them?
3. What are the things you do that might be a waste of your time?

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 4. Is there a way to eliminate those?
5. What are some of the things you do well?

2. Identifying and Minimizing Time-Wasters

A time-waster is something you do instead of, or in order to avoid, the work you could be doing. This does not
mean that you need to eliminate everything fun or relaxing from your day; in fact, making time for having fun
and relaxing can be crucial to maximizing your productivity and efficiency.

The key is that these things—scrolling through social media, taking a nap, going for a walk—do not impinge on
the time you have set aside for writing. Though your tablet or smartphone offers you plenty of distractions,
technology is not the enemy here. If you can go about your work with a little bit of self-discipline and manage
your time efficiently, you will find you have more time to spend however you like.

So, what does minimizing time-wasters look like?

IN CONTEXT
If social media is the primary temptation that distracts you from your work, you might try to keep your
phone away from your writing space during the time you are working in order to better concentrate
on what’s in front of you. Then, when you’re finished, you and your phone will be reunited.

A more flexible strategy could also be effective: Maybe you write best in short bursts, so you
schedule intermittent breaks for scrolling through social media and giving your brain a rest. Again,
the most important thing is to zero in on a plan that works best for you.

3. Methods of Time Management

Now it’s time to learn some strategies for managing your writing time. Remember that none of these methods
and strategies for time management is going to do your writing for you; you’re still going to have to focus and
execute your plan.

But the value of having a thoughtful, customized time management plan is that it puts you in the best position
to succeed, not only by organizing your time, but by helping you approach your writing with a sense of
confidence and control over your destiny.

Productivity: Skill Reflect

Take a few minutes to reflect on your productivity, including your biggest time wasters. Consider times
you have worked efficiently to complete a writing project. What did you do? How can you develop a
plan to do this for every project? For instance, you might create a schedule with mini-deadlines so that
your final draft is completed by a certain date. Or you might set aside time on specific days each week
to focus on writing. These practices will make you more productive and more likely to finish your work
on time.

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3a. Creating a Prioritization Matrix

A helpful way to organize your work by priority is to create a prioritization matrix. This is a kind of chart that
allows you to sort your tasks by their degree of urgency and importance.

IN CONTEXT
Any writing you have due in the next few days is urgent, but an assignment worth 25% of your grade
is more important than an ungraded assignment. Of course, you’re going to complete both
assignments, but you want to give more time to the more important one.

On the other hand, browsing for shoes on the Internet is neither urgent nor important (at least in
terms of accomplishing your writing goals). Things like getting more exercise or studying for a test
that is months away are important, but not urgent—that is, you don’t need to be doing them now.

 TRY IT

This is what a prioritization matrix would look like:

High Urgency Low Urgency

High Importance Top priorities: Do these now! Do these things second!

Consider if these things are worth doing Don’t do these things; they are
Low Importance
when you are less busy. time-wasters.

Now, here are some sample tasks and activities:

Draft marketing report for work (due March 10)

Eat healthier
Coordinate dinner plans for tonight
Plan a trip for the summer
Read for English class (due March 9th; ungraded)
Respond to Mom’s email
Check out the new filters on Snapchat
Brainstorm a topic for Sociology paper (Due April 17; 20% of grade)

If you were filling in this matrix on March 3rd, where would you put each item?

3b. Making a To-Do List

You might find the idea of making a to-do list intimidating because all the work that lies ahead of you will pile
up right in front of your eyes, and the sheer scope of it all has the potential to stress you out.

But just imagine how much more stressful it would be if you put this off and wait until due dates are rapidly
approaching to attend to your workload. Being organized and prepared for the road ahead will improve your
mental health in the long term.

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A helpful tip for writing a to-do list is to be specific and break down an assignment into component parts that
represent tasks that are doable in one or a couple of sittings.

 EXAMPLE If your to-do list says “Write paper,” this is not very instructive in terms of what specifically
you need to do. Instead, perhaps the list says “Brainstorm topics for paper” and then “Outline paper,” etc.
This is a more effective way to organize and estimate your time.

3c. Using a Calendar

If you’ve listed and prioritized your work, it is then helpful to determine when you are going to set aside time
for individual tasks and plug them into a calendar.

Organizing your time in this manner gives shape and focus to the days, weeks, and months ahead of you. If
you have the discipline to stick to and execute your plan, you’ll put yourself in a position to succeed in both
the short and long term.

At the same time, the ability to adapt and be flexible is also important—if you find your schedule has become
an obstacle to your success, reconsider and adjust your plan as necessary.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that time management is particularly important for writing because you
need to allow enough space in your schedule to give each step of the writing process the time it
deserves. It’s therefore important to identify and minimize time-wasters so you can spend your time
on the things that help you accomplish your writing goals.

