Start-Up

openSUSE Leap 42.3

Start-Up
openSUSE Leap 42.3

Publication Date: December 04, 2017

SUSE LLC
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Suite 200
Cambridge MA 02141
USA
https://www.suse.com/documentation

Copyright © 2006– 2017 SUSE LLC and contributors. All rights reserved.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or (at your option) version 1.3; with the Invariant Section being this
copyright notice and license. A copy of the license version 1.2 is included in the section entitled “GNU
Free Documentation License”.

For SUSE trademarks, see http://www.suse.com/company/legal/ . All other third-party trademarks are the
property of their respective owners. Trademark symbols (®, ™ etc.) denote trademarks of SUSE and its
affiliates. Asterisks (*) denote third-party trademarks.

All information found in this book has been compiled with utmost attention to detail. However, this does
not guarantee complete accuracy. Neither SUSE LLC, its affiliates, the authors nor the translators shall be
held liable for possible errors or the consequences thereof.
 Contents

About This Guide x

I INSTALLATION 1

1 Installation Quick Start 2

1.1 Welcome to openSUSE Leap 2
Minimum System Requirements 2 • Installing openSUSE Leap 2

2 Installation with YaST 15

2.1 Choosing the Installation Method 15

2.2 System Start-up for Installation 16

PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up 16 • Boot Parameters
for Advanced Setups 24

2.3 Steps of the Installation 25

2.4 Installer Self-Update 26

Self-Update Process 27 • Networking during Self-Update 28 • Custom
Self-Update Repositories 28

2.5 Language, Keyboard and License Agreement 29

2.6 Network Settings 30

2.7 Suggested Partitioning 31

2.8 Clock and Time Zone 35

2.9 User Interface 36

2.10 Create New User 39

2.11 Password for the System Administrator root 41

iii Start-Up
 2.12 Installation Settings 43
Software 43 • Booting 44 • Firewall and SSH 45 • Default systemd
Target 46 • System 46

2.13 Performing the Installation 47

II ADMINISTRATION 48

3 Managing Users with YaST 49

3.1 User and Group Administration Dialog 49

3.2 Managing User Accounts 51

3.3 Additional Options for User Accounts 52

Automatic Login and Passwordless Login 53 • Enforcing Password
Policies 53 • Managing Encrypted Home Directories 54 • Managing
Quotas 56

3.4 Changing Default Settings for Local Users 58

3.5 Assigning Users to Groups 58

3.6 Managing Groups 59

3.7 Changing the User Authentication Method 60

4 Changing Language and Country Settings with

YaST 63
4.1 Changing the System Language 63
Modifying System Languages with YaST 64 • Switching the Default
System Language 66 • Switching Languages for Standard X and GNOME
Applications 67

4.2 Changing the Country and Time Settings 67

5 Setting Up Hardware Components with YaST 70

5.1 Setting Up Your System Keyboard Layout 70

5.2 Setting Up Sound Cards 71

iv Start-Up
 5.3 Setting Up a Printer 74
Configuring Printers 74 • Configuring Printing via the Network with
YaST 78 • Sharing Printers Over the Network 79

5.4 Setting Up a Scanner 80

Configuring an HP All-In-One Device 80 • Sharing a Scanner over the
Network 81 • Scanning over the Network 81

6 Printer Operation 82
6.1 The CUPS Workflow 83

6.2 Methods and Protocols for Connecting Printers 84

6.3 Installing the Software 84

6.4 Network Printers 85

6.5 Configuring CUPS with Command Line Tools 86

6.6 Printing from the Command Line 87

6.7 Special Features in openSUSE Leap 88

CUPS and Firewall 88 • Browsing for Network Printers 88 • PPD Files in
Various Packages 89

6.8 Troubleshooting 89
Printers without Standard Printer Language Support 90 • No
Suitable PPD File Available for a PostScript Printer 90 • Network
Printer Connections 91 • Defective Printouts without Error
Message 93 • Disabled Queues 93 • CUPS Browsing: Deleting Print
Jobs 94 • Defective Print Jobs and Data Transfer Errors 94 • Debugging
CUPS 95 • For More Information 95

7 The X Window System 96

7.1 Installing and Configuring Fonts 96
Showing Installed Fonts 97 • Viewing Fonts 98 • Querying
Fonts 98 • Installing Fonts 99 • Configuring the Appearance of
Fonts 100

7.2 For More Information 108

v Start-Up
 8 Accessing File Systems with FUSE 109
8.1 Configuring FUSE 109

8.2 Mounting an NTFS Partition 109

8.3 Mounting Remote File System with SSHFS 110

8.4 Mounting an ISO File System 110

8.5 Available FUSE Plug-ins 111

8.6 For More Information 112

III MANAGING AND UPDATING SOFTWARE 113

9 Installing or Removing Software 114

9.1 Definition of Terms 114

9.2 Using the YaST Software Manager 116

Views for Searching Packages or Patterns 116 • Installing and Removing
Packages or Patterns 117 • Updating Packages 119 • Checking Software
Dependencies 121

9.3 Managing Software Repositories and Services 123

Adding Software Repositories 123 • Managing Repository
Properties 125 • Managing Repository Keys 126

9.4 Keeping the System Up-to-date 126

The GNOME Software Updater 127 • Installing Patches and Package
Updates 127 • Configuring the GNOME Software Updater 129

10 Installing Add-On Products 131

10.1 Add-Ons 131

10.2 Binary Drivers 132

11 YaST Online Update 133

11.1 The Online Update Dialog 133

11.2 Installing Patches 135

vi Start-Up
 11.3 Automatic Online Update 136

12 Upgrading the System and System Changes 138

12.1 Upgrading the System 138
Preparations 138 • Possible Problems 139 • Upgrading with
YaST 140 • Distribution Upgrade with Zypper 146 • Updating Individual
Packages 149

12.2 For More Information 149

IV THE BASH SHELL 150

13 Shell Basics 151

13.1 Starting a Shell 151

13.2 Entering Commands 152

Using Commands without Options 153 • Using Commands with
Options 153 • Getting Help 155 • Bash Shortcut Keys 155

13.3 Working with Files and Directories 156

Examples for Working with Files and Directories 158

13.4 Becoming Root 160

Using su 161 • Using sudo 161

13.5 File Access Permissions 162

Permissions for User, Group and Others 162 • Files and
Folders 163 • Modifying File Permissions 165

13.6 Useful Features of the Shell 167

Examples For Using History, Completion and Wildcards 168

13.7 Editing Texts 171

Example: Editing with vi 172

13.8 Searching for Files or Contents 172

Examples for Searching 173

13.9 Viewing Text Files 174

vii Start-Up
 13.10 Redirection and Pipes 175
Examples for Redirection and Pipe 175

13.11 Starting Programs and Handling Processes 176

13.12 Important Linux Commands 178

File Commands 179 • System Commands 185 • For More
Information 188

14 Bash and Bash Scripts 189

14.1 What is “The Shell”? 189
Knowing the Bash Configuration Files 189 • The Directory Structure 191

14.2 Writing Shell Scripts 195

14.3 Redirecting Command Events 196

14.4 Using Aliases 197

14.5 Using Variables in Bash 197

Using Argument Variables 199 • Using Variable Substitution 199

14.6 Grouping and Combining Commands 200

14.7 Working with Common Flow Constructs 201

The if Control Command 201 • Creating Loops with the for Command 202

14.8 For More Information 202

V HELP AND TROUBLESHOOTING 203

15 Help and Documentation 204

15.1 Documentation Directory 204
SUSE Manuals 205 • Package Documentation 205

15.2 Man Pages 206

15.3 Info Pages 207

15.4 Online Resources 208

viii Start-Up
 16 Common Problems and Their Solutions 209
16.1 Finding and Gathering Information 209

16.2 Installation Problems 212

Checking Media 212 • No Bootable DVD Drive Available 213 • Booting
from Installation Media Fails 214 • Fails to Boot 215 • Fails to Launch
Graphical Installer 217 • Only Minimalistic Boot Screen Started 219

16.3 Boot Problems 219

The GRUB 2 Boot Loader Fails to Load 219 • No Login or Prompt
Appears 221 • No Graphical Login 221 • Root Btrfs Partition Cannot Be
Mounted 222 • Force Checking Root Partitions 222

16.4 Login Problems 222

Valid User Name and Password Combinations Fail 223 • Valid User Name
and Password Not Accepted 224 • Login to Encrypted Home Partition
Fails 226 • Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails 227

16.5 Network Problems 227

NetworkManager Problems 231

16.6 Data Problems 232

Managing Partition Images 232 • Using the Rescue System 233

A GNU Licenses 240

A.1 GNU Free Documentation License 240

ix Start-Up
About This Guide

This manual will see you through your initial contact with openSUSE® Leap. Check out the
various parts of this manual to learn how to install, use and enjoy your system.

Installation
Guides you through the installation process and the basic configuration of your system.
The Quick Start section shows a quick walk through the installation using default values.
The second part of this chapter provides details for every installation step.

Administration
Introduces YaST, the central tool for installation and configuration of your system. Learn
how to initially set up your system and how to modify key components of your system.

Managing and Updating Software

Understand how to install or remove software with either YaST or using the command
line, how to use the 1-Click Install feature, and how to keep your system up-to-date.

The Bash Shell

Learn how to work with the bash shell, the default command line interpreter on openSUSE
Leap. Get to know the most commonly used Linux commands and understand basic con-
cepts of a Linux system.

Help and Troubleshooting

Provides an overview of where to nd help and additional documentation in case you
need more information or want to perform specific tasks with your system. Also nd a
compilation of the most frequent problems and annoyances and learn how to solve these
problems on your own.

1 Available Documentation

Note: Online Documentation and Latest Updates

Documentation for our products is available at http://doc.opensuse.org/ , where you
can also nd the latest updates, and browse or download the documentation in various
formats.

x Available Documentation openSUSE Leap 42.3

In addition, the product documentation is usually available in your installed system under /
usr/share/doc/manual .

The following documentation is available for this product:

Start-Up
This manual will see you through your initial contact with openSUSE® Leap. Check out
the various parts of this manual to learn how to install, use and enjoy your system.

Book “Reference”
Covers system administration tasks like maintaining, monitoring and customizing an ini-
tially installed system.

Book “Virtualization Guide”

Describes virtualization technology in general, and introduces libvirt—the unified inter-
face to virtualization—and detailed information on specific hypervisors.

Book “AutoYaST”
AutoYaST is a system for installing one or more openSUSE Leap systems automatically
and without user intervention, using an AutoYaST profile that contains installation and
configuration data. The manual guides you through the basic steps of auto-installation:
preparation, installation, and configuration.

Book “Security Guide”

Introduces basic concepts of system security, covering both local and network security
aspects. Shows how to use the product inherent security software like AppArmor or the
auditing system that reliably collects information about any security-relevant events.

Book “System Analysis and Tuning Guide”

An administrator's guide for problem detection, resolution and optimization. Find how to
inspect and optimize your system by means of monitoring tools and how to efficiently
manage resources. Also contains an overview of common problems and solutions and of
additional help and documentation resources.

Book “GNOME User Guide”

Introduces the GNOME desktop of openSUSE Leap. It guides you through using and con-
figuring the desktop and helps you perform key tasks. It is intended mainly for end users
who want to make efficient use of GNOME as their default desktop.

xi Available Documentation openSUSE Leap 42.3

2 Feedback
Several feedback channels are available:

Bug Reports
To report bugs for openSUSE Leap, go to https://bugzilla.opensuse.org/ , log in, and click
New.

Mail
For feedback on the documentation of this product, you can also send a mail to doc-
[email protected] . Make sure to include the document title, the product version and the
publication date of the documentation. To report errors or suggest enhancements, provide
a concise description of the problem and refer to the respective section number and page
(or URL).

3 Documentation Conventions
The following notices and typographical conventions are used in this documentation:

/etc/passwd : directory names and le names

PLACEHOLDER : replace PLACEHOLDER with the actual value

PATH : the environment variable PATH

ls , --help : commands, options, and parameters

user : users or groups

package name : name of a package

Alt , Alt – F1 : a key to press or a key combination; keys are shown in uppercase as on
a keyboard

File, File Save As: menu items, buttons

Dancing Penguins (Chapter Penguins, ↑Another Manual): This is a reference to a chapter in

another manual.

Commands that must be run with root privileges. Often you can also prefix these com-
mands with the sudo command to run them as non-privileged user.

xii Feedback openSUSE Leap 42.3

 root # command
tux > sudo command

Commands that can be run by non-privileged users.

tux > command

Notices

Warning: Warning Notice

Vital information you must be aware of before proceeding. Warns you about security
issues, potential loss of data, damage to hardware, or physical hazards.

Important: Important Notice

Important information you should be aware of before proceeding.

Note: Note Notice

Additional information, for example about differences in software versions.

Tip: Tip Notice

Helpful information, like a guideline or a piece of practical advice.

4 About the Making of This Documentation

This documentation is written in SUSEDoc, a subset of DocBook 5 (http://www.docbook.org) .
The XML source les were validated by jing (see https://code.google.com/p/jing-trang/ ),
processed by xsltproc , and converted into XSL-FO using a customized version of Norman
Walsh's stylesheets. The final PDF is formatted through FOP from Apache Software Foundation
(https://xmlgraphics.apache.org/fop) . The open source tools and the environment used to build
this documentation are provided by the DocBook Authoring and Publishing Suite (DAPS). The
project's home page can be found at https://github.com/openSUSE/daps .
The XML source code of this documentation can be found at https://github.com/SUSE/doc-sle .

xiii About the Making of This Documentation openSUSE Leap 42.3

5 Source Code
The source code of openSUSE Leap is publicly available. Refer to http://en.open-
suse.org/Source_code for download links and more information.

6 Acknowledgments
With a lot of voluntary commitment, the developers of Linux cooperate on a global scale to
promote the development of Linux. We thank them for their efforts—this distribution would not
exist without them. Special thanks, of course, goes to Linus Torvalds.

xiv Source Code openSUSE Leap 42.3

I Installation

1 Installation Quick Start 2

2 Installation with YaST 15

1 Installation Quick Start

Use the following procedures to install a new version of openSUSE® Leap 42.3. This
document gives a quick overview on how to run through a default installation of
openSUSE Leap on the x86_64 architecture.

1.1 Welcome to openSUSE Leap

For more detailed installation instructions see Chapter 2, Installation with YaST.

1.1.1 Minimum System Requirements

any AMD64/Intel* EM64T processor (32-bit processors are not supported)

1 GB physical RAM (2 GB or more recommended)

3 GB available disk space for a minimal install, 5 GB available for a graphical desktop
(more recommended)

Supports most modern sound and graphics cards, 800 x 600 display resolution (1024 x
768 or higher recommended)

1.1.2 Installing openSUSE Leap

Use these instructions if there is no existing Linux system on your machine, or if you want to
replace an existing Linux system.

1. Insert the openSUSE Leap DVD into the drive, then reboot the computer to start the in-
stallation program. On machines with a traditional BIOS you will see the graphical boot
screen shown below. On machines equipped with UEFI, a slightly different boot screen is
used. Secure boot on UEFI machines is supported.
Use F2 to change the language for the installer. A corresponding keyboard layout is cho-
sen automatically. See Section 2.2.1.1, “The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with Traditional
BIOS” or Section 2.2.1.2, “The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with UEFI” for more information
about changing boot options.

2 Welcome to openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 2. Select Installation on the boot screen, then press Enter . This boots the system and loads
the openSUSE Leap installer.

3. The Language and Keyboard Layout are initialized with the language settings you have
chosen on the boot screen. Change them here, if necessary.
Read the License Agreement. It is presented in the language you have chosen on the boot
screen. License Translations are available. Proceed with Next.

3 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 4. In case no network interface could be configured automatically via DHCP, the Network
Settings dialog opens. If you prefer to install openSUSE Leap with no network connection,
choose Next to proceed. However, configuring the network at this stage is recommended,
since it will allow to install the latest updates and security fixes from the online update
repository. A working network connection will also give you access to additional software
repositories. This step is skipped if a network interface was successfully configured via
DHCP.
To configure the network, choose a network interface from the list and click Edit to change
its settings. Use the tabs to configure DNS and routing. See Book “Reference”, Chapter 13
“Basic Networking”, Section 13.4 “Configuring a Network Connection with YaST” for more details.

4 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 5. A system analysis is performed, where the installer probes for storage devices, and tries
to nd other installed systems. When the analysis has finished, the Suggested Partitioning
dialog opens. Review the partition setup proposed by the system. If necessary, change it.
You have the following options:

Edit Proposal Settings

Lets you change options for the proposed settings, but not the suggested partition
layout itself.

Create Partition Setup

Select a disk to which to apply the proposal.

Expert Partitioner
Opens the Expert Partitioner described in Book “Reference”, Chapter 5 “Advanced Disk
Setup”, Section 5.1 “Using the YaST Partitioner”.

To accept the proposed setup without any changes, choose Next to proceed.

5 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 6. Select the clock and time zone to use in your system. To manually adjust the time or to
configure an NTP server for time synchronization, choose Other Settings. See Section 2.8,
“Clock and Time Zone” for detailed information. Proceed with Next.

7. Select the desktop system you would like to use in the User Interface dialog. KDE and
GNOME are among the most widely used desktops on Linux.

6 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 If setting up a server, you probably do not need a graphical user interface. Choose Server
(Text Mode) in this case.

More desktop systems, such as XFCE, LXDE, MATE, and Enlightenment are available after
having enabled the online repositories. Doing so is also recommended if you want to get
the latest security updates and fixes during the installation. A working Internet connection
is required. To install a Custom user interface, choose Configure Online Repositories. You
have the following choices:

The Main Repository (OSS) contains open source software (OSS). Compared to the
DVD installation media, it contains many additional software packages, among them
the above mentioned desktop systems. Choose this repository to install them.

The Main Update Repository contains security updates and fixes for packages from
the Main Repository (OSS) and the DVD installation media. Choosing this repository
is recommended for all installation scenarios.

The Main Repository (Non-OSS) contains packages with a proprietary software li-
cense. Choosing it is not required for installing a custom desktop system.

7 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Choosing Main Update Repository (Non-OSS) is recommended when also having cho-
sen the Main Repository (Non-OSS). It contains the respective updates and security
fixes.

All other repositories are intended for experienced users and developers. Click on a
repository name to get more information.

Confirm your selection with Next. Depending on your choice, you need to confirm one
or more license agreements. Do so by choosing Next until you return to the User Interface
screen. Now choose Custom and Next, to proceed to the Software Selection and System Task,
where you can choose a custom desktop system from the left-hand pane.

8 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 8. To create a local user, type the rst and last name in the User’s Full Name eld, the login
name in the Username eld, and the password in the Password eld.
The password should be at least eight characters long and should contain both uppercase
and lowercase letters and numbers. The maximum length for passwords is 72 characters,
and passwords are case-sensitive.
For security reasons it is also strongly recommended not to enable the Automatic Login.
You should also not Use this Password for the System Administrator but rather provide a
separate root password in the next installation step.
If you install on a system where a previous Linux installation was found, you may Import
User Data from a Previous Installation. Click Choose User for a list of available user accounts.
Select one or more user.
In an environment where users are centrally managed (for example by NIS or LDAP) you
may want to skip the creation of local users. Select Skip User Creation in this case.
Proceed with Next.

9 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 9. Type a password for the system administrator account (called the root user). This step is
skipped if you have chosen Use this Password for the System Administrator in the previous
step.
You should never forget the root password! After you entered it here, the password
cannot be retrieved. See Section 2.11, “Password for the System Administrator root” for more
information. Proceed with Next.

10 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: Passwords and Keyboard Layout
It is recommended to only use characters that are available on an English keyboard.
In case of a system error or when you need to start your system in rescue mode a
localized keyboard might not be available.