Additionally, having a method of time management puts you in the best position to succeed. Some
useful methods include creating a prioritization matrix, making a to-do list, and using a calendar. As
long as you choose the method that works best for you and stick to it, you’ll be on your way to
productively managing your writing time.

Best of luck in your learning!

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Writing with Technology
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about two tools that you can use for digital writing projects. This will
include some of the tools’ main features, as well as tips and tricks for being successful when using
these tools to write. You will also discover how these writing tools will improve your technology skill.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Microsoft Word
a. Line and Paragraph Spacing
b. Headers and Footers
c. Spell and Grammar Check
d. Word Count
2. Google Docs
a. Line and Paragraph Spacing
b. Headers and Footers
c. Spell and Grammar Check
d. Word Count

1. Microsoft Word
You’ve likely heard of Microsoft Word, as it is the most commonly used word processing application that
allows you to compose writing projects on a computer. Word can be used on both PCs and Apple computers.
Though there are some differences when working on a PC versus an Apple product, the basic idea is the
same.

The main downside of Microsoft Word is that you may need to purchase it if your computer does not already
have the application. However, as a student, you may be able to download it for free from the Microsoft Office
website with a valid school email address. Given how popular Word is in both the academic and professional
worlds, it is useful to know how to use it effectively.

Technology: Why Employers Care

No matter what career you go into, you’ll almost certainly use Microsoft Word or Google Docs, and
likely both. Knowledge of these tools are a requirement to almost any position to which you would
apply. By knowing how to effectively use these tools, you already have a leg up in the field.

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1a. Line and Paragraph Spacing

Depending on the type of document you are writing, you may need to change the spacing between lines of
text.

 EXAMPLE Business communications typically use single line spacing, while writing intended for an
academic setting typically uses double spacing. Both kinds of documents use a left alignment or
justification, meaning that the text is on the left side of the page rather than in the middle or on the right.

To change the line spacing, select the lines you want to change. Then go to the Home tab in the ribbon at the
top of the document and find the line spacing button in the Paragraph section (if you cannot see the ribbon,
select “Ribbon” under the “View” menu in the top bar). The line spacing button triggers a dropdown menu
from which you can select a line spacing.

The numbers in the line spacing dropdown menu reflect how much the line spacing will increase relative to
the size of the line.

 EXAMPLE line spacing of 1 means the line spacing will be as large as one line, a line spacing of 2
means the line spacing will be the size of two lines, and so on.

You may have noticed that by default, Word adds a space between each paragraph. You can change the size
of that space or eliminate it completely by changing the paragraph spacing. There is an option to “Add Space
Before Paragraph” or “Remove Space After Paragraph” in the line spacing menu.

1b. Headers and Footers

Headers and footers are the top-most and bottom-most sections of the document, respectively. They are
formatted as separate sections from the main document, and are often used to hold footnotes, page numbers,
titles, and other information.

While the conventions and rules in place for the content of headers and footers can depend on your particular
writing assignment or project, there are a few standard guidelines to note:

Page numbers go in the header or footer. Once you decide where to put the page number, Word will
keep track of it for you.
Business letters typically do not have headers, and they get page numbers only if they run to three or
more pages.
Footers containing page numbers can start on the first page.

The header and footer controls are in the “Header & Footer” group of the “Insert” tab (Insert > Header &
Footer) in the ribbon. The Header and Footer options each contain a dropdown menu. Click one of the built-in
options to insert it, or select “Edit Header” or “Edit Footer” to edit the header or footer.
The header/footer will then be represented by a dotted line. While in header/footer mode (when the dotted
lines are visible), you cannot edit the main text. You can go back to editing the main text by selecting the
“Close Header and Footer” option on the right side of the ribbon.

 HINT

The information in the header or footer is repeated in every header or footer in the document unless you
check “Different First Page,” which allows you to format the first page differently from the rest of your
document. You can also create a break in your document where the header and/or footer change to

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accommodate a new section.

1c. Spell Check and Grammar Check

The spell checker tool compares every word you type against Word’s dictionary or database of words. If a
word isn’t in this dictionary, the word is marked misspelled with a red underline. This means words that are
correctly spelled may be marked as misspelled, especially brand names, specialized industry or scientific
terms, and words in another language.

You’ve probably seen the red wavy lines indicating a misspelled word as you type a document. Sometimes,
those red lines are helpful, saving you from making an embarrassing typo. Other times, they are annoying and
distracting. With a little tweaking, you can teach Microsoft Word (and other Office programs) how to spell
uncommon words and names you use regularly. That way, genuine mistakes are not lost in a sea of red
underlines.

Most word processing software has spell and grammar check automatically turned on, so your errors are
marked as you work. However, you can also run spell and grammar check manually by pressing F7 (on a PC),
or by locating the “Spelling & Grammar” option under the “Review” tab in the ribbon.

1d. Word Count

Some writing assignments and projects also require you to stick to a specific word count. In the Review tab in
the banner at the top of the document, there is an option for “Word Count” that shows the number of
characters (with or without spaces), words, and lines in the document.

2. Google Docs
Google Docs is part of the Google Suite collection of tools that also includes Gmail, Google Sheets, Google
Slides, and other applications. Working in Google Docs is similar to working in Microsoft Word. The only
requirement is that you need a Google login to save and share your documents. You will then be able to
download and save your documents as either Microsoft Word files or PDFs.

A notable benefit of using Google Docs is that it is free for everyone. Additionally, documents are easily
shareable, meaning that multiple people can view, edit, and collaborate on a writing project when necessary.

2a. Line and Paragraph Spacing

You can edit the text, paragraphs, spacing, and font using the toolbar bar at the top of a document by doing
the following:

 STEP BY STEP

1. On your computer, open a document in Google Docs.

2. Select the lines you want to change.
3. Click Format > Line spacing.
4. Select a line spacing option.

2b. Headers and Footers

To add or change headers and footers, you can do the following:

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  STEP BY STEP

1. On your computer, open a document in Google Docs.

2. Click Insert > Header & footers.
3. Choose Header or Footer.
4. Enter text into the header or footer.

If you want the header or footer on the first page to be different from the other pages, check “Different first
page header/footer.” This option is only available for the first page; you can’t create a unique header or footer
for each page.

To add page numbers as your header or footer, select “Page numbers” in the dropdown menu instead of
“Headers & footers.”

2c. Spell Check and Grammar Check

Similar to Microsoft Word, Google Docs has a spelling and grammar check feature which underlines words
that the application’s engine tags as possible grammatical or spelling errors.

 EXAMPLE The grammar check feature will likely underline “its” if the engine thinks you typed the
wrong form of the word in the context of the sentence.

Open the “Did you mean…” dialog box for the word, then correct the word if a correction is warranted. The
spell check function works the same way as in Microsoft Word for misspellings, except that correct spellings
of the word are presented in the “Change spelling to…” dialog box.

2d. Word Count

In Google Docs, you can open the word counter in two different ways. The first way is as follows.

 STEP BY STEP

1. Click on the tab at the top of the page titled “Tools.”

2. Find “Word count” in the drop-down menu and click on it.

Alternately, you can use a keyboard shortcut:

For PC users, press Ctrl+Shift+C

For Mac users, press Command+Shift+C

Once you’ve opened the word counter, a dialogue box will appear listing the number of pages, words,
characters, and characters excluding spaces in your document.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about two different tools that you can use for writing: Microsoft Word and
Google Docs. While both tools include key features that allow you to change line and paragraph
spacing, add headers and footers, perform spelling and grammar checks, and check your word
count, there are some notable benefits to each tool.

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 Microsoft Word is the most commonly used word processing program, so it’s beneficial to be familiar
with it. Google Docs, meanwhile, allows for easy document sharing and collaboration. The tool that’s
right for you will likely depend on the nature of your writing project. By exploring both Microsoft Word
and Google Docs, you strengthened your technology skill, making you an asset to future employers.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: This content has been adapted from Lumen Learning's "Microsoft Word" and "Google Docs" tutorials.

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Thesis Statements
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the role and importance of thesis statements within an essay. You
will also discover how writing thesis statements strengthens your communication skill. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. What Is a Thesis?
2. Qualities of a Good Thesis
3. Thesis Questions

1. What Is a Thesis?
A thesis is a single sentence that expresses the core idea driving a writing project's goals and structure.
Theses most often appear near the beginning of a piece of writing.

In short writings, or compositions, the thesis is usually placed in the first paragraph, but this isn't always the
case. It's common practice to position the core idea near the start of the piece, and then use the rest of the
document to explain it, and to provide the sub-claims and evidence that support it.

It's also common for a thesis to change during the writing process, most often during the research and drafting
stages. This is normal, and it often indicates that the writer has done some critical thinking about her work.

If a writer's thoughts and opinions don't change during the writing process, she may not have learned much
(or anything) as a result of it. However, the eventual production of a solid draft of the thesis is important,
because it anchors the writing process and ensures that the project is on track.

Communication: Skill Reflect

As you read communications, such as books, articles, or blog posts, start taking notice to thesis
statements. In particular, notice how the thesis statement condenses the full idea of a topic into one
concise statement. This makes the writer’s message clear to the reader, demonstrating strong
communication skills. As you write thesis statements, you will provide a clear message to your
readers.

 HINT

It's important to understand the difference between a thesis and a topic. Topics are broader than thesis
statements—a single topic can contain several thesis statements.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a written work.

2. Qualities of a Good Thesis

What's the difference between a good thesis and one that needs more work? A good thesis presents a topic
that makes readers want to keep reading.

The best way to write a good thesis is to begin by making sure that your topic interests you. No matter the
topic, it's likely that there's something about it—some thesis within it—that interests you and your potential
readers.