10. Use the Installation Settings screen to review and—if necessary—change several proposed
installation settings. The current configuration is listed for each setting. To change it, click
the headline. Some settings, such as firewall or SSH can directly be changed by clicking
the respective links.

Tip: Remote System Access

Changes you can make in the Installation Settings, can also be made later at any
time from the installed system. However, if you need remote access directly after
the installation, you should adjust the Firewall and SSH settings by opening the SSH
port and enabling the SSH server.

Booting

11 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 This section shows the boot loader configuration. Changing the defaults is only rec-
ommended if really needed. Refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 12 “The Boot Loader
GRUB 2” for details.

Software
The default scope of software includes the base system and X Window with the select-
ed desktop. Clicking Software opens the Software Selection and System Tasks screen,
where you can change the software selection by selecting or deselecting patterns.
Each pattern contains several software packages needed for specific functions (for
example, Web and LAMP server or a print server). For a more detailed selection
based on software packages to install, select Details to switch to the YaST Software
Manager. See Chapter 9, Installing or Removing Software for more information.

Default Systemd Target

If you have chosen to install a desktop system, the system boots into the graphical
target, with network, multiuser and display manager support. If you have not in-
stalled a desktop, the system boots into a login shell (Text Mode).

System
View detailed hardware information by clicking System. In the resulting screen you
can also change Kernel Settings—see Section 2.12.5, “System” for more information.

Firewall and SSH

By default, the Firewall is enabled with the active network interface configured for
the external zone. See Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 15 “Masquerading and Firewalls”,
Section 15.4 “SuSEFirewall2” for configuration details.
The SSH service is disabled by default, its port (22) is closed. Therefore logging in
from remote is not possible by default. Click enable and open to toggle these settings.

12 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 11. After you have finalized the system configuration on the Installation Settings screen, click
Install. Depending on your software selection you may need to agree to license agreements
before the installation confirmation screen pops up. Up to this point no changes have been
made to your system. After you click Install a second time, the installation process starts.

12. During the installation, the progress is shown in detail on the Details tab.

13 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

 13. After the installation routine has finished, the computer is rebooted into the installed
system. Log in and start YaST to ne-tune the system. If you are not using a graphical
desktop or are working from remote, refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 1 “YaST in Text Mode”
for information on using YaST from a terminal.

14 Installing openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

2 Installation with YaST

Install your openSUSE® Leap system with YaST, the central tool for installation and
configuration of your system. YaST guides you through the installation process of
your system. If you are a rst-time user of openSUSE Leap, you might want to fol-
low the default YaST proposals in most parts, but you can also adjust the settings
as described here to ne-tune your system according to your preferences. Help for
each installation step is provided by clicking Help.
During the installation process, YaST analyzes both your current system settings and
your hardware components. Based on this analysis your system will be set up with a
basic configuration including networking (provided the system could be configured
using DHCP). To ne-tune the system after the installation has finished, start YaST
from the installed system.

2.1 Choosing the Installation Method

After having selected the installation medium, determine the suitable installation method and
boot option that best matches your needs:

Installing from the openSUSE Leap Media (DVD, USB)

Choose this option if you want to perform a stand-alone installation and do not want to rely
on a network to provide the installation data or the boot infrastructure. The installation
proceeds exactly as outlined in Section 2.3, “Steps of the Installation”.

Installing from a Network Server

Choose this option if you have an installation server available in your network or want to
use an external server as the source of your installation data. This setup can be configured
to boot from physical media (ash disk, CD/DVD, or hard disk) or configured to boot via
network using PXE/BOOTP. Refer to Section 2.2, “System Start-up for Installation” for details.
The installation program configures the network connection with DHCP and retrieves the
location of the network installation source from the OpenSLP server. If no DHCP is avail-
able, choose F4 Source Network Config Manual and enter the network data. On EFI sys-
tems modify the network boot parameters as described in Section 2.2.1.2, “The Boot Screen
on Machines Equipped with UEFI”.

15 Choosing the Installation Method openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Installing from an SLP Server. If your network setup supports OpenSLP and your network
installation source has been configured to announce itself via SLP, boot the system, press
F4 in the boot screen and select SLP from the menu. On EFI systems set the install
parameter to install=slp:/ as described in Section 2.2.1.2, “The Boot Screen on Machines
Equipped with UEFI”.

Installing from a Network Source without SLP. If your network setup does not support
OpenSLP for the retrieval of network installation sources, boot the system and press F4

in the boot screen to select the desired network protocol (NFS, HTTP, FTP, or SMB/CIFS)
and provide the server's address and the path to the installation media. On EFI systems
modify the boot parameter install= as described in Section 2.2.1.2, “The Boot Screen on
Machines Equipped with UEFI”.

2.2 System Start-up for Installation

The way the system is started for the installation depends on the architecture—system start-up
is different for PC (AMD64/Intel 64) or mainframe, for example. If you install openSUSE Leap
as a VM Guest on a KVM or Xen hypervisor, follow the instructions for the AMD64/Intel 64
architecture.

2.2.1 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up

openSUSE Leap supports several boot options from which you can choose, depending on the
hardware available and on the installation scenario you prefer. Booting from the openSUSE Leap
media is the most straightforward option, but special requirements might call for special setups:
TABLE 2.1: BOOT OPTIONS

Boot Option Description

DVD This is the easiest boot option. This option

can be used if the system has a local DVD-
ROM drive that is supported by Linux.

Flash Disks (USB Mass Storage Device) In case your machine is not equipped with
an optical drive, you can boot the instal-
lation image from a ash disk. To create a
bootable ash disk, you need to copy either

16 System Start-up for Installation openSUSE Leap 42.3

Boot Option Description
the DVD or the Mini CD ISO image to the de-
vice using the dd command (the ash disk
must not be mounted, all data on the device
will be erased):

dd if=PATH_TO_ISO_IMAGE
of=USB_STORAGE_DEVICE bs=4M

Important:
Compatibility
Note that booting from a USB Mass
Storage Device is not supported on UE-
FI machines and on the POWER archi-
tecture.

PXE or BOOTP Booting over the network must be support-

ed by the system's BIOS or rmware, and
a boot server must be available in the net-
work. This task can also be handled by an-
other openSUSE Leap system.

Hard Disk openSUSE Leap installation can also be boot-

ed from the hard disk. To do this, copy the
kernel ( linux ) and the installation system
( initrd ) from the directory /boot/ARCHI-
TECTURE/ on the installation media to the
hard disk and add an appropriate entry
to the existing boot loader of a previous
openSUSE Leap installation.

17 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: Booting from DVD on UEFI Machines
DVD1 can be used as a boot medium for machines equipped with UEFI (Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface). Refer to your vendor's documentation for specific information. If
booting fails, try to enable CSM (Compatibility Support Module) in your rmware.

2.2.1.1 The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with Traditional BIOS

The boot screen displays several options for the installation procedure. Boot from Hard Disk boots
the installed system and is selected by default, because the CD is often left in the drive. Select one
of the other options with the arrow keys and press Enter to boot it. The relevant options are:

Installation
The normal installation mode. All modern hardware functions are enabled. In case the
installation fails, see F5 Kernel for boot options that disable potentially problematic func-
tions.

Upgrade
Perform a system upgrade. For more information refer to Chapter 12, Upgrading the System
and System Changes.

Rescue System
Starts a minimal Linux system without a graphical user interface. For more information,
see Section 16.6.2, “Using the Rescue System”.

Check Installation Media

This option is only available when you install from media created from downloaded ISOs.
In this case it is recommended to check the integrity of the installation medium. This option
starts the installation system before automatically checking the media. In case the check
was successful, the normal installation routine starts. If a corrupt media is detected, the
installation routine aborts.

Warning: Failure of Media Check

If the media check fails, your medium is damaged. Do not continue the installation
because installation may fail or you may lose your data. Replace the broken medium
and restart the installation process.

18 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

Memory Test
Tests your system RAM using repeated read and write cycles. Terminate the test by reboot-
ing. For more information, see Section 16.2.4, “Fails to Boot”.

FIGURE 2.1: THE BOOT SCREEN ON MACHINES WITH A TRADITIONAL BIOS

Use the function keys indicated in the bar at the bottom of the screen to change the language,
screen resolution, installation source or to add an additional driver from your hardware vendor:

F1 Help
Get context-sensitive help for the active element of the boot screen. Use the arrow keys to
navigate, Enter to follow a link, and Esc to leave the help screen.

F2 Language
Select the display language and a corresponding keyboard layout for the installation. The
default language is English (US).

F3 Video Mode
Select various graphical display modes for the installation. By Default the video resolution is
automatically determined using KMS (“Kernel Mode Setting”). If this setting does not work
on your system, choose No KMS and, optionally, specify vga=ask on the boot command
line to get prompted for the video resolution. Choose Text Mode if the graphical installation
causes problems.

19 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

F4 Source
Normally, the installation is performed from the inserted installation medium. Here, select
other sources, like FTP or NFS servers. If the installation is deployed on a network with an
SLP server, select an installation source available on the server with this option.

F5 Kernel
If you encounter problems with the regular installation, this menu offers to disable a few
potentially problematic functions. If your hardware does not support ACPI (advanced con-
figuration and power interface) select No ACPI to install without ACPI support. No local
APIC disables support for APIC (Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controllers) which may
cause problems with some hardware. Safe Settings boots the system with the DMA mode
(for CD/DVD-ROM drives) and power management functions disabled.
If you are not sure, try the following options rst: Installation—ACPI Disabled or Installa-
tion—Safe Settings. Experts can also use the command line (Boot Options) to enter or change
kernel parameters.

F6 Driver
Press this key to notify the system that you have an optional driver update for openSUSE
Leap. With File or URL, load drivers directly before the installation starts. If you select
Yes, you are prompted to insert the update disk at the appropriate point in the installation
process.

2.2.1.2 The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with UEFI

UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) is a new industry standard which replaces and ex-
tends the traditional BIOS. The latest UEFI implementations contain the “Secure Boot” extension,
which prevents booting malicious code by only allowing signed boot loaders to be executed. See
Book “Reference”, Chapter 14 “UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)” for more information.

The boot manager GRUB 2, used to boot machines with a traditional BIOS, does not support
UEFI, therefore GRUB 2 is replaced with GRUB 2 for EFI. If Secure Boot is enabled, YaST will au-
tomatically select GRUB 2 for EFI for installation. From an administrative and user perspective,
both boot manager implementations behave the same and are called GRUB 2 in the following.

20 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: UEFI and Secure Boot are Supported by
Default
The installation routine of openSUSE Leap automatically detects if the machine is
equipped with UEFI. All installation sources also support Secure Boot. If an EFI system
partition already exists on dual boot machines (from a Microsoft Windows 8 installation,
for example), it will automatically be detected and used. Partition tables will be written
as GPT on UEFI systems.

Warning: Using Non-Inbox Drivers with Secure

Boot
There is no support for adding non-inbox drivers (that is, drivers that do not come with
SLE) during installation with Secure Boot enabled. The signing key used for SolidDriv-
er/PLDP is not trusted by default.
To solve this problem, it is necessary to either add the needed keys to the rmware data-
base via rmware/system management tools before the installation or to use a bootable
ISO that will enroll the needed keys in the MOK list at rst boot. For more information,
see Book “Reference”, Chapter 14 “UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)”, Section 14.1 “Se-
cure Boot”.

The boot screen displays several options for the installation procedure. Change the selected
option with the arrow keys and press Enter to boot it. The relevant options are:

Installation
The normal installation mode.

Upgrade
Perform a system upgrade.

Rescue System
Starts a minimal Linux system without a graphical user interface. For more information,
see Section 16.6.2, “Using the Rescue System”.

Check Installation Media

21 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

 This option is only available when you install from media created from downloaded ISOs.
In this case it is recommended to check the integrity of the installation medium. This option
starts the installation system before automatically checking the media. In case the check
was successful, the normal installation routine starts. If a corrupt media is detected, the
installation routine aborts.

FIGURE 2.2: THE BOOT SCREEN ON MACHINES WITH UEFI

GRUB 2 for EFI on openSUSE Leap does not support a boot prompt or function keys for adding
boot parameters. By default, the installation will be started with American English and the boot
media as the installation source. A DHCP lookup will be performed to configure the network. To
change these defaults or to add additional boot parameters you need to edit the respective boot
entry. Highlight it using the arrow keys and press E . See the on-screen help for editing hints
(note that only an English keyboard is available now). The Installation entry will look similar
to the following:

setparams 'Installation'

set gfxpayload=keep
echo 'Loading kernel ...'
linuxefi /boot/x86_64/loader/linux splash=silent
echo 'Loading initial ramdisk ...'
initrdefi /boot/x86_64/loader/initrd

22 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

Add space-separated parameters to the end of the line starting with linuxefi . To boot the
edited entry, press F10 . If you access the machine via serial console, press Esc – 0 . A complete
list of parameters is available at http://en.opensuse.org/Linuxrc . The most important ones are:

TABLE 2.2: INSTALLATION SOURCES

CD/DVD (default) install=cd:/

Hard disk install=hd:/?device=sda/PATH_TO_ISO

SLP install=slp:/

FTP install=ftp://ftp.example.com/PATH_TO_ISO

HTTP install=http://www.example.com/PATH_TO_ISO

NFS install=nfs:/PATH_TO_ISO

SMB / CIFS install=smb://PATH_TO_ISO

TABLE 2.3: NETWORK CONFIGURATION

DHCP (default) netsetup=dhcp

Prompt for Parameters netsetup=hostip,netmask,gateway,nameserver

Host IP address hostip=192.168.2.100

hostip=192.168.2.100/24

Netmask netmask=255.255.255.0

Gateway gateway=192.168.5.1

Name Server nameserver=192.168.1.116

nameserver=192.168.1.116,192.168.1.118

Domain Search Path domain=example.com

TABLE 2.4: MISCELLANEOUS

Driver Updates: Prompt dud=1

Driver Updates: URL dud=ftp://ftp.example.com/PATH_TO_DRIVER

23 PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-up openSUSE Leap 42.3

 dud=http://www.example.com/PATH_TO_DRIVER

Installation Language Language=LANGUAGE

Supported values for LANGUAGE are, among others, cs_CZ ,

de_DE , es_ES , fr_FR , ja_JP , pt_BR , pt_PT , ru_RU ,
zh_CN , and zh_TW .

Kernel: No ACPI acpi=off

Kernel: No Local APIC noapic

Video: Disable KMS nomodeset

Video: Start Installer in Textmode=1

Text Mode

2.2.2 Boot Parameters for Advanced Setups

In case you want to configure access to a local SMT or supportconfig server for the installation,
you can specify boot parameters that will be parsed by the installation routine to set up these
services. The same is also true if you need IPv6 support during the installation.

2.2.2.1 Using IPv6 During the Installation

By default you can only assign IPv4 network addresses to your machine. To enable IPv6 during
installation, enter one of the following parameters at the boot prompt:

Accept IPv4 and IPv6

ipv6=1

Accept IPv6 only

ipv6only=1

2.2.2.2 Using a Proxy During the Installation

In networks enforcing the usage of a proxy server for accessing remote Web sites, registration
during installation is only possible when configuring a proxy server.

24 Boot Parameters for Advanced Setups openSUSE Leap 42.3

To use a proxy during the installation, press F4 on the boot screen and set the required pa-
rameters in the HTTP Proxy dialog. Alternatively provide the kernel parameter proxy at the
boot prompt:

l>proxy=http://USER:[email protected]:PORT

Specifying USER and PASSWORD is optional—if the server allows anonymous access, the follow-
ing data is sufficient: http://proxy.example.com:PORT .

2.2.2.3 Enabling SELinux Support

Enabling SELinux upon installation start-up enables you to configure it after the installation has
been finished without having to reboot. Use the following parameters:

security=selinux selinux=1

2.2.2.4 Enabling the Installer Self-Update

During installation and upgrade, YaST can update itself as described in Section 2.4, “Installer Self-
Update” to solve potential bugs discovered after release. The self_update parameter can be
used to modify the behavior of this feature.
To enable the installer self-update, set the parameter to 1 :

self_update=1

To use a user-defined repository, specify a URL:

self_update=https://updates.example.com/

2.3 Steps of the Installation

The interactive installation of openSUSE Leap split into several steps is listed below. For more
information about performing non-interactive automated installations, see Book “AutoYaST”.
After starting the installation, openSUSE Leap loads and configures a minimal Linux system to
run the installation procedure. To view the boot messages and copyright notices during this
process, press Esc . On completion of this process, the YaST installation program starts and
displays the graphical installer.

25 Steps of the Installation openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: Installation Without a Mouse
If the installer does not detect your mouse correctly, use →| for navigation, arrow keys
to scroll, and Enter to confirm a selection. Various buttons or selection elds contain
a letter with an underscore. Use Alt – Letter to select a button or a selection directly
instead of navigating there with →| .

1. Section 2.4, “Installer Self-Update”

2. Section 2.5, “Language, Keyboard and License Agreement”

3. Section 2.6, “Network Settings”

4. Section 2.7, “Suggested Partitioning”

5. Section 2.8, “Clock and Time Zone”

6. Section 2.9, “User Interface”

7. Section 2.10, “Create New User”

8. Section 2.11, “Password for the System Administrator root”

9. Section 2.12, “Installation Settings”

10. Section 2.13, “Performing the Installation”

2.4 Installer Self-Update

During the installation and upgrade process, YaST is able to update itself to solve bugs in the
installer that were discovered after the release. This functionality is disabled by default; to enable
it, set the boot parameter self_update to 1 . For more information, see Section 2.2.2.4, “Enabling
the Installer Self-Update”.

Although this feature was designed to run without user intervention, it is worth knowing how
it works. If you are not interested, you can jump directly to Section 2.5, “Language, Keyboard and
License Agreement” and skip the rest of this section.

Tip: Language Selection

The installer self-update is executed before the language selection step. This means that
progress and errors which happen during this process are displayed in English by default.

26 Installer Self-Update openSUSE Leap 42.3

 To use another language for this part of the installer, press F2 in the DVD boot menu
and select the language from the list. Alternatively, use the language boot parameter
(for example, language=de_DE ).

2.4.1 Self-Update Process

The process can be broken down into two different parts:

1. Determine the update repository location.

2. Download and apply the updates to the installation system.

2.4.1.1 Determining the Update Repository Location

Installer Self-Updates are distributed as regular RPM packages via a dedicated repository, so the
rst step is to nd out the repository URL.

Important: Installer Self-Update Repository Only

No matter which of the following options you use, only the installer self-update repository
URL is expected, for example:

self_update=https://updates.suse.com/SUSE/Updates/SLE-SERVER-INSTALLER/12-SP2/
x86_64/update/

Do not supply any other repository URL—for example the URL of the software update
repository.

YaST will try the following sources of information:

1. The self_update boot parameter. (For more details, see Section 2.2.2.4, “Enabling the In-
staller Self-Update”.) If you specify a URL, it will take precedence over any other method.

2. The /general/self_update_url profile element in case you are using AutoYaST.

3. If none of the previous attempts worked, the fallback URL (defined in the installation
media) will be used.

27 Self-Update Process openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.4.1.2 Downloading and Applying the Updates

When the updates repository is determined, YaST will check whether an update is available. If
so, all the updates will be downloaded and applied to the installation system.
Finally, YaST will be restarted to load the new version and the welcome screen will be shown.
If no updates were available, the installation will continue without restarting YaST.

Note: Update Integrity

Update signatures will be checked to ensure integrity and authorship. If a signature is
missing or invalid, you will be asked whether you want to apply the update.

2.4.2 Networking during Self-Update

To download installer updates, YaST needs network access. By default, it tries to use DHCP on
all network interfaces. If there is a DHCP server in the network, it will work automatically.
If you need a static IP setup, you can use the ifcfg boot argument. For more details, see the
linuxrc documentation at https://en.opensuse.org/Linuxrc .