A thesis must also be compelling. It must make readers want to understand more about your argument, either
by involving them in it, or by making its claim in such a way as to encourage them to keep reading.

A thesis, especially one that is presented at or near the beginning of a composition, should act like a road
sign, signaling readers about what's ahead. Readers should not be surprised by the reasoning and evidence
you use to support your central claim.

A solid claim also differentiates a strong thesis statement from an inferior one. Your claim should be specific
and clear. Even complex ideas can be stated as thesis statements when they reflect a strong grasp of the
subject matter and efficient use of language.

3. Thesis Questions
A thesis can also be thought of as an answer to a question that's worth asking. A thesis question drives the
composition of an argument. Open-ended questions are often most effective, because they help you to
generate, revise, and focus your thesis as you write.

Thesis questions can take a number of forms:

Questions of fact
Questions of preference
Questions of definition
Questions of interpretation
Questions of policy

Questions of fact commonly include those that challenge the truth of a currently-held belief.

 EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of fact may state, “4K resolution has long been considered
the standard for ultra high-definition televisions, but recent developments in the field indicate that even
sharper resolutions are on the horizon.”

Questions of preference are driving questions that ask whether something is preferable to something else.

© 2021 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 63
  EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of preference may state, “Gmail is a much more user-friendly
email application than Outlook or Thunderbird.”

Questions of definition generally address the meaning of words or concepts.

 EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of definition may state, “The term ‘wicked’ once only meant
‘evil;’ however, it has evolved to also mean ‘cool’ or ‘great’ as a result of its use in regional slang.”

Questions of interpretation are one of the most common types of thesis questions in academic writing. These
questions ask how something can be described or analyzed.

 EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of interpretation may state, “In his poem ‘The Road Not
Taken,’ Robert Frost uses the image of two paths in the woods as a metaphor for the narrator’s decision to
take a unique direction in life rather than doing what is expected of him.”

Questions of policy ask what should be done about a social or legal issue.

 EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of policy may state, “The best way for companies to address
the problem of harassment in the workplace is not only to provide their employees with ample training, but
also to demonstrate through their actions that they take all allegations seriously.”

Asking and answering thesis questions can help writers before they begin drafting, and can guide and inform
their work throughout the writing process.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that a thesis statement is the controlling idea of a piece of writing, typically
expressed in a single sentence toward the beginning of an essay. The qualities of a good thesis
include an interest to the writer, a compelling argument, an indication of what will be discussed in the
essay, and a solid claim that can be backed up with evidence. Sometimes, posing a thesis as an
answer to one of the types of thesis questions can help a writer to stay on track during the writing
process by keeping any ideas focused on the central inquiry. Finally, you discovered how thesis
statements strengthen your communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a piece of writing.

© 2021 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 64
Introductions
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the basic requirements for the introductory paragraph of an essay,
as well as the purpose the introduction serves and how that purpose is best achieved. As you learn
about these topics, you will further strengthen your communication skill. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Approaching Your Introduction
2. Purpose of Introductions
3. Using a Hook

1. Approaching Your Introduction

An introduction is the most important part of any essay because it is the first thing readers learn about the
text, and thus has the burden of convincing those readers to keep reading.

As you tackle this crucial portion of text, you should disregard the common myth that introductions have only
one paragraph. This is true for the five-paragraph essay format, but not necessarily for all texts.

Ultimately, it's up to the writer to decide how much time and space she needs to introduce the subject, topic,
and thesis of any given essay or writing project.

Another prevalent myth about introductions is that they should be written first. If anything, introductions
should be developed later, as they can often become a barrier for writers, especially on the very first draft.

 HINT

Save the task of writing your introduction for when you know exactly what you're introducing, after you've
written the rest of the essay.

2. Purpose of Introductions
There are two critical things introductions need to do:

Establish the essay's topic, including any conflict or controversy that will be addressed
Include a clear articulation of the thesis

Often, especially in longer and more complicated essays, the thesis as stated in the introduction is itself a
summary of the more detailed argument that will follow. Still, the introduction should introduce the thesis in
one way or another; it typically includes a statement of the general line of reasoning that the body of the

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essay will take.

 DID YOU KNOW

This statement of the general line of reasoning is called a nut graph. This part of the introduction tends to
state things such as, “First I will explore x. Then I will expand on x by looking at y, and then I will demonstrate
how y is really z,” or something to that effect. It gives readers a very quick outline of the essay's main points—
a map for them to use as they proceed through the text.

Let's review a couple of sample introductions and see what they are (or are not) doing. As you read the
introduction below, look for how it establishes the essay's topic and where the thesis might be:

Today’s modern workers juggle both professional and personal responsibilities. To help, many
companies have decided to allow remote work options. A remote working environment can teach
self-reliance, reduce office costs, and provide for a better work-life balance. I will show several of the
benefits of remote working and use statistical evidence to demonstrate that the remote worker is
equally, if not more so, effective in the workplace.

It seems fairly straightforward, right? It introduces the topic, complete with a conflict regarding the choices
companies make about work, and it states the thesis in no uncertain terms, advocating for a remote working
option.

In this next introduction, however, things get a little more complicated:

Most companies have a time off policy. It can be assumed that they inform employees of pertinent
details related to that policy. But what is a time off policy? Literally, it’s a policy that stipulates when
and how employees can take time off of work and at what level of continued pay. Simple, right? But
to truly explain time off policies—that is, to explain why some situations apply to the time off policy
while others do not—is a much more difficult task. And that's why we need a four-day workweek.

In this sample, it should have been fairly easy to identify both the topic and the thesis. Yet something is
missing. There isn't any kind of reasoning yet, so it is difficult to know how or why the writer is connecting this
broad topic of time off policies to a four-day workweek.

Therefore, take this as an example of how an introduction can technically do everything it needs to do and still
fail in an important way.

Communication: Skill Reflect

Think back on times that you started reading an article, and either became confused or lost interest,
so you didn’t finish reading it. The article may have had insightful information, but if the introduction
wasn’t well written, the message is lost. Having a strong introductory paragraph clearly communicates
the overall message and leaves the readers interested in reading the rest of the piece. As you practice
writing introductory paragraphs, your communication skills will continue to improve.

© 2021 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 66
3. Using a Hook
No discussion about introductions would be complete without mentioning hooks. If you recall, we started off
by talking about how introductions are the most important part of a text, because they come first and
therefore have the burden of convincing the reader to keep reading.

That's where hooks come in. Hooks are actions or strategies that introductions can use to try to catch the
reader's interest.

A few of the most common hooks are:

A provocative anecdote or situation

A compelling quotation
A concession
An interesting fact or statistic
An analogy, to compare one thing to another
A definition of a key term

 HINT

Quotations, if overused, will have the opposite effect and bore readers, especially readers who are already
familiar with the quotation or the subject.

Concessions are particularly useful in essays that will make a controversial argument, as they tend to help
build credibility for the writer.

A definition typically works well when it's not just a dictionary definition, but also an explanation as to how the
term's meaning is being debated or how it's central to the essay's claim—something to make it clear why it's
not only important to the essay, but to the reader as well.

Let's look at some more example introductions and see if you can identify the type and effectiveness of the
hook or hooks they use. It should be fairly easy to determine the type in this first essay:

Every morning, Cindy rises early from bed, gets ready in the dark so as not to wake her sleeping son
in the next room. She makes them breakfast—usually cereal and milk to save time, and quickly hand
washes the bowls, laying them on a dry towel next to the sink. There’s no time to put them away or
make the beds before dropping her son at daycare and heading to the five-star resort where she’ll
spend the next nine hours making swans out of hand towels and cleaning up the careless messes
made by partying guests. Years of following the stories of cleaning staff has taught me there’s a way
people behave when they don’t have to clean up the aftermath, and when they’re paying someone
to do it for them. It’s the nature of turning a blind eye when we feel entitled that alters how we
perceive our basic responsibilities as humans, and all too often, it starts as children.

You can see how using the stark differences between Cindy’s personal life and professional life offers a
provocative anecdote that helps the essay establish its topic and also intrigues the reader to want to read
more about it.

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Now, here's a completely different argument's introduction:

Tombstone, Arizona, is a familiar location to western movie fans. The sight of the famous gunfight at
the O.K. Corral, tourists flock each year to walk the steps of Doc Holliday and Wyatt Earp. The town’s
beginnings trace back to the late 1800’s, when Tombstone was most well-known for mining. Today,
tourists flock to the saloons and shops that line Allen Street. However, the most discerning tourists
come for another reason altogether—ghost hunting. As famous for its supernatural sightings as its
gunslinging history, Tombstone attracts ghost hunters from across the country. Aficionados arguably
have the best possibility of spiritual sightings touring the streets themselves, the cemetery, and most
notably, the Birdcage Theatre.

In this introduction, the author chooses to foreground the hype of Tombstone (the subject), making the town
come alive for the reader. If the essay had left out Tombstone’s famous western history, chances are readers
would have been less interested learning about the haunted facet of the town.

Finally, here is the last sample:

Agility is the ability to move, think, and understand both quickly and easily. In the workplace,
showing agility means taking on new tasks, challenges, and opportunities without becoming
flustered or needing excessive direction. A highly sought-after skill, those in the workplace who
demonstrate agility often move up in the company quickly. They become project leaders, managers,
and valuable employees to employers looking for people who can take initiative and show grace
and fire under pressure. Though many people think agility is an inherent behavior, it is actually a skill
one can, with intentional practice, acquire at any time.

In this introduction, the author uses a definition to introduce a term the argument will be built upon while
introducing the essay’s topic. It also hints that the reader’s current thought wave regarding agility might be
incorrect, which challenges the reader, thus simultaneously hooking and engaging them.