2.4.3 Custom Self-Update Repositories

YaST can use a user-defined repository instead of the official one by specifying a URL through
the self_update boot option. However, the following points should be considered:

Only HTTP/HTTPS and FTP repositories are supported.

Only RPM-MD repositories are supported (required by SMT).

Packages are not installed in the usual way: They are uncompressed only and no scripts
are executed.

No dependency checks are performed. Packages are installed in alphabetical order.

Files from the packages override the les from the original installation media. This means
that the update packages might not need to contain all les, only les that have changed.
Unchanged les are omitted to save memory and download bandwidth.

28 Networking during Self-Update openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Note: Only One Repository
Currently, it is not possible to use more than one repository as source for installer self-
updates.

2.5 Language, Keyboard and License Agreement

Start the installation of openSUSE Leap by choosing your language. Changing the language will
automatically preselect a corresponding keyboard layout. Override this proposal by selecting
a different keyboard layout from the drop-down box. The language selected here is also used
to assume a time zone for the system clock. This setting can be modified later in the installed
system as described in Chapter 4, Changing Language and Country Settings with YaST.
Read the license agreement that is displayed beneath the language and keyboard selection thor-
oughly. Use License Translations to access translations. By proceeding with Next, you agree to
the license agreement. Choose Abort to cancel the installation if you do not agree to the license
terms.

FIGURE 2.3: LANGUAGE, KEYBOARD AND LICENSE AGREEMENT

29 Language, Keyboard and License Agreement openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.6 Network Settings
After booting into the installation, the installation routine is set up. During this setup, an attempt
to configure at least one network interface with DHCP is made. In case this attempt fails, the
Network Settings dialog launches. Choose a network interface from the list and click Edit to change
its settings. Use the tabs to configure DNS and routing. See Book “Reference”, Chapter 13 “Basic
Networking”, Section 13.4 “Configuring a Network Connection with YaST” for more details.

Note: Network Interface Configured via linuxrc

If at least one network interface is configured via linuxrc, automatic DHCP configuration
is disabled and configuration from linuxrc is imported and used.

FIGURE 2.4: NETWORK SETTINGS

30 Network Settings openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: Accessing Network Storage or Local RAID
In case you need to access a SAN or a local RAID during the installation, you can use the
libstorage command line client for this purpose:

1. Switch to a console with Ctrl – Alt – F2 .

2. Install the libstoragemgmt extension by running extend libstoragemgmt .

3. Now you have access to the lsmcli command. For more information, run lsmcli
--help .

4. To return to the installer, press Alt – F7

Supported are Netapp Ontap, all SMI-S compatible SAN providers, and LSI MegaRAID.

2.7 Suggested Partitioning

Define a partition setup for openSUSE Leap in this step. The installer creates a proposal for
one of the available disks containing a root partition formatted with Btrfs, a swap partition,
and a home partition formatted with XFS. On hard disks smaller than 20 GB the proposal does
not include a separate home partition. If one or more swap partitions have been detected on
the available hard disks, these existing ones will be used (rather than proposing a new swap
partition). You have several options to proceed:

Next
To accept the proposal without any changes, click Next to proceed with the installation
workflow.

Edit Proposal Settings

To adjust the proposal choose Edit Proposal Settings. The pop-up dialog lets you switch
to an LVM-based Proposal or an Encrypted LVM-based Proposal. You may also adjust le
systems for the proposed partitions, create a separate home partition, and enlarge the swap
partition (to enable suspend to disk, for example).
If the root le system format is Btrfs, you can also enable Btrfs snapshots here.

Create Partition Setup

31 Suggested Partitioning openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Use this option to move the proposal described above to a different disk. Select a specific
disk from the list. If the chosen hard disk does not contain any partitions yet, the whole hard
disk will be used for the proposal. Otherwise, you can choose which existing partition(s)
to use. Edit Proposal Settings lets you ne-tune the proposal.

Expert Partitioner
To create a custom partition setup choose Expert Partitioner. The Expert Partitioner opens,
displaying the current partition setup for all hard disks, including the proposal suggested
by the installer. You can Add, Edit, Resize, or Delete partitions.
You can also set up Logical Volumes (LVM), configure software RAID and device mapping
(DM), encrypt Partitions, mount NFS shares and manage tmpfs volumes with the Expert
Partitioner. To ne-tune settings such as the subvolume and snapshot handling for each
Btrfs partition, choose Btrfs. For more information about custom partitioning and config-
uring advanced features, refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 5 “Advanced Disk Setup”, Section 5.1
“Using the YaST Partitioner”.

Warning: Custom Partitioning on UEFI Machines

A UEFI machine requires an EFI system partition that must be mounted to /boot/
efi . This partition must be formatted with the FAT le system.

If an EFI system partition is already present on your system (for example from a
previous Windows installation) use it by mounting it to /boot/efi without for-
matting it.

Warning: Custom Partitioning and Snapper

openSUSE Leap can be configured to support snapshots which provide the ability to
do rollbacks of system changes. openSUSE Leap uses Snapper in conjunction with
Btrfs for this feature. Btrfs needs to be set up with snapshots enabled for the root
partition. Refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 3 “System Recovery and Snapshot Manage-
ment with Snapper” for details on Snapper.

Being able to create system snapshots that enable rollbacks requires most of the
system directories to be mounted on a single partition. Refer to Book “Reference”,
Chapter 3 “System Recovery and Snapshot Management with Snapper”, Section 3.1 “Default
Setup” for more information. This also includes /usr and /var . Only directories
that are excluded from snapshots (see Book “Reference”, Chapter 3 “System Recovery

32 Suggested Partitioning openSUSE Leap 42.3

 and Snapshot Management with Snapper”, Section 3.1.2 “Directories That Are Excluded from
Snapshots” for a list) may reside on separate partitions. Among others, this list in-
cludes /usr/local , /var/log , and /tmp .
If you do not plan to use Snapper for system rollbacks, the partitioning restrictions
mentioned above do not apply.

Important: Btrfs on an Encrypted Root Partition

The default partitioning setup suggests the root partition as Btrfs with /boot being
a directory. If you need to have the root partition encrypted in this setup, make sure
to use the GPT partition table type instead of the default MSDOS type. Otherwise
the GRUB2 boot loader may not have enough space for the second stage loader.

Note: Supported Software RAID Volumes

Installing to and booting from existing software RAID volumes is supported for Disk Data
Format (DDF) volumes and Intel Matrix Storage Manager (IMSM) volumes. IMSM is also
known by the following names:

Intel Rapid Storage Technology

Intel Matrix Storage Technology

Intel Application Accelerator / Intel Application Accelerator RAID Edition

Note: Mount Points for FCoE and iSCSI Devices

FCoE and iSCSI devices will appear asynchronously during the boot process. While the
initrd guarantees that those devices are set up correctly for the root le system, there
are no such guarantees for any other le systems or mount points like /usr . Hence any
system mount points like /usr or /var are not supported. If you want to use those
devices, ensure correct synchronization of the respective services and devices.

33 Suggested Partitioning openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Important: Handling of Windows Partitions in
Proposals
In case the disk selected for the suggested partitioning proposal contains a large Windows
FAT or NTFS partition, it will automatically be resized to make room for the openSUSE
Leap installation. To avoid data loss it is strongly recommended to

make sure the partition is not fragmented (run a defragmentation program from
Windows prior to the openSUSE Leap installation)

double-check the suggested size for the Windows partition is big enough

back up your data prior to the openSUSE Leap installation

To adjust the proposed size of the Windows partition, use the Expert Partitioner.

FIGURE 2.5: PARTITIONING

34 Suggested Partitioning openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.8 Clock and Time Zone
In this dialog, select your region and time zone. Both are preselected according to the installation
language. To change the preselected values, either use the map or the drop-down boxes for
Region and Time Zone. When using the map, point the cursor at the rough direction of your
region and left-click to zoom. Now choose your country or region by left-clicking. Right-click
to return to the world map.
To set up the clock, choose whether the Hardware Clock is Set to UTC. If you run another operating
system on your machine, such as Microsoft Windows, it is likely your system uses local time
instead. If you only run Linux on your machine, set the hardware clock to UTC and have the
switch from standard time to daylight saving time performed automatically.

Important: Set the Hardware Clock to UTC

The switch from standard time to daylight saving time (and vice versa) can only be per-
formed automatically when the hardware clock (CMOS clock) is set to UTC. This also
applies if you use automatic time synchronization with NTP, because automatic synchro-
nization will only be performed if the time difference between the hardware and system
clock is less than 15 minutes.
Since a wrong system time can cause severe problems (missed backups, dropped mail
messages, mount failures on remote le systems, etc.) it is strongly recommended to
always set the hardware clock to UTC.

35 Clock and Time Zone openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 2.6: CLOCK AND TIME ZONE

If a network is already configured, you can configure time synchronization with an NTP server.
Click Other Settings to either alter the NTP settings or to Manually set the time. See Book “Refer-
ence”, Chapter 18 “Time Synchronization with NTP” for more information on configuring the NTP
service. When finished, click Accept to continue the installation.
If running without NTP configured, consider setting SYSTOHC=no ( sysconfig variable) to avoid
saving unsynchronized time into the hardware clock.

2.9 User Interface

Select the desktop system you would like to use in the User Interface dialog. KDE and GNOME
are among the most widely used desktops on Linux.
If setting up a server, you probably do not need a graphical user interface. Choose Server (Text
Mode) in this case.

36 User Interface openSUSE Leap 42.3

More desktop systems, such as XFCE, LXDE, MATE, and Enlightenment are available after having
enabled the online repositories. Doing so is also recommended if you want to get the latest
security updates and fixes during the installation. A working Internet connection is required.
To install a Custom user interface, choose Configure Online Repositories. You have the following
choices:

The Main Repository (OSS) contains open source software (OSS). Compared to the DVD
installation media, it contains many additional software packages, among them the above
mentioned desktop systems. Choose this repository to install them.

The Main Update Repository contains security updates and fixes for packages from the Main
Repository (OSS) and the DVD installation media. Choosing this repository is recommended
for all installation scenarios.

The Main Repository (Non-OSS) contains packages with a proprietary software license.
Choosing it is not required for installing a custom desktop system.

Choosing Main Update Repository (Non-OSS) is recommended when also having chosen the
Main Repository (Non-OSS). It contains the respective updates and security fixes.

All other repositories are intended for experienced users and developers. Click on a repos-
itory name to get more information.

37 User Interface openSUSE Leap 42.3

Confirm your selection with Next. Depending on your choice, you need to confirm one or more
license agreements. Do so by choosing Next until you return to the User Interface screen. Now
choose Custom and Next, to proceed to the Software Selection and System Task, where you can
choose a custom desktop system from the left-hand pane.

38 User Interface openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.10 Create New User
Create a local user in this step. After entering the rst name and last name, either accept the
proposal or specify a new User name that will be used to log in. Only use lowercase letters (a-
z), digits (0-9) and the characters . (dot), - (hyphen) and _ (underscore). Special characters,
umlauts and accented characters are not allowed.
Finally, enter a password for the user. Re-enter it for confirmation (to ensure that you did not
type something else by mistake). To provide effective security, a password should be at least six
characters long and consist of uppercase and lowercase letters, digits and special characters (7-
bit ASCII). Umlauts or accented characters are not allowed. Passwords you enter are checked
for weakness. When entering a password that is easy to guess (such as a dictionary word or a
name) you will see a warning. It is a good security practice to use strong passwords.

Important: User Name and Password

Remember both your user name and the password because they are needed each time
you log in to the system.

If you install openSUSE Leap on a machine with one or more existing Linux installations, YaST
allows you to import user data such as user names and passwords. Select Import User Data from
a Previous Installation and then Choose Users for import.
In case you do not want to configure any local users, for example when setting up a client on
a network with centralized user authentication, skip this step by choosing Next and confirming
the warning. Network user authentication can be configured at any time later in the installed
system; refer to Chapter 3, Managing Users with YaST for instructions.

39 Create New User openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 2.7: CREATE NEW USER

Two additional options are available:

Use this Password for System Administrator

If checked, the same password you have entered for the user will be used for the system
administrator root . This option is suitable for stand-alone workstations or machines in a
home network that are administrated by a single user. When not checked, you are prompt-
ed for a system administrator password in the next step of the installation workflow (see
Section 2.11, “Password for the System Administrator root”).

Automatic Login
This option automatically logs the current user in to the system when it starts. This is
mainly useful if the computer is operated by only one user.

Warning: Automatic Login

With the automatic login enabled, the system boots straight into your desktop with no
authentication. If you store sensitive data on your system, you should not enable this
option if the computer can also be accessed by others.

40 Create New User openSUSE Leap 42.3

If you install on a system where a previous Linux installation was found, you may Import User
Data from a Previous Installation. Click Choose User for a list of available user accounts. Select
one or more user.
In an environment where users are centrally managed (for example by NIS or LDAP) you may
want to skip the creation of local users. Select Skip User Creation in this case.

2.11 Password for the System Administrator root

If you have not chosen Use this Password for System Administrator in the previous step, you will be
prompted to enter a password for the System Administrator root . Otherwise this configuration
step is skipped.
root is the name of the superuser, or the administrator of the system. Unlike regular users (who
may or may not have permission to access certain areas or execute certain commands on the
system), root has unlimited access to change the system configuration, install programs, and
set up new hardware. If users forget their passwords or have other problems with the system,
root can help. The root account should only be used for system administration, maintenance,
and repair. Logging in as root for daily work is rather risky: a single mistake could lead to
irretrievable loss of system les.
For verification purposes, the password for root must be entered twice. Do not forget the root
password. After having been entered, this password cannot be retrieved.

41 Password for the System Administrator root openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 2.8: PASSWORD FOR THE SYSTEM ADMINISTRATOR root

Tip: Passwords and Keyboard Layout

It is recommended to only use characters that are available on an English keyboard. In
case of a system error or when you need to start your system in rescue mode a localized
keyboard might not be available.

The root password can be changed any time later in the installed system. To do so run YaST
and start Security and Users User and Group Management.

Important: The root User

The user root has all the permissions needed to make changes to the system. To carry
out such tasks, the root password is required. You cannot carry out any administrative
tasks without this password.

42 Password for the System Administrator root openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.12 Installation Settings
On the last step before the real installation takes place, you can alter installation settings sug-
gested by the installer. To modify the suggestions, click the respective headline. After having
made changes to a particular setting, you are always returned to the Installation Settings win-
dow, which is updated accordingly.

FIGURE 2.9: INSTALLATION SETTINGS

2.12.1 Software
openSUSE Leap contains several software patterns for various application purposes. Click Soft-
ware to open the Software Selection and System Tasks screen where you can modify the pattern
selection according to your needs. Select a pattern from the list and see a description in the right-
hand part of the window. Each pattern contains several software packages needed for specific
functions (for example Multimedia or Office software). For a more detailed selection based on
software packages to install, select Details to switch to the YaST Software Manager.
You can also install additional software packages or remove software packages from your system
at any later time with the YaST Software Manager. For more information, refer to Chapter 9,
Installing or Removing Software.

43 Installation Settings openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 2.10: SOFTWARE SELECTION AND SYSTEM TASKS

Tip: Adding Secondary Languages

The language you selected with the rst step of the installation will be used as the primary
(default) language for the system. You can add secondary languages from within the
Software dialog by choosing Details View Languages.

2.12.2 Booting
The installer proposes a boot configuration for your system. Other operating systems found on
your computer, such as Microsoft Windows or other Linux installations, will automatically be
detected and added to the boot loader. However, openSUSE Leap will be booted by default.
Normally, you can leave these settings unchanged. If you need a custom setup, modify the
proposal according to your needs. For information, see Book “Reference”, Chapter 12 “The Boot
Loader GRUB 2”, Section 12.3 “Configuring the Boot Loader with YaST”.

44 Booting openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Important: Software RAID 1
Booting a configuration where /boot resides on a software RAID 1 device is supported,
but it requires to install the boot loader into the MBR (Boot Loader Location Boot from
Master Boot Record). Having /boot on software RAID devices with a level other than
RAID 1 is not supported.

2.12.3 Firewall and SSH

By default SuSEFirewall2 is enabled on all configured network interfaces. To globally disable
the firewall for this computer, click Disable (not recommended).

Note: Firewall Settings

If the firewall is activated, all interfaces are configured to be in the “External Zone”, where
all ports are closed by default, ensuring maximum security. The only port you can open
during the installation is port 22 (SSH), to allow remote access. All other services requir-
ing network access (such as FTP, Samba, Web server, etc.) will only work after having
adjusted the firewall settings. Refer to Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 15 “Masquerading and
Firewalls” for more information.

To enable remote access via the secure shell (SSH), make sure the SSH service is enabled and
the SSH port is open.

Tip: Existing SSH Host Keys

If you install openSUSE Leap on a machine with one or more existing Linux installations,
the installation routine imports the SSH host key with the most recent access time from
an existing installation by default.

In case you are performing a remote administration over VNC, you can also configure whether
the machine should be accessible via VNC even after the installation. Note that enabling VNC
also requires you to set the Default systemd Target to graphical.

45 Firewall and SSH openSUSE Leap 42.3

2.12.4 Default systemd Target
openSUSE Leap can boot into two different targets (formerly known as “runlevels”). The graph-
ical target starts a display manager, whereas the multi-user target starts the command line in-
terface.
The default target is graphical. In case you have not installed the X Window System patterns,
you need to change it to multi-user. If the system should be accessible via VNC, you need to
choose graphical.

2.12.5 System
This screen lists all the hardware information the installer could obtain about your computer.
When opened for the rst time, the hardware detection is started. Depending on your system,
this may take some time. Select any item in the list and click Details to see detailed information
about the selected item. Use Save to File to save a detailed list to either the local le system
or a removable device.
Advanced users can also change the PCI ID Setup and kernel settings by choosing Kernel Settings.
A screen with two tabs opens:

PCI ID Setup
Each kernel driver contains a list of device IDs of all devices it supports. If a new device
is not in any driver's database, the device is treated as unsupported, even if it can be used
with an existing driver. You can add PCI IDs to a device driver here. Only advanced users
should attempt to do so.
To add an ID, click Add and select whether to Manually enter the data, or whether to choose
from a list. Enter the required data. The SysFS Dir is the directory name from /sys/bus/
pci/drivers —if empty, the driver name is used as the directory name. Existing entries
can be managed with Edit and Delete.

Kernel Settings
Change the Global I/O Scheduler here. If Not Configured is chosen, the default setting for the
respective architecture will be used. This setting can also be changed at any time later from
the installed system. Refer to Book “System Analysis and Tuning Guide”, Chapter 12 “Tuning I/
O Performance” for details on I/O tuning.

46 Default systemd Target openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Also activate the Enable SysRq Keys here. These keys will let you issue basic commands
(such as rebooting the system or writing kernel dumps) in case the system crashes. En-
abling these keys is recommended when doing kernel development. Refer to https://www.k-
ernel.org/doc/html/latest/admin-guide/sysrq.html for details.

2.13 Performing the Installation

After configuring all installation settings, click Install in the Installation Settings window to start
the installation. Some software may require a license confirmation. If your software selection
includes such software, license confirmation dialogs are displayed. Click Accept to install the
software package. When not agreeing to the license, click I Disagree and the software package
will not be installed. In the dialog that follows, confirm with Install again.
The installation usually takes between 15 and 30 minutes, depending on the system performance
and the selected software scope. After having prepared the hard disk and having saved and
restored the user settings, the software installation starts. During this procedure a slide show
introduces the features of openSUSE Leap. Choose Details to switch to the installation log or
Release Notes to read important up-to-date information that was not available when the manuals
were printed.
After the software installation has completed, the system reboots into the new installation where
you can log in. To customize the system configuration or to install additional software packages,
start YaST.