 BIG IDEA

No matter which type of hook chosen, the introduction should give the reader the “So what?” part of the
essay by providing reasons readers need so that they can believe what the essay will attempt to convince
them of or inform them about.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that when approaching your introduction, it's important to keep in mind
that the length of this portion of the essay will depend on the content and goal of the text. Therefore,
waiting to write the introduction until you have written the majority of the essay can be a helpful
strategy. You also learned that the purpose of introductions is to establish the topic of the essay and
clearly communicate the thesis. You explored the benefits of using hooks, which are actions or
strategies that introductions can employ to try to catch the reader's interest. Finally, you discovered
how strong introductions strengthen your communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

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Body Paragraphs
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how topic sentences and supporting sentences work together to form
effective body paragraphs in an essay. You will continue to strengthen your communication skill as
you discover how to construct well-written body paragraphs. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Body Paragraphs
2. Topic Sentences
3. Supporting Sentences
4. Body Paragraphs in Action

1. Purpose of Body Paragraphs

In academic essays and most other types of writing, a strong paragraph spans several sentences, but tackles
only one central idea. While there's no such thing as the correct number of sentences in a paragraph, a
paragraph can be too long or too short. It all depends on what purpose the paragraph is supposed to serve in
the writing project.

While there's nothing inherently wrong with very long paragraphs, they're often a sign that more than one idea
is being discussed, so they should be broken up into two or more paragraphs. Also, an overly long paragraph
puts a strain on readers.

Breaks between paragraphs are used as places to rest while reading—places to process what is read, and to
prepare to continue on through the text. Therefore, it should make sense that not giving your readers enough
of these breaks will hurt your writing's readability, even if you don't change a word in it.

On the other hand, having paragraphs that are too short is also usually a problem. Again, there's nothing
inherently bad about them, but short paragraphs are often a sign that an idea has not been completely
developed, or that one fully realized paragraph has been arbitrarily divided into two.

For readers, too-short paragraphs can be overlooked amongst longer ones; or, when they come in numbers,
they can create a jittery, jarring reading experience, which is arguably just as bad as having no paragraph
breaks at all. Besides, if the purposes of a paragraph are to have a central claim and to support it, then a
paragraph should be long enough to do both.

As with the sentences in a paragraph, there is no correct number of paragraphs for an essay or other piece of
writing; the number should reflect the needs of the text itself and the author's goals, which are always going to
vary from text to text and from person to person.

2. Topic Sentences
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In order to discuss more clearly the form and function of a paragraph, it's important to discuss its key parts.
Nothing is more central to an academically-sound paragraph than its topic sentence. This is the sentence that
most clearly expresses the thesis of a paragraph.

In many ways, the paragraph is like a miniature essay, and like an essay, a paragraph's thesis often comes at
or near the beginning. It is often, but by no means always, the topic sentence that starts a new paragraph, with
all the rest following it as support.

Having focused paragraphs with solid topic sentences helps to anchor readers within the text and make it
easier for them to absorb the writer's ideas rather than having to pay attention to how those ideas are being
displayed.

For the writer, having focused paragraphs with solid sentences is also useful, as during the revision and
editing process it's easier for the writer to look at each paragraph and see whether or not the single idea it
articulates supports the main thesis of the composition. This question is much easier to answer—whether yes
or no—when the paragraph itself is clearly focused.

 TERM TO KNOW

Topic Sentence
A sentence expressing the main idea of a paragraph.

3. Supporting Sentences
Now, if a topic sentence is the central thesis of the paragraph, what does that make all the other sentences? In
composition, they are referred to as supporting sentences. These are the sentences in a paragraph that
support its thesis, or main idea. In this way a paragraph is, again, like a miniature essay.

Supporting sentences exist to explain or demonstrate the truth of the topic sentence, and they can do so
through the expression of ideas, facts, data, logic, or other means of intellectual support.

When writing, it's important to pay attention to what each supporting sentence is contributing to the paragraph
as a whole. It's equally important to cut, change, or relocate irrelevant sentences—any that don't do enough to
support the thesis—even if they are interesting or relevant elsewhere, or for other purposes.

 TERM TO KNOW

Supporting Sentence
A sentence that bolsters the main idea of a paragraph by providing intellectual support.

4. Body Paragraphs in Action

Now, let's take some time to look at a couple of paragraphs in order to see how topic and supporting
sentences work (or don't work) together.

Read the paragraph below. As you do, look for the topic sentence and any supporting sentences.

One reason adults return to school is to gain a promotion. Tech industries are booming right now.

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 More than ever, workers need to be ready to tackle new technologies. Strengthening one’s resume
with a new degree or skillset can make him or her a more lucrative candidate. Returning to school
demonstrates drive and initiative, two compelling skills when seeking promotions in a competitive
job market.