47 Performing the Installation openSUSE Leap 42.3

II Administration

3 Managing Users with YaST 49

4 Changing Language and Country Settings with YaST 63

5 Setting Up Hardware Components with YaST 70

6 Printer Operation 82

7 The X Window System 96

8 Accessing File Systems with FUSE 109

3 Managing Users with YaST

During installation, you could have created a local user for your system. With the YaST module
User and Group Management you can add more users or edit existing ones. It also lets you con-
figure your system to authenticate users with a network server.

3.1 User and Group Administration Dialog

To administer users or groups, start YaST and click Security and Users User and Group Man-
agement. Alternatively, start the User and Group Administration dialog directly by running sudo
yast2 users & from a command line.

FIGURE 3.1: YAST USER AND GROUP ADMINISTRATION

Every user is assigned a system-wide user ID (UID). Apart from the users which can log in to
your machine, there are also several system users for internal use only. Each user is assigned to
one or more groups. Similar to system users, there are also system groups for internal use.

49 User and Group Administration Dialog openSUSE Leap 42.3

Depending on the set of users you choose to view and modify with, the dialog (local users,
network users, system users), the main window shows several tabs. These allow you to execute
the following tasks:

Managing User Accounts

From the Users tab create, modify, delete or temporarily disable user accounts as described
in Section 3.2, “Managing User Accounts”. Learn about advanced options like enforcing pass-
word policies, using encrypted home directories, or managing disk quotas in Section 3.3,
“Additional Options for User Accounts”.

Changing Default Settings

Local users accounts are created according to the settings defined on the Defaults for New
Users tab. Learn how to change the default group assignment, or the default path and access
permissions for home directories in Section 3.4, “Changing Default Settings for Local Users”.

Assigning Users to Groups

Learn how to change the group assignment for individual users in Section 3.5, “Assigning
Users to Groups”.

Managing Groups
From the Groups tab, you can add, modify or delete existing groups. Refer to Section 3.6,
“Managing Groups” for information on how to do this.

Changing the User Authentication Method

When your machine is connected to a network that provides user authentication methods
like NIS or LDAP, you can choose between several authentication methods on the Authen-
tication Settings tab. For more information, refer to Section 3.7, “Changing the User Authenti-
cation Method”.

For user and group management, the dialog provides similar functionality. You can easily switch
between the user and group administration view by choosing the appropriate tab at the top of
the dialog.
Filter options allow you to define the set of users or groups you want to modify: On the Users or
Group tab, click Set Filter to view and edit users or groups according to certain categories, such
as Local Users or LDAP Users, for example (if you are part of a network which uses LDAP). With
Set Filter Customize Filter you can also set up and use a custom filter.
Depending on the filter you choose, not all of the following options and functions will be avail-
able from the dialog.

50 User and Group Administration Dialog openSUSE Leap 42.3

3.2 Managing User Accounts
YaST offers to create, modify, delete or temporarily disable user accounts. Do not modify user
accounts unless you are an experienced user or administrator.

Note: Changing User IDs of Existing Users

File ownership is bound to the user ID, not to the user name. After a user ID change,
the les in the user's home directory are automatically adjusted to reflect this change.
However, after an ID change, the user no longer owns the les he created elsewhere in
the le system unless the le ownership for those les are manually modified.

In the following, learn how to set up default user accounts. For some further options, such as
auto login, login without password, setting up encrypted home directories or managing quotas
for users and groups, refer to Section 3.3, “Additional Options for User Accounts”.

PROCEDURE 3.1: ADDING OR MODIFYING USER ACCOUNTS

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog and click the Users tab.

2. With Set Filter define the set of users you want to manage. The dialog lists users in the
system and the groups the users belong to.

3. To modify options for an existing user, select an entry and click Edit.
To create a new user account, click Add.

4. Enter the appropriate user data on the rst tab, such as Username (which is used for login)
and Password. This data is sufficient to create a new user. If you click OK now, the system
will automatically assign a user ID and set all other values according to the default.

5. Activate Receive System Mail if you want any kind of system notifications to be delivered
to this user's mailbox. This creates a mail alias for root and the user can read the system
mail without having to rst log in as root .
The mails sent by system services are stored in the local mailbox /var/spool/
mail/ USERNAME , where USERNAME is the login name of the selected user. To read e-mails,
you can use the mail command.

6. If you want to adjust further details such as the user ID or the path to the user's home
directory, do so on the Details tab.

51 Managing User Accounts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 If you need to relocate the home directory of an existing user, enter the path to the new
home directory there and move the contents of the current home directory with Move to
New Location. Otherwise, a new home directory is created without any of the existing data.

7. To force users to regularly change their password or set other password options, switch to
Password Settings and adjust the options. For more details, refer to Section 3.3.2, “Enforcing
Password Policies”.

8. If all options are set according to your wishes, click OK.

9. Click OK to close the administration dialog and to save the changes. A newly added user
can now log in to the system using the login name and password you created.
Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

Tip: Matching User IDs

For a new (local) user on a laptop which also needs to integrate into a network environ-
ment where this user already has a user ID, it is useful to match the (local) user ID to
the ID in the network. This ensures that the le ownership of the les the user creates
“offline” is the same as if he had created them directly on the network.

PROCEDURE 3.2: DISABLING OR DELETING USER ACCOUNTS

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog and click the Users tab.

2. To temporarily disable a user account without deleting it, select the user from the list and
click Edit. Activate Disable User Login. The user cannot log in to your machine until you
enable the account again.

3. To delete a user account, select the user from the list and click Delete. Choose if you also
want to delete the user's home directory or if you want to retain the data.

3.3 Additional Options for User Accounts

In addition to the settings for a default user account, openSUSE® Leap offers further options,
such as options to enforce password policies, use encrypted home directories or define disk
quotas for users and groups.

52 Additional Options for User Accounts openSUSE Leap 42.3

3.3.1 Automatic Login and Passwordless Login
If you use the GNOME desktop environment you can configure Auto Login for a certain user
and Passwordless Login for all users. Auto login causes a user to become automatically logged in
to the desktop environment on boot. This functionality can only be activated for one user at a
time. Login without password allows all users to log in to the system after they have entered
their user name in the login manager.

Warning: Security Risk

Enabling Auto Login or Passwordless Login on a machine that can be accessed by more
than one person is a security risk. Without the need to authenticate, any user can gain
access to your system and your data. If your system contains confidential data, do not
use this functionality.

If you want to activate auto login or login without password, access these functions in the YaST
User and Group Administration with Expert Options Login Settings.

3.3.2 Enforcing Password Policies

On any system with multiple users, it is a good idea to enforce at least basic password security
policies. Users should change their passwords regularly and use strong passwords that cannot
easily be exploited. For local users, proceed as follows:

PROCEDURE 3.3: CONFIGURING PASSWORD SETTINGS

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog and select the Users tab.

2. Select the user for which to change the password options and click Edit.

3. Switch to the Password Settings tab. The user's last password change is displayed on the tab.

4. To make the user change his password at next login, activate Force Password Change.

5. To enforce password rotation, set a Maximum Number of Days for the Same Password and
a Minimum Number of Days for the Same Password.

6. To remind the user to change his password before it expires, set the number of Days before
Password Expiration to Issue Warning.

53 Automatic Login and Passwordless Login openSUSE Leap 42.3

 7. To restrict the period of time the user can log in after his password has expired, change
the value in Days after Password Expires with Usable Login.

8. You can also specify a certain expiration date for the complete account. Enter the Expira-
tion Date in YYYY-MM-DD format. Note that this setting is not password-related but rather
applies to the account itself.

9. For more information about the options and about the default values, click Help.

10. Apply your changes with OK.

3.3.3 Managing Encrypted Home Directories

To protect data in home directories against theft and hard disk removal, you can create encrypted
home directories for users. These are encrypted with LUKS (Linux Unified Key Setup), which
results in an image and an image key being generated for the user. The image key is protected
with the user's login password. When the user logs in to the system, the encrypted home directory
is mounted and the contents are made available to the user.
With YaST, you can create encrypted home directories for new or existing users. To encrypt
or modify encrypted home directories of already existing users, you need to know the user's
current login password. By default, all existing user data is copied to the new encrypted home
directory, but it is not deleted from the unencrypted directory.

Warning: Security Restrictions

Encrypting a user's home directory does not provide strong security from other users. If
strong security is required, the system should not be physically shared.

Find background information about encrypted home directories and which actions to take for
stronger security in Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 11 “Encrypting Partitions and Files”, Section 11.2
“Using Encrypted Home Directories”.

PROCEDURE 3.4: CREATING ENCRYPTED HOME DIRECTORIES

1. Open the YaST User and Group Management dialog and click the Users tab.

2. To encrypt the home directory of an existing user, select the user and click Edit.
Otherwise, click Add to create a new user account and enter the appropriate user data
on the rst tab.

54 Managing Encrypted Home Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3

 3. In the Details tab, activate Use Encrypted Home Directory. With Directory Size in MB, specify
the size of the encrypted image le to be created for this user.

4. Apply your settings with OK.

5. Enter the user's current login password to proceed if YaST prompts for it.

6. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes.

Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

PROCEDURE 3.5: MODIFYING OR DISABLING ENCRYPTED HOME DIRECTORIES

Of course, you can also disable the encryption of a home directory or change the size of
the image le at any time.

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog in the Users view.

2. Select a user from the list and click Edit.

3. If you want to disable the encryption, switch to the Details tab and disable Use Encrypted
Home Directory.

55 Managing Encrypted Home Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3

 If you need to enlarge or reduce the size of the encrypted image le for this user, change
the Directory Size in MB.

4. Apply your settings with OK.

5. Enter the user's current login password to proceed if YaST prompts for it.

6. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes.

Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

3.3.4 Managing Quotas

To prevent system capacities from being exhausted without notification, system administrators
can set up quotas for users or groups. Quotas can be defined for one or more le systems and
restrict the amount of disk space that can be used and the number of inodes (index nodes) that
can be created there. Inodes are data structures on a le system that store basic information
about a regular le, directory, or other le system object. They store all attributes of a le
system object (like user and group ownership, read, write, or execute permissions), except le
name and contents.
openSUSE Leap allows usage of soft and hard quotas. Additionally, grace intervals can be
defined that allow users or groups to temporarily violate their quotas by certain amounts.

Soft Quota
Defines a warning level at which users are informed that they are nearing their limit.
Administrators will urge the users to clean up and reduce their data on the partition. The
soft quota limit is usually lower than the hard quota limit.

Hard Quota
Defines the limit at which write requests are denied. When the hard quota is reached, no
more data can be stored and applications may crash.

Grace Period
Defines the time between the overflow of the soft quota and a warning being issued. Usually
set to a rather low value of one or several hours.

PROCEDURE 3.6: ENABLING QUOTA SUPPORT FOR A PARTITION

To configure quotas for certain users and groups, you need to enable quota support for
the respective partition in the YaST Expert Partitioner rst.

56 Managing Quotas openSUSE Leap 42.3

 1. In YaST, select System Partitioner and click Yes to proceed.

2. In the Expert Partitioner, select the partition for which to enable quotas and click Edit.

3. Click Fstab Options and activate Enable Quota Support. If the quota package is not already
installed, it will be installed once you confirm the respective message with Yes.

4. Confirm your changes and leave the Expert Partitioner.

5. Make sure the service quotaon is running by entering the following command:

systemctl status quotaon

It should be marked as being active . If this is not the case, start it with the command
systemctl start quotaon .

PROCEDURE 3.7: SETTING UP QUOTAS FOR USERS OR GROUPS

Now you can define soft or hard quotas for specific users or groups and set time periods
as grace intervals.

1. In the YaST User and Group Administration, select the user or the group you want to set
the quotas for and click Edit.

2. On the Plug-Ins tab, select the Manage User Quota entry and click Launch to open the Quota
Configuration dialog.

3. From File System, select the partition to which the quota should apply.

4. Below Size Limits, restrict the amount of disk space. Enter the number of 1 KB blocks the
user or group may have on this partition. Specify a Soft Limit and a Hard Limit value.

5. Additionally, you can restrict the number of inodes the user or group may have on the
partition. Below Inodes Limits, enter a Soft Limit and Hard Limit.

6. You can only define grace intervals if the user or group has already exceeded the soft
limit specified for size or inodes. Otherwise, the time-related text boxes are not activated.
Specify the time period for which the user or group is allowed to exceed the limits set
above.

7. Confirm your settings with OK.

8. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes.

Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

57 Managing Quotas openSUSE Leap 42.3

openSUSE Leap also ships command line tools like repquota or warnquota with which system
administrators can control the disk usage or send e-mail notifications to users exceeding their
quota. With quota_nld , administrators can also forward kernel messages about exceeded quo-
tas to D-BUS. For more information, refer to the repquota , the warnquota and the quota_nld
man page.

3.4 Changing Default Settings for Local Users

When creating new local users, several default settings are used by YaST. These include, for ex-
ample, the primary group and the secondary groups the user belongs to, or the access permissions
of the user's home directory. You can change these default settings to meet your requirements:

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog and select the Defaults for New Users
tab.

2. To change the primary group the new users should automatically belong to, select another
group from Default Group.

3. To modify the secondary groups for new users, add or change groups in Secondary Groups.
The group names must be separated by commas.

4. If you do not want to use /home/USERNAME as default path for new users' home directories,
modify the Path Prefix for Home Directory.

5. To change the default permission modes for newly created home directories, adjust the
umask value in Umask for Home Directory. For more information about umask, refer to
Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 10 “Access Control Lists in Linux” and to the umask man page.

6. For information about the individual options, click Help.

7. Apply your changes with OK.

3.5 Assigning Users to Groups

Local users are assigned to several groups according to the default settings which you can access
from the User and Group Administration dialog on the Defaults for New Users tab. In the following,
learn how to modify an individual user's group assignment. If you need to change the default
group assignments for new users, refer to Section 3.4, “Changing Default Settings for Local Users”.

58 Changing Default Settings for Local Users openSUSE Leap 42.3

PROCEDURE 3.8: CHANGING A USER'S GROUP ASSIGNMENT

1. Open the YaST User and Group Administration dialog and click the Users tab. It lists users
and the groups the users belong to.

2. Click Edit and switch to the Details tab.

3. To change the primary group the user belongs to, click Default Group and select the group
from the list.

4. To assign the user additional secondary groups, activate the corresponding check boxes
in the Additional Groups list.

5. Click OK to apply your changes.

6. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes.

Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

3.6 Managing Groups

With YaST you can also easily add, modify or delete groups.

PROCEDURE 3.9: CREATING AND MODIFYING GROUPS

1. Open the YaST User and Group Management dialog and click the Groups tab.

2. With Set Filter define the set of groups you want to manage. The dialog lists groups in
the system.

3. To create a new group, click Add.

4. To modify an existing group, select the group and click Edit.

5. In the following dialog, enter or change the data. The list on the right shows an overview
of all available users and system users which can be members of the group.

59 Managing Groups openSUSE Leap 42.3

 6. To add existing users to a new group select them from the list of possible Group Members
by checking the corresponding box. To remove them from the group deactivate the box.

7. Click OK to apply your changes.

8. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes.

Alternatively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Admin-
istration dialog, click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

To delete a group, it must not contain any group members. To delete a group, select it from the
list and click Delete. Click OK to close the administration dialog and save the changes. Alterna-
tively, if you want to save all changes without exiting the User and Group Administration dialog,
click Expert Options Write Changes Now.

3.7 Changing the User Authentication Method

When your machine is connected to a network, you can change the authentication method. The
following options are available:

NIS

60 Changing the User Authentication Method openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Users are administered centrally on a NIS server for all systems in the network. For details,
see Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 3 “Using NIS”.

LDAP
Users are administered centrally on an LDAP server for all systems in the network. For
details about LDAP, see Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 5 “LDAP—A Directory Service”.
You can manage LDAP users with the YaST user module. All other LDAP settings, including
the default settings for LDAP users, need to be defined with the YaST LDAP client module
as described in Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 4 “Setting Up Authentication Servers and Clients
Using YaST”, Section 4.2 “Configuring an Authentication Client with YaST”.

Kerberos
With Kerberos, a user registers once and then is trusted in the entire network for the rest
of the session.

Samba
SMB authentication is often used in mixed Linux and Windows networks. For details, see
Book “Reference”, Chapter 21 “Samba” and Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 7 “Active Directory
Support”.

To change the authentication method, proceed as follows:

1. Open the User and Group Administration dialog in YaST.

2. Click the Authentication Settings tab to show an overview of the available authentication
methods and the current settings.

3. To change the authentication method, click Configure and select the authentication method
you want to modify. This takes you directly to the client configuration modules in YaST.
For information about the configuration of the appropriate client, refer to the following
sections:

NIS: Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 3 “Using NIS”, Section 3.2 “Configuring NIS Clients”

LDAP: Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 4 “Setting Up Authentication Servers and Clients Using
YaST”, Section 4.2 “Configuring an Authentication Client with YaST”

Samba: Book “Reference”, Chapter 21 “Samba”, Section 21.5.1 “Configuring a Samba Client with
YaST”

4. After accepting the configuration, return to the User and Group Administration overview.

61 Changing the User Authentication Method openSUSE Leap 42.3

 5. Click OK to close the administration dialog.

62 Changing the User Authentication Method openSUSE Leap 42.3

4 Changing Language and Country Settings with YaST
Working in different countries or having to work in a multilingual environment requires your
computer to be set up to support this. openSUSE® Leap can handle different locales in parallel.
A locale is a set of parameters that defines the language and country settings reflected in the
user interface.
The main system language was selected during installation and keyboard and time zone settings
were adjusted. However, you can install additional languages on your system and determine
which of the installed languages should be the default.
For those tasks, use the YaST language module as described in Section 4.1, “Changing the System
Language”. Install secondary languages to get optional localization if you need to start applica-
tions or desktops in languages other than the primary one.
Apart from that, the YaST timezone module allows you to adjust your country and timezone
settings accordingly. It also lets you synchronize your system clock against a time server. For
details, refer to Section 4.2, “Changing the Country and Time Settings”.

4.1 Changing the System Language

Depending on how you use your desktop and whether you want to switch the entire system to
another language or only the desktop environment itself, there are several ways to achieve this:

Changing the System Language Globally

Proceed as described in Section 4.1.1, “Modifying System Languages with YaST” and Section 4.1.2,
“Switching the Default System Language” to install additional localized packages with YaST
and to set the default language. Changes are effective after the next login. To ensure that
the entire system reflects the change, reboot the system or close and restart all running
services, applications, and programs.

Changing the Language for the Desktop Only

Provided you have previously installed the desired language packages for your desktop
environment with YaST as described below, you can switch the language of your desktop
using the desktop's control center. Refer to Book “GNOME User Guide”, Chapter 3 “Customizing
Your Settings”, Section 3.2.2 “Configuring Language Settings” for details. After the X server has
been restarted, your entire desktop reflects your new choice of language. Applications not
belonging to your desktop framework are not affected by this change and may still appear
in the language that was set in YaST.

63 Changing the System Language openSUSE Leap 42.3

Temporarily Switching Languages for One Application Only
You can also run a single application in another language (that has already been installed
with YaST). To do so, start it from the command line by specifying the language code as
described in Section 4.1.3, “Switching Languages for Standard X and GNOME Applications”.

4.1.1 Modifying System Languages with YaST

YaST knows two different language categories:

Primary Language
The primary language set in YaST applies to the entire system, including YaST and the
desktop environment. This language is used whenever available unless you manually spec-
ify another language.

Secondary Languages
Install secondary languages to make your system multilingual. Languages installed as sec-
ondary languages can be selected manually for a specific situation. For example, use a
secondary language to start an application in a certain language to do word processing
in this language.

Before installing additional languages, determine which of them should be the default system
language (primary language).
To access the YaST language module, start YaST and click System Language. Alternatively, start
the Languages dialog directly by running sudo yast2 language & from a command line.

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PROCEDURE 4.1: INSTALLING ADDITIONAL LANGUAGES

When installing additional languages, YaST also allows you to set different locale settings
for the user root , see Step 4. The option Locale Settings for User root determines how the
locale variables ( LC_* ) in the le /etc/sysconfig/language are set for root . You can
either set them to the same locale as for normal users, keep it unaffected by any language
changes or only set the variable RC_LC_CTYPE to the same values as for the normal users.
This variable sets the localization for language-specific function calls.

1. To add additional languages in the YaST language module, select the Secondary Languages
you want to install.

2. To make a language the default language, set it as Primary Language.

3. Additionally, adapt the keyboard to the new primary language and adjust the time zone,
if appropriate.

Tip: Advanced Settings

For advanced keyboard or time zone settings, select Hardware System Keyboard
Layout or System Date and Time in YaST to start the respective dialogs. For more in-
formation, refer to Section 5.1, “Setting Up Your System Keyboard Layout” and Section 4.2,
“Changing the Country and Time Settings”.

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 4. To change language settings specific to the user root , click Details.

a. Set Locale Settings for User root to the desired value. For more information, click Help.

b. Decide if you want to Use UTF-8 Encoding for root or not.

5. If your locale was not included in the list of primary languages available, try specifying it
with Detailed Locale Setting. However, some localization may be incomplete.

6. Confirm your changes in the dialogs with OK. If you have selected secondary languages,
YaST installs the localized software packages for the additional languages.

The system is now multilingual. However, to start an application in a language other than the
primary one, you need to set the desired language explicitly as explained in Section 4.1.3, “Switch-
ing Languages for Standard X and GNOME Applications”.

4.1.2 Switching the Default System Language

1. To globally switch the default system language, start the YaST language module.

2. Select the desired new system language as Primary Language.

Important: Deleting Former System Languages

If you switch to a different primary language, the localized software packages for
the former primary language will be removed from the system. To switch the default
system language but keep the former primary language as additional language, add
it as Secondary Language by enabling the respective check box.

3. Adjust the keyboard and time zone options as desired.

4. Confirm your changes with OK.

5. After YaST has applied the changes, restart any X sessions (for example, by logging out and
logging in again) to make YaST and the desktop applications reflect your new language
settings.

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4.1.3 Switching Languages for Standard X and GNOME
Applications
After you have installed the respective language with YaST, you can run a single application
in another language.
Start the application from the command line by using the following command:

LANG=LANGUAGE application

For example, to start f-spot in German, run LANG=de_DE f-spot . For other languages, use the
appropriate language code. Get a list of all language codes available with the locale -av
command.

4.2 Changing the Country and Time Settings

Using the YaST date and time module, adjust your system date, clock and time zone information
to the area you are working in. To access the YaST module, start YaST and click System Date
and Time. Alternatively, start the Clock and Time Zone dialog directly by running sudo yast2
timezone & from a command line.

First, select a general region, such as Europe. Choose an appropriate country that matches the
one you are working in, for example, Germany.

67 Switching Languages for Standard X and GNOME Applications openSUSE Leap 42.3
Depending on which operating systems run on your workstation, adjust the hardware clock
settings accordingly:

If you run another operating system on your machine, such as Microsoft Windows*, it is
likely your system does not use UTC, but local time. In this case, deactivate Hardware Clock
Set To UTC.

If you only run Linux on your machine, set the hardware clock to UTC and have the switch
from standard time to daylight saving time performed automatically.

Important: Set the Hardware Clock to UTC

The switch from standard time to daylight saving time (and vice versa) can only be per-
formed automatically when the hardware clock (CMOS clock) is set to UTC. This also
applies if you use automatic time synchronization with NTP, because automatic synchro-
nization will only be performed if the time difference between the hardware and system
clock is less than 15 minutes.
Since a wrong system time can cause severe problems (missed backups, dropped mail
messages, mount failures on remote le systems, etc.) it is strongly recommended to
always set the hardware clock to UTC.

You can change the date and time manually or opt for synchronizing your machine against an
NTP server, either permanently or only for adjusting your hardware clock.

PROCEDURE 4.2: MANUALLY ADJUSTING TIME AND DATE

1. In the YaST timezone module, click Other Settings to set date and time.

2. Select Manually and enter date and time values.

3. Confirm your changes.

PROCEDURE 4.3: SETTING DATE AND TIME WITH NTP SERVER

1. Click Other Settings to set date and time.

2. Select Synchronize with NTP Server.

3. Enter the address of an NTP server, if not already populated.

68 Changing the Country and Time Settings openSUSE Leap 42.3

 4. Click Synchronize Now to get your system time set correctly.

5. To use NTP permanently, enable Save NTP Configuration.

6. With the Configure button, you can open the advanced NTP configuration. For details, see
Book “Reference”, Chapter 18 “Time Synchronization with NTP”, Section 18.1 “Configuring an NTP
Client with YaST”.

7. Confirm your changes.

69 Changing the Country and Time Settings openSUSE Leap 42.3

5 Setting Up Hardware Components with YaST

YaST allows you to configure hardware items such as audio hardware, your system
keyboard layout or printers.

Note: Graphics Card, Monitor, Mouse and

Keyboard Settings
Graphics card, monitor, mouse and keyboard can be configured with GNOME tools. See
Book “GNOME User Guide”, Chapter 3 “Customizing Your Settings”, Section 3.3 “Hardware” for
details.

5.1 Setting Up Your System Keyboard Layout

The YaST System Keyboard Layout module lets you define the default keyboard layout for the
system (also used for the console). Users can modify the keyboard layout in their individual X
sessions, using the desktop's tools.

1. Start the YaST System Keyboard Configuration dialog by clicking Hardware System Key-
board Layout in YaST. Alternatively, start the module from the command line with sudo
yast2 keyboard .

2. Select the desired Keyboard Layout from the list.

3. Optionally, you can also define the keyboard repeat rate or keyboard delay rate in the
Expert Settings.

4. Try the selected settings in the Test text box.

5. If the result is as expected, confirm your changes and close the dialog. The settings are
written to /etc/sysconfig/keyboard .

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5.2 Setting Up Sound Cards
YaST detects most sound cards automatically and configures them with the appropriate values.
If you want to change the default settings, or need to set up a sound card that could not be
configured automatically, use the YaST sound module. There, you can also set up additional
sound cards or switch their order.
To start the sound module, start YaST and click Hardware Sound. Alternatively, start the Sound
Configuration dialog directly by running yast2 sound & as user root from a command line.

The dialog shows all sound cards that were detected.

PROCEDURE 5.1: CONFIGURING SOUND CARDS

If you have added a new sound card or YaST could not automatically configure an ex-
isting sound card, follow the steps below. For configuring a new sound card, you need
to know your sound card vendor and model. If in doubt, refer to your sound card doc-
umentation for the required information. For a reference list of sound cards supported
by ALSA with their corresponding sound modules, see http://www.alsa-project.org/main/
index.php/Matrix:Main .

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 During configuration, you can choose between the following setup options:

Quick Automatic Setup

You are not required to go through any of the further configuration steps—the sound
card is configured automatically. You can set the volume or any options you want
to change later.

Normal Setup
Allows you to adjust the output volume and play a test sound during the configu-
ration.

Advanced setup with possibility to change options

For experts only. Allows you to customize all parameters of the sound card.

Important: Advanced Configuration

Only use this option if you know exactly what you are doing. Otherwise leave
the parameters untouched and use the normal or the automatic setup options.

1. Start the YaST sound module.

2. To configure a detected, but Not Configured sound card, select the respective entry from
the list and click Edit.
To configure a new sound card, click Add. Select your sound card vendor and model and
click Next.

3. Choose one of the setup options and click Next.

4. If you have chosen Normal Setup, you can now Test your sound configuration and make
adjustments to the volume. You should start at about ten percent volume to avoid damage
to your hearing or the speakers.

5. If all options are set according to your wishes, click Next.

The Sound Configuration dialog shows the newly configured or modified sound card.

6. To remove a sound card configuration that you no longer need, select the respective entry
and click Delete.

7. Click OK to save the changes and leave the YaST sound module.

72 Setting Up Sound Cards openSUSE Leap 42.3

PROCEDURE 5.2: MODIFYING SOUND CARD CONFIGURATIONS

1. To change the configuration of an individual sound card (for experts only!), select the
sound card entry in the Sound Configuration dialog and click Edit.
This takes you to the Sound Card Advanced Options where you can ne-tune several para-
meters. For more information, click Help.

2. To adjust the volume of an already configured sound card or to test the sound card, select
the sound card entry in the Sound Configuration dialog and click Other. Select the respective
menu item.

Note: YaST Mixer

The YaST mixer settings provide only basic options. They are intended for trou-
bleshooting (for example, if the test sound is not audible). Access the YaST mixer
settings from Other Volume. For everyday use and ne-tuning of sound options, use
the mixer applet provided by your desktop or the alsasound command line tool.

3. For playback of MIDI les, select Other Start Sequencer.

4. When a supported sound card is detected (like a Creative Soundblaster Live , Audigy
or AWE sound card), you can also install SoundFonts for playback of MIDI les:

a. Insert the original driver CD-ROM into your CD or DVD drive.

b. Select Other Install SoundFonts to copy SF2 SoundFonts™ to your hard disk. The
SoundFonts are saved in the directory /usr/share/sfbank/creative/ .

5. If you have configured more than one sound card in your system you can adjust the order
of your sound cards. To set a sound card as primary device, select the sound card in the
Sound Configuration and click Other Set as the Primary Card. The sound device with index
0 is the default device and thus used by the system and the applications.

6. By default, openSUSE Leap uses the PulseAudio sound system. It is an abstraction layer that
helps to mix multiple audio streams, bypassing any restrictions the hardware may have.
To enable or disable the PulseAudio sound system, click Other PulseAudio Configuration.
If enabled, PulseAudio daemon is used to play sounds. Disable PulseAudio Support to use
something else system-wide.

73 Setting Up Sound Cards openSUSE Leap 42.3

The volume and configuration of all sound cards are saved when you click OK and leave the
YaST sound module. The mixer settings are saved to the le /etc/asound.state . The ALSA
configuration data is appended to the end of the le /etc/modprobe.d/sound and written to
/etc/sysconfig/sound .

5.3 Setting Up a Printer

YaST can be used to configure a local printer that is directly connected to your machine via USB
and to set up printing with network printers. It is also possible to share printers over the network.
Further information about printing (general information, technical details, and troubleshooting)
is available in Chapter 6, Printer Operation.
In YaST, click Hardware Printer to start the printer module. By default it opens in the Printer
Configurations view, displaying a list of all printers that are available and configured. This is
especially useful when having access to a lot of printers via the network. From here you can
also Print a Test Page and configure printers.

Note: Starting CUPS

To be able to print from your system, CUPS must run. In case it is not running, you are
asked to start it. Answer with Yes, or you cannot configure printing. In case CUPS is not
started at boot time, you will also be asked to enable this feature. It is recommended to
say Yes, otherwise CUPS would need to be started manually after each reboot.

5.3.1 Configuring Printers

Usually a USB printer is automatically detected. There are two possible reasons it is not auto-
matically detected:

The USB printer is switched o.

The communication between printer and computer is not possible. Check the cable and the
plugs to make sure that the printer is properly connected. If this is the case, the problem
may not be printer-related, but rather a USB-related problem.

Configuring a printer is a three-step process: specify the connection type, choose a driver, and
name the print queue for this setup.

74 Setting Up a Printer openSUSE Leap 42.3

For many printer models, several drivers are available. When configuring the printer, YaST
defaults to those marked recommended as a general rule. Normally it is not necessary to change
the driver. However, if you want a color printer to print only in black and white, it is most
convenient to use a driver that does not support color printing, for example. If you experience
performance problems with a PostScript printer when printing graphics, it may help to switch
from a PostScript driver to a PCL driver (provided your printer understands PCL).
If no driver for your printer is listed, try to select a generic driver with an appropriate standard
language from the list. Refer to your printer's documentation to nd out which language (the
set of commands controlling the printer) your printer understands. If this does not work, refer
to Section 5.3.1.1, “Adding Drivers with YaST” for another possible solution.
A printer is never used directly, but always through a print queue. This ensures that simultaneous
jobs can be queued and processed one after the other. Each print queue is assigned to a specific
driver, and a printer can have multiple queues. This makes it possible to set up a second queue
on a color printer that prints black and white only, for example. Refer to Section 6.1, “The CUPS
Workflow” for more information about print queues.

PROCEDURE 5.3: ADDING A NEW PRINTER

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. In the Printer Configurations screen click Add.

3. If your printer is already listed under Specify the Connection , proceed with the next
step. Otherwise, try to Detect More or start the Connection Wizard.

4. In the text box under Find and Assign a Driver enter the vendor name and the model
name and click Search for.

5. Choose a driver that matches your printer. It is recommended to choose the driver listed
rst. If no suitable driver is displayed:

a. Check your search term

b. Broaden your search by clicking Find More

c. Add a driver as described in Section 5.3.1.1, “Adding Drivers with YaST”

6. Specify the Default paper size .

7. In the Set Arbitrary Name eld, enter a unique name for the print queue.

75 Configuring Printers openSUSE Leap 42.3

 8. The printer is now configured with the default settings and ready to use. Click OK to return
to the Printer Configurations view. The newly configured printer is now visible in the list
of printers.

5.3.1.1 Adding Drivers with YaST

Not all printer drivers available for openSUSE Leap are installed by default. If no suitable driver
is available in the Find and Assign a Driver dialog when adding a new printer install a driver
package containing drivers for your printers:

PROCEDURE 5.4: INSTALLING ADDITIONAL DRIVER PACKAGES

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. In the Printer Configurations screen, click Add.

3. In the Find and Assign a Driver section, click Driver Packages.

4. Choose one or more suitable driver packages from the list. Do not specify the path to a
printer description le.

5. Choose OK and confirm the package installation.

6. To directly use these drivers, proceed as described in Procedure 5.3, “Adding a New Printer”.

PostScript printers do not need printer driver software. PostScript printers need only a PostScript
Printer Description (PPD) le which matches the particular model. PPD les are provided by
the printer manufacturer.
If no suitable PPD le is available in the Find and Assign a Driver dialog when adding a PostScript
printer install a PPD le for your printer:
Several sources for PPD les are available. It is recommended to rst try additional driver pack-
ages that are shipped with openSUSE Leap but not installed by default (see below for installa-
tion instructions). If these packages do not contain suitable drivers for your printer, get PPD
les directly from your printer vendor or from the driver CD of a PostScript printer. For de-
tails, see Section 6.8.2, “No Suitable PPD File Available for a PostScript Printer”. Alternatively, nd
PPD les at http://www.linuxfoundation.org/collaborate/workgroups/openprinting/database/data-
baseintro , the “OpenPrinting.org printer database”. When downloading PPD les from Open-
Printing, keep in mind that it always shows the latest Linux support status, which is not neces-
sarily met by openSUSE Leap.

76 Configuring Printers openSUSE Leap 42.3

PROCEDURE 5.5: ADDING A PPD FILE FOR POSTSCRIPT PRINTERS

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. In the Printer Configurations screen, click Add.

3. In the Find and Assign a Driver section, click Driver Packages.

4. Enter the full path to the PPD le into the text box under Make a Printer Description
File Available .

5. Click OK to return to the Add New Printer Configuration screen.

6. To directly use this PPD le, proceed as described in Procedure 5.3, “Adding a New Printer”.

5.3.1.2 Editing a Local Printer Configuration

By editing an existing configuration for a printer you can change basic settings such as connec-
tion type and driver. It is also possible to adjust the default settings for paper size, resolution,
media source, etc. You can change identifiers of the printer by altering the printer description
or location.

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. In the Printer Configurations screen, choose a local printer configuration from the list and
click Edit.

3. Change the connection type or the driver as described in Procedure 5.3, “Adding a New Print-
er”. This should only be necessary in case you have problems with the current configura-
tion.

4. Optionally, make this printer the default by checking Default Printer.

5. Adjust the default settings by clicking All Options for the Current Driver. To change a setting,
expand the list of options by clicking the relative + sign. Change the default by clicking
an option. Apply your changes with OK.

77 Configuring Printers openSUSE Leap 42.3

5.3.2 Configuring Printing via the Network with YaST
Network printers are not detected automatically. They must be configured manually using the
YaST printer module. Depending on your network setup, you can print to a print server (CUPS,
LPD, SMB, or IPX) or directly to a network printer (preferably via TCP). Access the configuration
view for network printing by choosing Printing via Network from the left pane in the YaST printer
module.

5.3.2.1 Using CUPS

In a Linux environment CUPS is usually used to print via the network. The simplest setup is to
only print via a single CUPS server which can directly be accessed by all clients. Printing via
more than one CUPS server requires a running local CUPS daemon that communicates with the
remote CUPS servers.

Important: Browsing Network Print Queues

CUPS servers announce their print queues over the network either via the tradition-
al CUPS browsing protocol or via Bonjour/DND-SD. Clients need to be able to browse
these lists, so users can select specific printers to send their print jobs to. To be able to
browse network print queues, the service cups-browsed provided by the package cups-
filters-cups-browsed needs to run on all clients that print via CUPS servers. cups-
browsed is started automatically when configuring network printing with YaST.

In case browsing does not work after having started cups-browsed , the CUPS server(s)
probably announce the network print queues via Bonjour/DND-SD. In this case you need
to additionally install the package avahi and start the associated service with sudo
systemctl start avahi-daemon on all clients.

PROCEDURE 5.6: PRINTING VIA A SINGLE CUPS SERVER

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. From the left pane, launch the Print via Network screen.

3. Check Do All Your Printing Directly via One Single CUPS Server and specify the name or IP
address of the server.

4. Click Test Server to make sure you have chosen the correct name or IP address.

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 5. Click OK to return to the Printer Configurations screen. All printers available via the CUPS
server are now listed.

PROCEDURE 5.7: PRINTING VIA MULTIPLE CUPS SERVERS

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. From the left pane, launch the Print via Network screen.

3. Check Accept Printer Announcements from CUPS Servers.

4. Under General Settings specify which servers to use. You may accept connections from
all networks available or from specific hosts. If you choose the latter option, you need to
specify the host names or IP addresses.

5. Confirm by clicking OK and then Yes when asked to start a local CUPS server. After the
server has started YaST will return to the Printer Configurations screen. Click Refresh list
to see the printers detected by now. Click this button again, in case more printer are to
be available.

5.3.2.2 Using Print Servers other than CUPS

If your network offers print services via print servers other than CUPS, start the YaST printer
module with Hardware Printer and launch the Print via Network screen from the left pane. Start
the Connection Wizard and choose the appropriate Connection Type. Ask your network adminis-
trator for details on configuring a network printer in your environment.

5.3.3 Sharing Printers Over the Network

Printers managed by a local CUPS daemon can be shared over the network and so turn your
machine into a CUPS server. Usually you share a printer by enabling CUPS' so-called “browsing
mode”. If browsing is enabled, the local print queues are made available on the network for
listening to remote CUPS daemons. It is also possible to set up a dedicated CUPS server that
manages all print queues and can directly be accessed by remote clients. In this case it is not
necessary to enable browsing.

PROCEDURE 5.8: SHARING PRINTERS

1. Start the YaST printer module with Hardware Printer.

2. Launch the Share Printers screen from the left pane.

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 3. Select Allow Remote Access. Also check For computers within the local network and enable
browsing mode by also checking Publish printers by default within the local network.

4. Click OK to restart the CUPS server and to return to the Printer Configurations screen.

5. Regarding CUPS and firewall settings, see http://en.opensuse.org/SD-

B:CUPS_and_SANE_Firewall_settings .