So, what did you find looking at this paragraph? The first sentence is clearly the topic sentence. What about
the second sentence, though? It doesn’t support the first—at a minimum, it segues away from it. Also, the third
sentence seems to be supporting the second sentence instead of the first sentence, which leads the reader to
question if the second sentence is really the topic sentence. The fourth and fifth sentences definitely support
the first sentence, but the fifth sentence could easily be its own topic sentence in another paragraph.

Confusing, right? Don’t worry; this paragraph is a classic example of what happens when a paragraph doesn’t
clearly state its central topic. It seems to have, at minimum, two topics. The writer here would benefit from
revising a bit and needs to work a bit harder at sticking to one central topic and making it clear to the reader
what the intended message is.

Let's look at another paragraph—one that will be clearer to follow. It contains some slightly unfamiliar ideas
about painting colors in the 1800’s-1900’s, so take your time reading it. It is an excerpt from an essay titled “A
Natural History of the Artists’ Palette,” by Phillip Ball, a writer who examined the evolution of color in paintings.

It wasn’t until the early twentieth century that a vibrant and reliable new red entered the repertoire.
The discovery of the metal cadmium in 1817 immediately produced new yellow and orange pigments,
but a deep red was made from this element only around the 1890s. The yellow and orange are both
cadmium sulfide; but to get a red, some of the sulfur in this compound is replaced by the related
element selenium. It wasn’t until 1910 that cadmium red became widely available as a commercial
colour, and its production became more economical when the chemicals company Bayer modified
the method in 1919.

This paragraph, though a bit unfamiliar in subject matter, should have been easier to follow than the previous
paragraph. Did you locate the topic sentence? It’s the first sentence of the paragraph. Can you see how each
sentence that follows it supports that first sentence, first by stating where the color originated, next by
following how it was created, and finally by letting the reader know how the color evolved from being
discovered to being widely utilized?

Can you see how this structure helped the paragraph come full circle, moving from the origins of the color and
ending with the commercialization of it? Paragraphs, as mentioned above, are often described as miniature
essays, also featuring a beginning, a middle, and an end just as complete essays do—just in a briefer format.
This paragraph demonstrates that circular structure.

Finally, let's look at one more paragraph—a very different, and in many ways, much simpler, paragraph—that
should also help demonstrate how topic and supporting sentences can work together.

During the year that followed the stock market crash, things changed for both seasoned and new
investors. The market remained consistently inconsistent, and the only certainty was that there was
no certainty. Savvy investors utilized day trading to their benefit by buying low and selling high; still,
they often lost money quickly in the unpredictable market. The middle investor was the one who
paid the most—losing hundreds to thousands of dollars nearly overnight, never knowing whether to

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 keep money in or take it out—not so easily able to withstand the market ebbs and flows. Even those
investors on with a smart head for investing suffered unexpectedly during that year.

Here, again, the first sentence is the topic sentence, as it clearly expresses the paragraph’s topic. Though the
paragraph is narrative in nature, it still makes an argument in the topic sentences—that things changed. The
remainder of the paragraph supports that claim.

Now that you've seen three different ways sentences can interact in a paragraph, you should be in a better
position to read other paragraphs and to write your own.

Communication: Why Employers Care

Consider the types of writing you will do in your ideal career. You may be writing emails to
stakeholders, product pitches to a leadership team, or publications to the community. Well-written
body paragraphs will clearly communicate your message. This improves the image of your
organization and portrays you as a competent and valuable employee.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of body paragraphs in writing is to express a single,
focused idea through several well-crafted sentences. A body paragraph includes a topic sentence
that expresses a main idea, and supporting sentences that provide evidence to sustain that idea. You
also looked at three body paragraphs in action to see how these sentences do, and sometimes do
not, work together effectively. Finally, you explored how writing strong body paragraphs strengthens
your communication skill.

Best of luck in your learning!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Supporting Sentence
A sentence that bolsters the main idea of a paragraph by providing intellectual support.

Topic Sentence
A sentence expressing the main idea of a paragraph.

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Conclusions
by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the role of conclusions in essays, as well as the different
approaches you can take to writing conclusions. You will continue to improve your communication
skill as you explore this topic. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Conclusions
2. Summary Approach
3. Expansion Approach
4. Hybrid Approach

1. Purpose of Conclusions
The first thing that should be noted when beginning a discussion about conclusions is that after the
introduction, the conclusion is the most important part of a piece of writing. It's the last point, the last idea, the
very last words—words that will be rattling around in your readers' heads when they put your text down and
are sitting and thinking about what they just read.

Therefore, it makes sense for you, or any writer, to pay special attention to how the last paragraphs and
sentences of a text come together. Remember that, like an introduction, a conclusion doesn't have to be just
one paragraph. Rather, the writer should find whatever approach works best for a particular project.