5.4 Setting Up a Scanner

You can configure a USB or SCSI scanner with YaST. The sane-backends package contains
hardware drivers and other essentials needed to use a scanner. If you own an HP All-In-One
device, see Section 5.4.1, “Configuring an HP All-In-One Device”, instructions on how to configure a
network scanner are available at Section 5.4.3, “Scanning over the Network”.

PROCEDURE 5.9: CONFIGURING A USB OR SCSI SCANNER

1. Connect your USB or SCSI scanner to your computer and turn it on.

2. Start YaST and select Hardware Scanner. YaST builds the scanner database and tries to
detect your scanner model automatically.
If a USB or SCSI scanner is not properly detected, try Other Restart Detection.

3. To activate the scanner select it from the list of detected scanners and click Edit.

4. Choose your model form the list and click Next and Finish.

5. Use Other Test to make sure you have chosen the correct driver.

6. Leave the configuration screen with OK.

5.4.1 Configuring an HP All-In-One Device

An HP All-In-One device can be configured with YaST even if it is made available via the net-
work. If you own a USB HP All-In-One device, start configuring as described in Procedure 5.9,
“Configuring a USB or SCSI Scanner”. If it is detected properly and the Test succeeds, it is ready to use.

If your USB device is not properly detected, or your HP All-In-One device is connected to the
network, run the HP Device Manager:

1. Start YaST and select Hardware Scanner. YaST loads the scanner database.

80 Setting Up a Scanner openSUSE Leap 42.3

 2. Start the HP Device Manager with Other Run hp-setup and follow the on-screen instruc-
tions. After having finished the HP Device Manager, the YaST scanner module automati-
cally restarts the auto detection.

3. Test it by choosing Other Test.

4. Leave the configuration screen with OK.

5.4.2 Sharing a Scanner over the Network

openSUSE Leap allows the sharing of a scanner over the network. To do so, configure your
scanner as follows:

1. Configure the scanner as described in Section 5.4, “Setting Up a Scanner”.

2. Choose Other Scanning via Network.

3. Enter the host names of the clients (separated by a comma) that should be allowed to use
the scanner under Server Settings Permitted Clients for saned and leave the configuration
dialog with OK.

5.4.3 Scanning over the Network

To use a scanner that is shared over the network, proceed as follows:

1. Start YaST and select Hardware Scanner.

2. Open the network scanner configuration menu by Other Scanning via Network.

3. Enter the host name of the machine the scanner is connected to under Client Set-
tings Servers Used for the net Metadriver

4. Leave with OK. The network scanner is now listed in the Scanner Configuration window
and is ready to use.

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6 Printer Operation

openSUSE® Leap supports printing with many types of printers, including remote network print-
ers. Printers can be configured manually or with YaST. For configuration instructions, refer
to Section 5.3, “Setting Up a Printer”. Both graphical and command line utilities are available for
starting and managing print jobs. If your printer does not work as expected, refer to Section 6.8,
“Troubleshooting”.

CUPS (Common Unix Printing System) is the standard print system in openSUSE Leap.
Printers can be distinguished by interface, such as USB or network, and printer language. When
buying a printer, make sure that the printer has an interface that is supported (USB, Ethernet, or
Wi-Fi) and a suitable printer language. Printers can be categorized on the basis of the following
three classes of printer languages:

PostScript Printers
PostScript is the printer language in which most print jobs in Linux and Unix are generat-
ed and processed by the internal print system. If PostScript documents can be processed
directly by the printer and do not need to be converted in additional stages in the print
system, the number of potential error sources is reduced.
Currently PostScript is being replaced by PDF as the standard print job format. PostScript
+PDF printers that can directly print PDF (in addition to PostScript) already exist. For
traditional PostScript printers PDF needs to be converted to PostScript in the printing
workflow.

Standard Printers (Languages Like PCL and ESC/P)

In the case of known printer languages, the print system can convert PostScript jobs to
the respective printer language with Ghostscript. This processing stage is called interpret-
ing. The best-known languages are PCL (which is mostly used by HP printers and their
clones) and ESC/P (which is used by Epson printers). These printer languages are usually
supported by Linux and produce an adequate print result. Linux may not be able to address
some special printer functions. Except for HP and Epson there are currently no printer
manufacturers who develop Linux drivers and make them available to Linux distributors
under an open source license.

Proprietary Printers (Also Called GDI Printers)

82 openSUSE Leap 42.3

 These printers do not support any of the common printer languages. They use their own
undocumented printer languages, which are subject to change when a new edition of a
model is released. Usually only Windows drivers are available for these printers. See Sec-
tion 6.8.1, “Printers without Standard Printer Language Support” for more information.

Before you buy a new printer, refer to the following sources to check how well the printer you
intend to buy is supported:

http://www.linuxfoundation.org/OpenPrinting/
The OpenPrinting home page with the printer database. The database shows the latest Lin-
ux support status. However, a Linux distribution can only integrate the drivers available at
production time. Accordingly, a printer currently rated as “perfectly supported” may not
have had this status when the latest openSUSE Leap version was released. Thus, the data-
bases may not necessarily indicate the correct status, but only provide an approximation.

http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/
The Ghostscript Web page.

/usr/share/doc/packages/ghostscript/catalog.devices
List of built-in Ghostscript drivers.

6.1 The CUPS Workflow

The user creates a print job. The print job consists of the data to print plus information for
the spooler, such as the name of the printer or the name of the print queue, and optionally,
information for the filter, such as printer-specific options.
At least one dedicated print queue exists for every printer. The spooler holds the print job in the
queue until the desired printer is ready to receive data. When the printer is ready, the spooler
sends the data through the filter and back-end to the printer.
The filter converts the data generated by the application that is printing (usually PostScript or
PDF, but also ASCII, JPEG, etc.) into printer-specific data (PostScript, PCL, ESC/P, etc.). The
features of the printer are described in the PPD les. A PPD le contains printer-specific options
with the parameters needed to enable them on the printer. The filter system makes sure that
options selected by the user are enabled.

83 The CUPS Workflow openSUSE Leap 42.3

If you use a PostScript printer, the filter system converts the data into printer-specific PostScript.
This does not require a printer driver. If you use a non-PostScript printer, the filter system con-
verts the data into printer-specific data. This requires a printer driver suitable for your printer.
The back-end receives the printer-specific data from the filter then passes it to the printer.

6.2 Methods and Protocols for Connecting Printers

There are various possibilities for connecting a printer to the system. The configuration of CUPS
does not distinguish between a local printer and a printer connected to the system over the
network. For more information about the printer connection, read the article CUPS in a Nutshell
at http://en.opensuse.org/SDB:CUPS_in_a_Nutshell .

Warning: Changing Cable Connections in a

Running System
When connecting the printer to the machine, do not forget that only USB devices can be
plugged in or unplugged during operation. To avoid damaging your system or printer,
shut down the system before changing any connections that are not USB.

6.3 Installing the Software

PPD (PostScript printer description) is the computer language that describes the properties, like
resolution, and options, such as the availability of a duplex unit. These descriptions are required
for using various printer options in CUPS. Without a PPD le, the print data would be forwarded
to the printer in a “raw” state, which is usually not desired.
To configure a PostScript printer, the best approach is to get a suitable PPD le. Many PPD
les are available in the packages manufacturer-PPDs and OpenPrintingPPDs-postscript .
See Section 6.7.3, “PPD Files in Various Packages” and Section 6.8.2, “No Suitable PPD File Available for
a PostScript Printer”.

New PPD les can be stored in the directory /usr/share/cups/model/ or added to the print
system with YaST as described in Section 5.3.1.1, “Adding Drivers with YaST”. Subsequently, the PPD
le can be selected during the printer setup.

84 Methods and Protocols for Connecting Printers openSUSE Leap 42.3

Be careful if a printer manufacturer wants you to install entire software packages. First, this
kind of installation may result in the loss of the support provided by openSUSE Leap and sec-
ond, print commands may work differently and the system may no longer be able to address
devices of other manufacturers. For this reason, the installation of manufacturer software is not
recommended.

6.4 Network Printers

A network printer can support various protocols, some even concurrently. Although most of the
supported protocols are standardized, some manufacturers modify the standard. Manufacturers
then provide drivers for only a few operating systems. Unfortunately, Linux drivers are rarely
provided. The current situation is such that you cannot act on the assumption that every protocol
works smoothly in Linux. Therefore, you may need to experiment with various options to achieve
a functional configuration.
CUPS supports the socket , LPD , IPP and smb protocols.

socket
Socket refers to a connection in which the plain print data is sent directly to a TCP sock-
et. Some socket port numbers that are commonly used are 9100 or 35 . The device URI
(uniform resource identifier) syntax is: socket:// IP.OF.THE.PRINTER : PORT , for example:
socket://192.168.2.202:9100/ .

LPD (Line Printer Daemon)

The LPD protocol is described in RFC 1179. Under this protocol, some job-related data,
such as the ID of the print queue, is sent before the actual print data is sent. Therefore, a
print queue must be specified when configuring the LPD protocol. The implementations of
diverse printer manufacturers are flexible enough to accept any name as the print queue. If
necessary, the printer manual should indicate what name to use. LPT, LPT1, LP1 or similar
names are often used. The port number for an LPD service is 515 . An example device URI
is lpd://192.168.2.202/LPT1 .

IPP (Internet Printing Protocol)

IPP is a relatively new protocol (1999) based on the HTTP protocol. With IPP, more job-
related data is transmitted than with the other protocols. CUPS uses IPP for internal data
transmission. The name of the print queue is necessary to configure IPP correctly. The
port number for IPP is 631 . Example device URIs are ipp://192.168.2.202/ps and
ipp://192.168.2.202/printers/ps .

85 Network Printers openSUSE Leap 42.3

SMB (Windows Share)
CUPS also supports printing on printers connected to Windows shares. The protocol used
for this purpose is SMB. SMB uses the port numbers 137 , 138 and 139 . Example de-
vice URIs are smb://user:password@workgroup/smb.example.com/printer , smb://
user:[email protected]/printer , and smb://smb.example.com/printer .

The protocol supported by the printer must be determined before configuration. If the manufac-
turer does not provide the needed information, the command nmap (which comes with the nmap
package) can be used to ascertain the protocol. nmap checks a host for open ports. For example:

tux > nmap -p 35,137-139,515,631,9100-10000 IP.OF.THE.PRINTER

6.5 Configuring CUPS with Command Line Tools

CUPS can be configured with command line tools like lpinfo , lpadmin and lpoptions . You
need a device URI consisting of a back-end, such as USB, and parameters. To determine valid
device URIs on your system use the command lpinfo -v | grep ":/" :

tux > sudo lpinfo -v | grep ":/"

direct usb://ACME/FunPrinter%20XL
network socket://192.168.2.253

With lpadmin the CUPS server administrator can add, remove or manage print queues. To add
a print queue, use the following syntax:

tux > sudo lpadmin -p QUEUE -v DEVICE-URI -P PPD-FILE -E

Then the device ( -v ) is available as QUEUE ( -p ), using the specified PPD le ( -P ). This means
that you must know the PPD le and the device URI to configure the printer manually.
Do not use -E as the rst option. For all CUPS commands, -E as the rst argument sets use
of an encrypted connection. To enable the printer, -E must be used as shown in the following
example:

tux > sudo lpadmin -p ps -v usb://ACME/FunPrinter%20XL -P \

/usr/share/cups/model/Postscript.ppd.gz -E

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The following example configures a network printer:

tux > sudo lpadmin -p ps -v socket://192.168.2.202:9100/ -P \

/usr/share/cups/model/Postscript-level1.ppd.gz -E

For more options of lpadmin , see the man page of lpadmin(8) .

During printer setup, certain options are set as default. These options can be modified for every
print job (depending on the print tool used). Changing these default options with YaST is also
possible. Using command line tools, set default options as follows:

1. First, list all options:

tux > sudo lpoptions -p QUEUE -l

The output will look like the following:

Resolution/Output Resolution: 150dpi *300dpi 600dpi

The activated default option is identified by a preceding asterisk ( * ).

2. Change the option with lpadmin :

tux > sudo lpadmin -p QUEUE -o Resolution=600dpi

3. Check the new setting:

tux > sudo lpoptions -p QUEUE -l

Resolution/Output Resolution: 150dpi 300dpi *600dpi

When a normal user runs lpoptions , the settings are written to ~/.cups/lpoptions . How-
ever, root settings are written to /etc/cups/lpoptions .

6.6 Printing from the Command Line

To print from the command line, enter lp -d QUEUENAME FILENAME , substituting the corre-
sponding names for QUEUENAME and FILENAME .
Some applications rely on the lp command for printing. In this case, enter the correct command
in the application's print dialog, usually without specifying FILENAME , for example, lp -d
QUEUENAME .

87 Printing from the Command Line openSUSE Leap 42.3

6.7 Special Features in openSUSE Leap
Several CUPS features have been adapted for openSUSE Leap. Some of the most important
changes are covered here.

6.7.1 CUPS and Firewall

After having performed a default installation of openSUSE Leap, SuSEFirewall2 is active and
the network interfaces are configured to be in the External Zone which blocks incoming
traffic. More information about the SuSEFirewall2 configuration is available in Book “Security
Guide”, Chapter 15 “Masquerading and Firewalls”, Section 15.4 “SuSEFirewall2” and at http://en.open-
suse.org/SDB:CUPS_and_SANE_Firewall_settings .

6.7.1.1 CUPS Client

Normally, a CUPS client runs on a regular workstation located in a trusted network environment
behind a firewall. In this case it is recommended to configure the network interface to be in the
Internal Zone , so the workstation is reachable from within the network.

6.7.1.2 CUPS Server

If the CUPS server is part of a trusted network environment protected by a firewall, the network
interface should be configured to be in the Internal Zone of the firewall. It is not recommended
to set up a CUPS server in an untrusted network environment unless you take care that it is
protected by special firewall rules and secure settings in the CUPS configuration.

6.7.2 Browsing for Network Printers

CUPS servers regularly announce the availability and status information of shared printers over
the network. Clients can access this information to display a list of available printers in printing
dialogs, for example. This is called “browsing”.
CUPS servers announce their print queues over the network either via the traditional CUPS
browsing protocol or via Bonjour/DND-SD. To be able to browse network print queues, the
service cups-browsed needs to run on all clients that print via CUPS servers. cups-browsed

88 Special Features in openSUSE Leap openSUSE Leap 42.3

is not started by default. To start it for the active session, use sudo systemctl start cups-
browsed . To ensure it is automatically started after booting, enable it with sudo systemctl
enable cups-browsed on all clients.

In case browsing does not work after having started cups-browsed , the CUPS server(s) probably
announce the network print queues via Bonjour/DND-SD. In this case you need to additionally
install the package avahi and start the associated service with sudo systemctl start avahi-
daemon on all clients.

6.7.3 PPD Files in Various Packages

The YaST printer configuration sets up the queues for CUPS using the PPD les installed in /
usr/share/cups/model . To nd the suitable PPD les for the printer model, YaST compares
the vendor and model determined during hardware detection with the vendors and models in
all PPD les. For this purpose, the YaST printer configuration generates a database from the
vendor and model information extracted from the PPD les.
The configuration using only PPD les and no other information sources has the advantage that
the PPD les in /usr/share/cups/model can be modified freely. For example, if you have
PostScript printers the PPD les can be copied directly to /usr/share/cups/model (if they do
not already exist in the manufacturer-PPDs or OpenPrintingPPDs-postscript packages) to
achieve an optimum configuration for your printers.
Additional PPD les are provided by the following packages:

gutenprint: the Gutenprint driver and its matching PPDs

splix: the SpliX driver and its matching PPDs

OpenPrintingPPDs-ghostscript: PPDs for Ghostscript built-in drivers

OpenPrintingPPDs-hpijs: PPDs for the HPIJS driver for non-HP printers

6.8 Troubleshooting
The following sections cover some of the most frequently encountered printer hardware and
software problems and ways to solve or circumvent these problems. Among the topics covered
are GDI printers, PPD les and port configuration. Common network printer problems, defective
printouts, and queue handling are also addressed.

89 PPD Files in Various Packages openSUSE Leap 42.3

6.8.1 Printers without Standard Printer Language Support

These printers do not support any common printer language and can only be addressed with
special proprietary control sequences. Therefore they can only work with the operating system
versions for which the manufacturer delivers a driver. GDI is a programming interface developed
by Microsoft* for graphics devices. Usually the manufacturer delivers drivers only for Windows,
and since the Windows driver uses the GDI interface these printers are also called GDI printers.
The actual problem is not the programming interface, but because these printers can only be
addressed with the proprietary printer language of the respective printer model.
Some GDI printers can be switched to operate either in GDI mode or in one of the standard
printer languages. See the manual of the printer whether this is possible. Some models require
special Windows software to do the switch (note that the Windows printer driver may always
switch the printer back into GDI mode when printing from Windows). For other GDI printers
there are extension modules for a standard printer language available.
Some manufacturers provide proprietary drivers for their printers. The disadvantage of propri-
etary printer drivers is that there is no guarantee that these work with the installed print system
or that they are suitable for the various hardware platforms. In contrast, printers that support a
standard printer language do not depend on a special print system version or a special hardware
platform.
Instead of spending time trying to make a proprietary Linux driver work, it may be more cost-ef-
fective to purchase a printer which supports a standard printer language (preferably PostScript).
This would solve the driver problem once and for all, eliminating the need to install and con-
figure special driver software and obtain driver updates that may be required because of new
developments in the print system.

6.8.2 No Suitable PPD File Available for a PostScript Printer

If the manufacturer-PPDs or OpenPrintingPPDs-postscript packages do not contain a suit-
able PPD le for a PostScript printer, it should be possible to use the PPD le from the driver CD
of the printer manufacturer or download a suitable PPD le from the Web page of the printer
manufacturer.
If the PPD le is provided as a zip archive (.zip) or a self-extracting zip archive ( .exe ), unpack
it with unzip . First, review the license terms of the PPD le. Then use the cupstestppd util-
ity to check if the PPD le complies with “Adobe PostScript Printer Description File Format

90 Printers without Standard Printer Language Support openSUSE Leap 42.3

Specification, version 4.3.” If the utility returns “FAIL,” the errors in the PPD les are serious
and are likely to cause major problems. The problem spots reported by cupstestppd should
be eliminated. If necessary, ask the printer manufacturer for a suitable PPD le.

6.8.3 Network Printer Connections

Identifying Network Problems

Connect the printer directly to the computer. For test purposes, configure the printer as a
local printer. If this works, the problems are related to the network.

Checking the TCP/IP Network

The TCP/IP network and name resolution must be functional.

Checking a Remote lpd

Use the following command to test if a TCP connection can be established to lpd (port
515 ) on HOST :

tux > netcat -z HOST 515 && echo ok || echo failed

If the connection to lpd cannot be established, lpd may not be active or there may be
basic network problems.
As the user root , use the following command to query a (possibly very long) status report
for QUEUE on remote HOST , provided the respective lpd is active and the host accepts
queries:

tux > echo -e "\004queue" \

| netcat -w 2 -p 722 HOST 515

If lpd does not respond, it may not be active or there may be basic network problems.
If lpd responds, the response should show why printing is not possible on the queue on
host . If you receive a response like that shown in Example 6.1, “Error Message from lpd”,
the problem is caused by the remote lpd .

EXAMPLE 6.1: ERROR MESSAGE FROM lpd

lpd: your host does not have line printer access

lpd: queue does not exist
printer: spooling disabled
printer: printing disabled

91 Network Printer Connections openSUSE Leap 42.3

Checking a Remote cupsd
A CUPS network server can broadcast its queues by default every 30 seconds on UDP
port 631 . Accordingly, the following command can be used to test whether there is a
broadcasting CUPS network server in the network. Make sure to stop your local CUPS
daemon before executing the command.

tux > netcat -u -l -p 631 & PID=$! ; sleep 40 ; kill $PID

If a broadcasting CUPS network server exists, the output appears as shown in Example 6.2,
“Broadcast from the CUPS Network Server”.

EXAMPLE 6.2: BROADCAST FROM THE CUPS NETWORK SERVER

ipp://192.168.2.202:631/printers/queue

The following command can be used to test if a TCP connection can be established to
cupsd (port 631 ) on HOST :

tux > netcat -z HOST 631 && echo ok || echo failed

If the connection to cupsd cannot be established, cupsd may not be active or there may
be basic network problems. lpstat -h HOST -l -t returns a (possibly very long) status
report for all queues on HOST , provided the respective cupsd is active and the host accepts
queries.
The next command can be used to test if the QUEUE on HOST accepts a print job consisting
of a single carriage-return character. Nothing should be printed. Possibly, a blank page
may be ejected.

tux > echo -en "\r" \

| lp -d queue -h HOST

Troubleshooting a Network Printer or Print Server Box

Spoolers running in a print server box sometimes cause problems when they need to deal
with multiple print jobs. Since this is caused by the spooler in the print server box, there no
way to resolve this issue. As a work-around, circumvent the spooler in the print server box
by addressing the printer connected to the print server box directly with the TCP socket.
See Section 6.4, “Network Printers”.
In this way, the print server box is reduced to a converter between the various forms of
data transfer (TCP/IP network and local printer connection). To use this method, you need
to know the TCP port on the print server box. If the printer is connected to the print server

92 Network Printer Connections openSUSE Leap 42.3

 box and turned on, this TCP port can usually be determined with the nmap utility from the
nmap package some time after the print server box is powered up. For example, nmap
IP-address may deliver the following output for a print server box:

Port State Service

23/tcp open telnet
80/tcp open http
515/tcp open printer
631/tcp open cups
9100/tcp open jetdirect

This output indicates that the printer connected to the print server box can be addressed
via TCP socket on port 9100 . By default, nmap only checks several commonly known
ports listed in /usr/share/nmap/nmap-services . To check all possible ports, use the
command nmap -p FROM_PORT - TO_PORT IP_ADDRESS . This may take some time. For
further information, refer to the man page of nmap .
Enter a command like

tux > echo -en "\rHello\r\f" | netcat -w 1 IP-address port

cat file | netcat -w 1 IP-address port

to send character strings or les directly to the respective port to test if the printer can
be addressed on this port.

6.8.4 Defective Printouts without Error Message

For the print system, the print job is completed when the CUPS back-end completes the data
transfer to the recipient (printer). If further processing on the recipient fails (for example, if
the printer is not able to print the printer-specific data) the print system does not notice this.
If the printer cannot print the printer-specific data, select a PPD le that is more suitable for
the printer.

6.8.5 Disabled Queues

If the data transfer to the recipient fails entirely after several attempts, the CUPS back-end, such
as USB or socket , reports an error to the print system (to cupsd ). The back-end determines
how many unsuccessful attempts are appropriate until the data transfer is reported as impossible.

93 Defective Printouts without Error Message openSUSE Leap 42.3

As further attempts would be in vain, cupsd disables printing for the respective queue. After
eliminating the cause of the problem, the system administrator must re-enable printing with the
command cupsenable .

6.8.6 CUPS Browsing: Deleting Print Jobs

If a CUPS network server broadcasts its queues to the client hosts via browsing and a suitable
local cupsd is active on the client hosts, the client cupsd accepts print jobs from applications
and forwards them to the cupsd on the server. When cupsd on the server accepts a print job, it
is assigned a new job number. Therefore, the job number on the client host is different from the
job number on the server. As a print job is usually forwarded immediately, it cannot be deleted
with the job number on the client host This is because the client cupsd regards the print job as
completed when it has been forwarded to the server cupsd .
When it becomes desirable to delete the print job on the server, use a command such as lpstat
-h cups.example.com -o to determine the job number on the server, provided the server has
not already completed the print job (that is, sent it completely to the printer). Using this job
number, the print job on the server can be deleted:

tux > cancel -h cups.example.com QUEUE-JOBNUMBER

6.8.7 Defective Print Jobs and Data Transfer Errors

If you switch the printer o or shut down the computer during the printing process, print jobs
remain in the queue. Printing resumes when the computer (or the printer) is switched back on.
Defective print jobs must be removed from the queue with cancel .
If a print job is defective or an error occurs in the communication between the host and the
printer, the printer prints numerous sheets of paper with unintelligible characters, because it
cannot process the data correctly. To rectify this situation, follow these steps:

1. To stop printing, remove all paper from ink jet printers or open the paper trays of laser
printers. High-quality printers have a button for canceling the current printout.

2. The print job may still be in the queue, because jobs are only removed after they are sent
completely to the printer. Use lpstat -o or lpstat -h cups.example.com -o to check
which queue is currently printing. Delete the print job with cancel QUEUE - JOBNUMBER
or cancel -h cups.example.com QUEUE - JOBNUMBER .

94 CUPS Browsing: Deleting Print Jobs openSUSE Leap 42.3

 3. Some data may still be transferred to the printer even though the print job has been deleted
from the queue. Check if a CUPS back-end process is still running for the respective queue
and terminate it.

4. Reset the printer completely by switching it o for some time. Then insert the paper and
turn on the printer.

6.8.8 Debugging CUPS

Use the following generic procedure to locate problems in CUPS:

1. Set LogLevel debug in /etc/cups/cupsd.conf .

2. Stop cupsd .

3. Remove /var/log/cups/error_log* to avoid having to search through very large log

les.

4. Start cupsd .

5. Repeat the action that led to the problem.

6. Check the messages in /var/log/cups/error_log* to identify the cause of the problem.

6.8.9 For More Information

In-depth information about printing on SUSE Linux is presented in the openSUSE Support Data-
base at http://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Printing .

95 Debugging CUPS openSUSE Leap 42.3

7 The X Window System

The X Window System (X11) is the de facto standard for graphical user interfaces in Unix. X
is network-based, enabling applications started on one host to be displayed on another host
connected over any kind of network (LAN or Internet). This chapter provides basic information
on the X configuration, and background information about the use of fonts in openSUSE® Leap.
Usually, the X Window System needs no configuration. The hardware is dynamically detected
during X start-up. The use of xorg.conf is therefore deprecated. If you still need to specify
custom options to change the way X behaves, you can still do so by modifying configuration
les under /etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/ .

7.1 Installing and Configuring Fonts

Fonts in Linux can be categorized into two parts:

Outline or Vector Fonts

Contains a mathematical description as drawing instructions about the shape of a glyph.
As such, each glyph can be scaled to arbitrary sizes without loss of quality. Before such
a font (or glyph) can be used, the mathematical descriptions need to be transformed into
a raster (grid). This process is called font rasterization. Font hinting (embedded inside the
font) improves and optimizes the rendering result for a particular size. Rasterization and
hinting is done with the FreeType library.
Common formats under Linux are PostScript Type 1 and Type 2, TrueType, and OpenType.

Bitmap or Raster Fonts

Consists of an array of pixels designed for a specific font size. Bitmap fonts are extremely
fast and simple to render. However, compared to vector fonts, bitmap fonts cannot be
scaled without losing quality. As such, these fonts are usually distributed in different sizes.
These days, bitmap fonts are still used in the Linux console and sometimes in terminals.
Under Linux, Portable Compiled Format (PCF) or Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format (BDF)
are the most common formats.

96 Installing and Configuring Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

The appearance of these fonts can be influenced by two main aspects:

choosing a suitable font family,

rendering the font with an algorithm that achieves results comfortable for the receiver's
eyes.

The last point is only relevant to vector fonts. Although the above two points are highly subjec-
tive, some defaults need to be created.
Linux font rendering systems consist of several libraries with different relations. The basic font
rendering library is FreeType (http://www.freetype.org/) , which converts font glyphs of support-
ed formats into optimized bitmap glyphs. The rendering process is controlled by an algorithm
and its parameters (which may be subject to patent issues).
Every program or library which uses FreeType should consult the Fontconfig (http://www.font-
config.org/) library. This library gathers font configuration from users and from the system.
When a user amends his Fontconfig setting, this change will result in Fontconfig-aware appli-
cations.
More sophisticated OpenType shaping needed for scripts such as Arabic, Han or Phags-Pa and
other higher level text processing lies on the shoulders of Harfbuzz (http://www.harfbuzz.org/)
or Pango (http://www.pango.org/) , to mention some examples.

7.1.1 Showing Installed Fonts

To get an overview about which fonts are installed on your system, ask the commands rpm
or fc-list . Both will give you a good answer, but may return a different list depending on
system and user configuration:

rpm
Invoke rpm to see which software packages containing fonts are installed on your system:

rpm -qa '*fonts*'

Every font package should satisfy this expression. However, the command may return some
false positives like fonts-config (which is neither a font nor does it contain fonts).

fc-list

97 Showing Installed Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Invoke fc-list to get an overview about what font families can be accessed, whether
they are installed on the system or in your home:

fc-list ':' family

Note: Command fc-list

The command fc-list is a wrapper to the Fontconfig library. It is possible to query
a lot of interesting information from Fontconfig—or, to be more precise, from its
cache. See man 1 fc-list for more details.

7.1.2 Viewing Fonts

If you want to know what an installed font family looks like, either use the command
ftview (package ft2demos ) or visit http://fontinfo.opensuse.org/ . For example, to display
the FreeMono font in 14 point, use ftview like this:

ftview 14 /usr/share/fonts/truetype/FreeMono.ttf

If you need further information, go to http://fontinfo.opensuse.org/ to nd out which styles

(regular, bold, italic, etc.) and languages are supported.

7.1.3 Querying Fonts

To query which font is used when a pattern is given, use the fc-match command.
For example, if your pattern contains an already installed font, fc-match returns the le name,
font family, and the style:

tux > fc-match 'Liberation Serif'

LiberationSerif-Regular.ttf: "Liberation Serif" "Regular"

If the desired font does not exist on your system, Fontconfig's matching rules take place and try
to nd the most similar fonts available. This means, your request is substituted:

tux > fc-match 'Foo Family'

DejaVuSans.ttf: "DejaVu Sans" "Book"

98 Viewing Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

Fontconfig supports aliases: a name is substituted with another family name. A typical example
are the generic names such as “sans-serif”, “serif”, and “monospace”. These alias names can be
substituted by real family names or even a preference list of family names:

tux > for font in serif sans mono; do fc-match "$font" ; done
DejaVuSerif.ttf: "DejaVu Serif" "Book"
DejaVuSans.ttf: "DejaVu Sans" "Book"
DejaVuSansMono.ttf: "DejaVu Sans Mono" "Book"

The result may vary on your system, depending on which fonts are currently installed.

Note: Similarity Rules according to Fontconfig

Fontconfig always returns a real family (if at least one is installed) according to the given
request, as similar as possible. “Similarity” depends on Fontconfig's internal metrics and
on the user's or administrator's Fontconfig settings.

7.1.4 Installing Fonts

To install a new font there are these major methods:

1. Manually install the font les such as *.ttf or *.otf to a known font directory. If it
needs to be system-wide, use the standard directory /usr/share/fonts . For installation
in your home directory, use ~/.config/fonts .
If you want to deviate from the standard directories, Fontconfig allows you to choose
another one. Let Fontconfig know by using the <dir> element, see Section 7.1.5.2, “Diving
into Fontconfig XML” for details.

2. Install fonts using zypper . Lots of fonts are already available as a package, be it on your
SUSE distribution or in the M17N:fonts (http://download.opensuse.org/repositories/M17N:/
fonts/) repository. Add the repository to your list using the following command. For
example, to add a repository for SLE 12:

sudo zypper ar
http://download.opensuse.org/repositories/M17N:/fonts/openSUSE_Leap_42.3/

To search for your FONT_FAMILY_NAME use this command:

sudo zypper se 'FONT_FAMILY_NAME*fonts'

99 Installing Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

7.1.5 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts
Depending on the rendering medium, and font size, the result may be unsatisfactory. For exam-
ple, an average monitor these days has a resolution of 100dpi which makes pixels too big and
glyphs look clunky.
There are several algorithms available to deal with low resolutions, such as anti-aliasing
(grayscale smoothing), hinting (fitting to the grid), or subpixel rendering (tripling resolution in
one direction). These algorithms can also differ from one font format to another.

Important: Patent Issues with Subpixel Rendering

Subpixel rendering is not used in SUSE distributions. Although FreeType2 has support
for this algorithm, it is covered by several patents expiring at the end of the year 2019.
Therefore, setting subpixel rendering options in Fontconfig has no effect unless the system
has a FreeType2 library with subpixel rendering compiled in.

Via Fontconfig, it is possible to select a rendering algorithms for every font individually or for
a set of fonts.

7.1.5.1 Configuring Fonts via sysconfig

openSUSE Leap comes with a sysconfig layer above Fontconfig. This is a good starting point
for experimenting with font configuration. To change the default settings, edit the configuration
le /etc/sysconfig/fonts-config . (or use the YaST sysconfig module). After you have edited
the le, run fonts-config :

sudo /usr/sbin/fonts-config

Restart the application to make the effect visible. Keep in mind the following issues:

A few applications do need not to be restarted. For example, Firefox re-reads Fontconfig
configuration from time to time. Newly created or reloaded tabs get new font configura-
tions later.

The fonts-config script is called automatically after every package installation or re-
moval (if not, it is a bug of the font software package).

Every sysconfig variable can be temporarily overridden by the fonts-config command

line option. See fonts-config --help for details.

100 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

There are several sysconfig variables which can be altered. See man 1 fonts-config or the
help page of the YaST sysconfig module. The following variables are examples:

Usage of Rendering Algorithms

Consider FORCE_HINTSTYLE , FORCE_AUTOHINT , FORCE_BW , FORCE_BW_MONOSPACE ,
USE_EMBEDDED_BITMAPS and EMBEDDED_BITMAP_LANGAGES

Preference Lists of Generic Aliases

Use PREFER_SANS_FAMILIES , PREFER_SERIF_FAMILIES , PREFER_MONO_FAMILIES and
SEARCH_METRIC_COMPATIBLE

The following list provides some configuration examples, sorted from the “most readable” fonts
(more contrast) to “most beautiful” (more smoothed).

Bitmap Fonts
Prefer bitmap fonts via the PREFER_*_FAMILIES variables. Follow the example in the help
section for these variables. Be aware that these fonts are rendered black and white, not
smoothed and that bitmap fonts are available in several sizes only. Consider using

SEARCH_METRIC_COMPATIBLE="no"

to disable metric compatibility-driven family name substitutions.

Scalable Fonts Rendered Black and White

Scalable fonts rendered without antialiasing can result in a similar outcome to bitmap
fonts, while maintaining font scalability. Use well hinted fonts like the Liberation families.
Unfortunately, there is a lack of well hinted fonts though. Set the following variable to
force this method:

FORCE_BW="yes"

Monospaced Fonts Rendered Black and White

Render monospaced fonts without antialiasing only, otherwise use default settings:

FORCE_BW_MONOSPACE="yes"

Default Settings
All fonts are rendered with antialiasing. Well hinted fonts will be rendered with the byte
code interpreter (BCI) and the rest with autohinter ( hintstyle=hintslight ). Leave all
relevant sysconfig variables to the default setting.

CFF Fonts

101 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Use fonts in CFF format. They can be considered also more readable than the default
TrueType fonts given the current improvements in FreeType2. Try them out by following
the example of PREFER_*_FAMILIES . Possibly make them more dark and bold with:

SEARCH_METRIC_COMPATIBLE="no"

as they are rendered by hintstyle=hintslight by default. Also consider using:

SEARCH_METRIC_COMPATIBLE="no"

Autohinter Exclusively
Even for a well hinted font, use FreeType2's autohinter. That can lead to thicker, sometimes
fuzzier letter shapes with lower contrast. Set the following variable to activate this:

FORCE_AUTOHINTER="yes"

Use FORCE_HINTSTYLE to control the level of hinting.

7.1.5.2 Diving into Fontconfig XML

Fontconfig's configuration format is the eXtensible Markup Language (XML). These few examples
are not a complete reference, but a brief overview. Details and other inspiration can be found
in man 5 fonts-conf or in /etc/fonts/conf.d/ .
The central Fontconfig configuration le is /etc/fonts/fonts.conf , which—along other work
—includes the whole /etc/fonts/conf.d/ directory. To customize Fontconfig, there are two
places where you can insert your changes:
FONTCONFIG CONFIGURATION FILES

1. System-wide changes. Edit the le /etc/fonts/local.conf (by default, it contains an

empty fontconfig element).

2. User-specific changes. Edit the le ~/.config/fontconfig/fonts.conf . Place Fontcon-

fig configuration les in the ~/.config/fontconfig/conf.d/ directory.

User-specific changes overwrite any system-wide settings.

Note: Deprecated User Configuration File

The le ~/.fonts.conf is marked as deprecated and should not be used anymore. Use
~/.config/fontconfig/fonts.conf instead.

102 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

Every configuration le needs to have a fontconfig element. As such, the minimal le looks
like this:

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd">
<fontconfig>
<!-- Insert your changes here -->
</fontconfig>

If the default directories are not enough, insert the dir element with the respective directory:

<dir>/usr/share/fonts2</dir>

Fontconfig searches recursively for fonts.

Font-rendering algorithms can be chosen with following Fontconfig snippet (see Example 7.1,
“Specifying Rendering Algorithms”):

EXAMPLE 7.1: SPECIFYING RENDERING ALGORITHMS

<match target="font">
<test name="family">
<string>FAMILY_NAME</string>
</test>
<edit name="antialias" mode="assign">
<bool>true</bool>
</edit>
<edit name="hinting" mode="assign">
<bool>true</bool>
</edit>
<edit name="autohint" mode="assign">
<bool>false</bool>
</edit>
<edit name="hintstyle" mode="assign">
<const>hintfull</const>
</edit>
</match>

Various properties of fonts can be tested. For example, the <test> element can test for the
font family (as shown in the example), size interval, spacing, font format, and others. When
abandoning <test> completely, all <edit> elements will be applied to every font (global
change).

EXAMPLE 7.2: ALIASES AND FAMILY NAME SUBSTITUTIONS

Rule 1

103 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 <alias>
<family>Alegreya SC</family>
<default>
<family>serif</family>
</default>
</alias>

Rule 2

<alias>
<family>serif</family>
<prefer>
<family>Droid Serif</family>
</prefer>
</alias>

Rule 3

<alias>
<family>serif</family>
<accept>
<family>STIXGeneral</family>
</accept>
</alias>

The rules from Example 7.2, “Aliases and Family Name Substitutions” create a prioritized family list
(PFL). Depending on the element, different actions are performed:

<default> from Rule 1

This rule adds a serif family name at the end of the PFL.

<prefer> from Rule 2

This rule adds “Droid Serif” just before the rst occurrence of serif in the PFL, whenever
Alegreya SC is present in PFL.

<accept> from Rule 3

This rule adds a “STIXGeneral” family name just after the rst occurrence of the serif
family name in the PFL.

Putting this together, when snippets occur in the order Rule 1 - Rule 2 - Rule 3 and the user requests
“Alegreya SC”, then the PFL is created as depicted in Table 7.1, “Generating PFL from Fontconfig
rules”.

104 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

TABLE 7.1: GENERATING PFL FROM FONTCONFIG RULES

Order Current PFL

Request Alegreya SC

Rule 1 Alegreya SC , serif

Rule 2 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , serif

Rule 3 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , serif , STIXGeneral

In Fontconfig's metrics, the family name has the highest priority over other patterns, like style,
size, etc. Fontconfig checks which family is currently installed on the system. If “Alegreya SC”
is installed, then Fontconfig returns it. If not, it asks for “Droid Serif”, etc.
Be careful. When the order of Fontconfig snippets is changed, Fontconfig can return different
results, as depicted in Table 7.2, “Results from Generating PFL from Fontconfig Rules with Changed
Order”.