Besides putting a physical end to the text, the conclusion needs to wrap up the essay and give readers a
feeling of cohesion and closure.

One way writers do this is by referring back to the introduction, to create a sense of circular motion.

 EXAMPLE If a particular technique was used in the first paragraph—like an anecdote, definition, or
quotation—revisiting or mentioning it at or near the end of a text is often a good idea.

However, even if a technique was not used earlier, you can still include it in the conclusion. After all, a
conclusion is always more than just a summary of what's come before it.

Communication: Apply Your Skill

Consider the different purposes of your written work, both in the past and the future. You may write to
inform others of information, to persuade a particular group of people, to maintain or improve a
relationship with a person or group of people, or to entertain others. The conclusion will impact how
your readers think and feel after reading what you have written. For instance, if you are writing to
maintain a positive image of your organization to your current clients, you may want to conclude with

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 an appreciation for them. Strong conclusions are indicative of advanced communication skills.

2. Summary Approach
Even though a conclusion should be more than a simple summary of the essay, summaries are a big part of
many highly-effective conclusions.

This approach entails briefly noting the essay's major points, and restating the thesis—in different words than
before, of course. This is a fairly basic form of conclusion.

However, it can be particularly useful in essays that espouse a long, complicated, or multi-part argument.
Consider the following summary conclusion:

Before I returned to school, I assumed I knew why I wanted to return. I knew I wanted to earn more
money. I knew I wanted to do more with my life. I knew I needed a career instead of just a job. But I
never considered that there could be a greater reason I wanted to return. Before I returned to school,
I never understood that one of the most important reasons people my age enroll is to have a sense
of community—to belong to something bigger than ourselves.

Though you don't have the rest of the essay, suffice it to say that just about all of the points here were raised
earlier in the body of the essay, though not in so close a context, and never with the refrain “before I returned
to school” to build momentum.

Even though this is an example of what's generally considered to be a basic form of conclusion, summaries
can do a lot of work for an argument when they're structured effectively.

3. Expansion Approach
Another approach to conclusions is to expand the discussion beyond the scope of the essay's thesis. These
types of conclusions work most often by raising questions that still need answers, or which are not possible to
answer in the time and space allowed.

Sometimes they list work or research that still needs to be done, or even bring up related ideas that weren't
able to be incorporated into the text, due to space and time constraints.

This kind of conclusion has the advantage of being able to up the ante of the main points, by gesturing toward
the urgency or importance of your ideas, as well as showing that you know more, and have thought more
about your topic than can be incorporated in the space allowed.

You can also stake out territory for research or thinking that you might want to do later. This is particularly
common in subject-specific arguments.

 EXAMPLE A graduate student's first research paper about a subject she might want to pursue can
become a dissertation later.

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The expansion approach is also common in arguments trying to persuade readers to take a specific action, as
it can gesture toward other, broader reasons for doing so, without actually having to go into detail about them.

The conclusion below, taken from an essay about the relationship between social media and community,
gestures toward a broader argument.

In so many ways, social media has taught us, through its many opportunities for connection, to value
one another. It brings people together from all walks of life and from all regions of the globe with a
single swipe or click, to share ideas and thoughts and to support one another. But social media has
also taken from us the very connection it sought to provide by providing a false sense of community.
We owe it to ourselves and to our children to be mindful of the harmful impacts of social media as
well. What’s shown on the screen may not be reality, and being actively aware of that discrepancy
may be the very tool we need to remain grounded and to avoid unrealistic expectations of life and
relationships.

As you can see, this conclusion isn't restating the argument, but rather bringing up a broader topic, one
beyond the scope of the essay itself.

4. Hybrid Approach
In modern academic essays, it's very common for conclusions to incorporate some elements of the summary
and expansion approaches, taking advantage of the strengths of both.

The following hybrid conclusion does just this, first by summarizing the main claims that the essay made earlier
about workplace communication, and then by expanding upon them, to perform a call to action while
gesturing toward the many other aspects of the modern workplace that need to be re-evaluated.

Communication in the workplace is multifaceted. Whether we’re talking about writing an email to a
coworker or starting a conversation in the break room or leading a group presentation,
communication never stops. After so many decades of communicating primarily face to face, the
new challenges workers today encounter to communicate remotely as well has changed how we
have these conversations. Emails become texts, break room conversations occur on interoffice team
sites, and group presentations utilize meeting software and cameras instead of conference rooms. It
is therefore vital that we continue to adapt our methods and teach the next generation of workers to
embrace agility in dealing with the rapidly changing office landscape in order to communicate
effectively in all modalities.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of conclusions is to wrap up essays by giving readers a
feeling of cohesion and closure. There are three primary approaches that writers can take in crafting
conclusions: the summary approach, the expansion approach, and the hybrid approach, which
combines elements of the first two approaches. Finally, you discovered how well-written conclusions
strengthen your communication skill.

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 Best of luck in your learning!

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