TABLE 7.2: RESULTS FROM GENERATING PFL FROM FONTCONFIG RULES WITH CHANGED ORDER

Order Current PFL Note

Request Alegreya SC Same request performed.

Rule 2 Alegreya SC serif not in FPL, nothing is

substituted

Rule 3 Alegreya SC serif not in FPL, nothing is

substituted

Rule 1 Alegreya SC , serif Alegreya SC present in

FPL, substitution is per-
formed

Note: Implication.
Think of the <default> alias as a classification or inclusion of this group (if not installed).
As the example shows, <default> should always precede the <prefer> and <accept>
aliases of that group.

105 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 <default> classification is not limited to the generic aliases serif, sans-serif and
monospace. See /usr/share/fontconfig/conf.avail/30-metric-aliases.conf for
a complex example.

The following Fontconfig snippet in Example 7.3, “Aliases and Family Name Substitutions” creates
a serif group. Every family in this group could substitute others when a former font is not
installed.
EXAMPLE 7.3: ALIASES AND FAMILY NAME SUBSTITUTIONS

<alias>
<family>Alegreya SC</family>
<default>
<family>serif</family>
</default>
</alias>
<alias>
<family>Droid Serif</family>
<default>
<family>serif</family>
</default>
</alias>
<alias>
<family>STIXGeneral</family>
<default>
<family>serif</family>
</default>
</alias>
<alias>
<family>serif</family>
<accept>
<family>Droid Serif</family>
<family>STIXGeneral</family>
<family>Alegreya SC</family>
</accept>
</alias>

Priority is given by the order in the <accept> alias. Similarly, stronger <prefer> aliases can
be used.
Example 7.2, “Aliases and Family Name Substitutions” is expanded by Example 7.4, “Aliases and Family
Names Substitutions”.

EXAMPLE 7.4: ALIASES AND FAMILY NAMES SUBSTITUTIONS

Rule 4

106 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 <alias>
<family>serif</family>
<accept>
<family>Liberation Serif</family>
</accept>
</alias>

Rule 5

<alias>
<family>serif</family>
<prefer>
<family>DejaVu Serif</family>
</prefer>
</alias>

The expanded configuration from Example 7.4, “Aliases and Family Names Substitutions” would lead
to the following PFL evolution:

TABLE 7.3: RESULTS FROM GENERATING PFL FROM FONTCONFIG RULES

Order Current PFL

Request Alegreya SC

Rule 1 Alegreya SC , serif

Rule 2 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , serif

Rule 3 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , serif , STIXGeneral

Rule 4 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , serif , Liberation Serif , STIX-

General

Rule 5 Alegreya SC , Droid Serif , DejaVu Serif , serif , Liberation

Serif , STIXGeneral

107 Configuring the Appearance of Fonts openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Note: Implications.
In case multiple <accept> declarations for the same generic name exist, the dec-
laration that is parsed last “wins”. If possible, do not use <accept> after user ( /
etc/fonts/conf.d/*-user.conf ) when creating a system-wide configuration.

In case multiple <prefer declarations for the same generic name exist, the decla-
ration that is parsed last “wins”. If possible, do not use <prefer> before user in
the system-wide configuration.

Every <prefer> declaration overwrites <accept> declarations for the same gener-
ic name. If the administrator wants to give the user free rein to use even <ac-
cept> and not only <prefer> ,the administrator should not use <prefer> in the
system-wide configuration. On the other hand, users mostly use <prefer> ,, so that
should not be detrimental and we see the use of <prefer> also in system wide
configurations.

7.2 For More Information

Install the packages xorg-docs to get more in-depth information about X11. man 5 xorg.conf
tells you more about the format of the manual configuration (if needed). More information on
the X11 development can be found on the project's home page at http://www.x.org .
Drivers are found in xf86-video-* packages, for example xf86-video-nv . Many of the drivers
delivered with these packages are described in detail in the related manual page. For example,
if you use the nv driver, nd more information about this driver in man 4 nv .
Information about third-party drivers should be available in /usr/share/doc/pack-
ages/<package_name> . For example, the documentation of x11-video-nvidiaG03 is avail-
able in /usr/share/doc/packages/x11-video-nvidiaG03 after the package was installed.

108 For More Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

8 Accessing File Systems with FUSE

FUSE is the acronym for le system in user space. This means you can configure and
mount a le system as an unprivileged user. Normally, you need to be root for this
task. FUSE alone is a kernel module. Combined with plug-ins, it allows you to ex-
tend FUSE to access almost all le systems like remote SSH connections, ISO im-
ages, and more.

8.1 Configuring FUSE

Before you can use FUSE, you need to install the package fuse . Depending which le system
you want to use, you need additional plug-ins available as separate packages. For an overview,
see Section 8.5, “Available FUSE Plug-ins”.
Generally you do not need to configure FUSE. However, it is a good idea to create a directory
where all your mount points are combined. For example, you can create a directory ~/mounts
and insert your subdirectories for your different le systems there.

8.2 Mounting an NTFS Partition

NTFS, the New Technology File System, is the default le system of Windows. Since under normal
circumstances the unprivileged user cannot mount NTFS block devices using the external FUSE
library, the process of mounting a Windows partition described below requires root privileges.

1. Become root and install the package ntfs-3g .

2. Create a directory that is to be used as a mount point, for example ~/mounts/windows .

3. Find out which Windows partition you need. Use YaST and start the partitioner module
to see which partition belongs to Windows, but do not modify anything. Alternatively,
become root and execute /sbin/fdisk -l . Look for partitions with a partition type
of HPFS/NTFS .

4. Mount the partition in read-write mode. Replace the placeholder DEVICE with your re-
spective Windows partition:

ntfs-3g /dev/DEVICE MOUNT POINT

109 Configuring FUSE openSUSE Leap 42.3

 To use your Windows partition in read-only mode, append -o ro :

ntfs-3g /dev/DEVICE MOUNT POINT -o ro

The command ntfs-3g uses the current user (UID) and group (GID) to mount the given
device. If you want to set the write permissions to a different user, use the command id
USER to get the output of the UID and GID values. Set it with:

id tux
uid=1000(tux) gid=100(users) groups=100(users),16(dialout),33(video)
ntfs-3g /dev/DEVICE MOUNT POINT -o uid=1000,gid=100

Find additional options in the man page.

To unmount the resource, run fusermount -u MOUNT POINT .

8.3 Mounting Remote File System with SSHFS

SSH, the secure shell network protocol, can be used to exchange data between two computers
using a secure channel. To establish an SSH connection through FUSE, proceed as follows:

1. Install the package sshfs .

2. Create a directory that is to be used as a mount point. A good idea is to use ~/mounts/
HOST . Replace HOST with the name of your remote computer.

3. Mount the remote le system:

sshfs USER:HOST MOUNT POINT

4. Enter your password for the remote computer.

To unmount the resource, run fusermount -u MOUNT POINT .

8.4 Mounting an ISO File System

To look into an ISO image, you can mount it with the fuseiso package:

1. Install the package fuseiso .

110 Mounting Remote File System with SSHFS openSUSE Leap 42.3
 2. Create a directory that is to be used as a mount point, for example ~/mounts/iso .

3. Mount the ISO image:

fuseiso ISO_IMAGE MOUNT POINT

You can only read content from the ISO image, but you can not write back. To unmount the
resource, use fusermount -u MOUNT POINT .

8.5 Available FUSE Plug-ins

FUSE is dependent on plug-ins. The following table lists common plug-ins.

TABLE 8.1: AVAILABLE FUSE PLUG-INS

curlftpfs mount FTP servers

encfs mount encrypted le systems

fuseiso mounts CD-ROM images with ISO9660 le

systems in them

fusepod mount iPods

fusesmb mount browseable Samba clients or Win-

dows shares

gphotofs mount supported digital cameras through

gPhoto

ntfs-3g mount NTFS volumes (with read and write

support)

obexfs mount Bluetooth devices

sshfs le system client based on SSH le transfer

protocol

wdfs mount WebDAV le systems

111 Available FUSE Plug-ins openSUSE Leap 42.3

8.6 For More Information
See the home page http://fuse.sourceforge.net of FUSE for more information.

112 For More Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

III Managing and Updating Software

9 Installing or Removing Software 114

10 Installing Add-On Products 131

11 YaST Online Update 133

12 Upgrading the System and System Changes 138

9 Installing or Removing Software

Use YaST's software management module to search for software components you
want to add or remove. YaST resolves all dependencies for you. To install pack-
ages not shipped with the installation media, add additional software repositories
to your setup and let YaST manage them. Keep your system up-to-date by managing
software updates with the update applet.
Change the software collection of your system with the YaST Software Manager. This YaST
module is available in two flavors: a graphical variant for X Window and a text-based variant
to be used on the command line. The graphical flavor is described here—for details on the text-
based YaST, see Book “Reference”, Chapter 1 “YaST in Text Mode”.

Note: Confirmation and Review of Changes

When installing, updating or removing packages, any changes in the Software Manager
are not applied immediately but only after confirming them with Accept or Apply respec-
tively. YaST maintains a list with all actions, allowing you to review and modify your
changes before applying them to the system.

9.1 Definition of Terms

Repository
A local or remote directory containing packages, plus additional information about these
packages (package metadata).

(Repository) Alias/Repository Name

A short name for a repository (called Alias within Zypper and Repository Name within
YaST). It can be chosen by the user when adding a repository and must be unique.

Repository Description Files

Each repository provides les describing content of the repository (package names, ver-
sions, etc.). These repository description les are downloaded to a local cache that is used
by YaST.

Product

114 Definition of Terms openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Represents a whole product, for example openSUSE® Leap.

Pattern
A pattern is an installable group of packages dedicated to a certain purpose. For example,
the Laptop pattern contains all packages that are needed in a mobile computing environ-
ment. Patterns define package dependencies (such as required or recommended packages)
and come with a preselection of packages marked for installation. This ensures that the
most important packages needed for a certain purpose are available on your system after
installation of the pattern. However, not necessarily all packages in a pattern are prese-
lected for installation and you can manually select or deselect packages within a pattern
according to your needs and wishes.

Package
A package is a compressed le in rpm format that contains the les for a particular pro-
gram.

Patch
A patch consists of one or more packages and may be applied by means of delta RPMs. It
may also introduce dependencies to packages that are not installed yet.

Resolvable
A generic term for product, pattern, package or patch. The most commonly used type of
resolvable is a package or a patch.

Delta RPM
A delta RPM consists only of the binary di between two defined versions of a package,
and therefore has the smallest download size. Before being installed, the full RPM package
is rebuilt on the local machine.

Package Dependencies
Certain packages are dependent on other packages, such as shared libraries. In other terms,
a package may require other packages—if the required packages are not available, the
package cannot be installed. In addition to dependencies (package requirements) that must
be fulfilled, some packages recommend other packages. These recommended packages are
only installed if they are actually available, otherwise they are ignored and the package
recommending them is installed nevertheless.

115 Definition of Terms openSUSE Leap 42.3

9.2 Using the YaST Software Manager
Start the software manager from the YaST Control Center by choosing Software Software Man-
agement.

9.2.1 Views for Searching Packages or Patterns

The YaST software manager can install packages or patterns from all currently enabled reposi-
tories. It offers different views and filters to make it easier to nd the software you are searching
for. The Search view is the default view of the window. To change view, click View and select
one of the following entries from the drop-down box. The selected view opens in a new tab.

Patterns
Lists all patterns available for installation on your system.

Package Groups
Lists all packages sorted by groups such as Graphics, Programming, or Security.

RPM Groups
Lists all packages sorted by functionality with groups and subgroups. For example Net-
working Email Clients.

116 Using the YaST Software Manager openSUSE Leap 42.3

Languages
A filter to list all packages needed to add a new system language.

Repositories
A filter to list packages by repository. To select more than one repository, hold the Ctrl

key while clicking repository names. The “pseudo repository” @System lists all packages
currently installed.

Search
Lets you search for a package according to certain criteria. Enter a search term and press
Enter . Refine your search by specifying where to Search In and by changing the Search
Mode. For example, if you do not know the package name but only the name of the applica-
tion that you are searching for, try including the package Description in the search process.

Installation Summary
If you have already selected packages for installation, update or removal, this view shows
the changes that will be applied to your system when you click Accept. To filter for packages
with a certain status in this view, activate or deactivate the respective check boxes. Press
Shift – F1 for details on the status ags.

Tip: Finding Packages Not Belonging to an Active

Repository
To list all packages that do not belong to an active repository, choose View Reposito-
ries @System and then choose Secondary Filter Unmaintained Packages. This is useful,
for example, if you have deleted a repository and want to make sure no packages from
that repository remain installed.

9.2.2 Installing and Removing Packages or Patterns

Certain packages are dependent on other packages, such as shared libraries. On the other hand,
some packages cannot coexist with others on the system. If possible, YaST automatically resolves
these dependencies or conflicts. If your choice results in a dependency conflict that cannot be
automatically solved, you need to solve it manually as described in Section 9.2.4, “Checking Software
Dependencies”.

117 Installing and Removing Packages or Patterns openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Note: Removal of Packages
When removing any packages, by default YaST only removes the selected packages. If you
want YaST to also remove any other packages that become unneeded after removal of the
specified package, select Options Cleanup when deleting packages from the main menu.

1. Search for packages as described in Section 9.2.1, “Views for Searching Packages or Patterns”.

2. The packages found are listed in the right pane. To install a package or remove it, right-
click it and choose Install or Delete. If the relevant option is not available, check the package
status indicated by the symbol in front of the package name—press Shift – F1 for help.

Tip: Applying an Action to All Packages Listed

To apply an action to all packages listed in the right pane, go to the main menu
and choose an action from Package All in This List.

3. To install a pattern, right-click the pattern name and choose Install.

4. It is not possible to remove a pattern per se. Instead, select the packages of a pattern you
want to remove and mark them for removal.

5. To select more packages, repeat the steps mentioned above.

6. Before applying your changes, you can review or modify them by clicking View Installa-
tion Summary. By default, all packages that will change status, are listed.

7. To revert the status for a package, right-click the package and select one of the following
entries: Keep if the package was scheduled to be deleted or updated, or Do Not Install if
it was scheduled for installation. To abandon all changes and quit the Software Manager,
click Cancel and Abandon.

8. When you are finished, click Accept to apply your changes.

9. In case YaST found dependencies on other packages, a list of packages that have addition-
ally been chosen for installation, update or removal is presented. Click Continue to accept
them.
After all selected packages are installed, updated or removed, the YaST Software Manager
automatically terminates.

118 Installing and Removing Packages or Patterns openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Note: Installing Source Packages
Installing source packages with YaST Software Manager is not possible at the moment.
Use the command line tool zypper for this purpose. For more information, see Book
“Reference”, Chapter 2 “Managing Software with Command Line Tools”, Section 2.1.2.5 “Installing
or Downloading Source Packages”.

9.2.3 Updating Packages

Instead of updating individual packages, you can also update all installed packages or all pack-
ages from a certain repository. When mass updating packages, the following aspects are gener-
ally considered:

priorities of the repositories that provide the package,

architecture of the package (for example, AMD64/Intel 64),

version number of the package,

package vendor.

Which of the aspects has the highest importance for choosing the update candidates depends
on the respective update option you choose.

1. To update all installed packages to the latest version, choose Package All Packages Up-
date if Newer Version Available from the main menu.
All repositories are checked for possible update candidates, using the following policy:
YaST rst tries to restrict the search to packages with the same architecture and vendor
like the installed one. If the search is positive, the “best” update candidate from those is
selected according to the process below. However, if no comparable package of the same
vendor can be found, the search is expanded to all packages with the same architecture.
If still no comparable package can be found, all packages are considered and the “best”
update candidate is selected according to the following criteria:

1. Repository priority: Prefer the package from the repository with the highest priority.

2. If more than one package results from this selection, choose the one with the “best”
architecture (best choice: matching the architecture of the installed one).

119 Updating Packages openSUSE Leap 42.3

 If the resulting package has a higher version number than the installed one, the installed
package will be updated and replaced with the selected update candidate.
This option tries to avoid changes in architecture and vendor for the installed packages,
but under certain circumstances, they are tolerated.

Note: Update Unconditionally

If you choose Package All Packages Update Unconditionally instead, the same cri-
teria apply but any candidate package found is installed unconditionally. Thus,
choosing this option might actually lead to downgrading some packages.

2. To make sure that the packages for a mass update derive from a certain repository:

a. Choose the repository from which to update as described in Section 9.2.1, “Views for
Searching Packages or Patterns” .

b. On the right hand side of the window, click Switch system packages to the versions
in this repository. This explicitly allows YaST to change the package vendor when
replacing the packages.
When you proceed with Accept, all installed packages will be replaced by packages
deriving from this repository, if available. This may lead to changes in vendor and
architecture and even to downgrading some packages.

c. To refrain from this, click Cancel switching system packages to the versions in this repos-
itory. Note that you can only cancel this until you press the Accept button.

3. Before applying your changes, you can review or modify them by clicking View Installa-
tion Summary. By default, all packages that will change status, are listed.

4. If all options are set according to your wishes, confirm your changes with Accept to start
the mass update.

120 Updating Packages openSUSE Leap 42.3

9.2.4 Checking Software Dependencies
Most packages are dependent on other packages. If a package, for example, uses a shared library,
it is dependent on the package providing this library. On the other hand some packages cannot
coexist with each other, causing a conflict (for example, you can only install one mail transfer
agent: sendmail or postfix). When installing or removing software, the Software Manager makes
sure no dependencies or conflicts remain unsolved to ensure system integrity.
In case there exists only one solution to resolve a dependency or a conflict, it is resolved auto-
matically. Multiple solutions always cause a conflict which needs to be resolved manually. If
solving a conflict involves a vendor or architecture change, it also needs to be solved manually.
When clicking Accept to apply any changes in the Software Manager, you get an overview of all
actions triggered by the automatic resolver which you need to confirm.
By default, dependencies are automatically checked. A check is performed every time you
change a package status (for example, by marking a package for installation or removal). This
is generally useful, but can become exhausting when manually resolving a dependency conflict.
To disable this function, go to the main menu and deactivate Dependencies Autocheck. Manual-
ly perform a dependency check with Dependencies Check Now. A consistency check is always
performed when you confirm your selection with Accept.
To review a package's dependencies, right-click it and choose Show Solver Information. A map
showing the dependencies opens. Packages that are already installed are displayed in a green
frame.

Note: Manually Solving Package Conflicts

Unless you are very experienced, follow the suggestions YaST makes when handling pack-
age conflicts, otherwise you may not be able to resolve them. Keep in mind that every
change you make, potentially triggers other conflicts, so you can easily end up with a
steadily increasing number of conflicts. In case this happens, Cancel the Software Manag-
er, Abandon all your changes and start again.

121 Checking Software Dependencies openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 9.1: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT OF THE SOFTWARE MANAGER

9.2.4.1 Handling of Package Recommendations

In addition to the hard dependencies required to run a program (for example a certain library),
a package can also have weak dependencies, that add for example extra functionality or trans-
lations. These weak dependencies are called package recommendations.
The way package recommendations are handled has slightly changed starting with openSUSE
Leap 42.1. Nothing has changed when installing a new package—recommended packages are
still installed by default.
Prior to openSUSE Leap 42.1, missing recommendations for already installed packages were in-
stalled automatically. Now these packages will no longer be installed automatically. To switch to
the old default, set PKGMGR_REEVALUATE_RECOMMENDED="yes" in /etc/sysconfig/yast2 . To
install all missing recommendations for already installed packages, start YaST Software Man-
ager and choose Extras Install All Matching Recommended Packages.
To disable the installation of recommended packages when installing new packages, deactivate
Dependencies Install Recommended Packages in the YaST Software Manager. If using the com-
mand line tool Zypper to install packages, use the option --no-recommends.

122 Checking Software Dependencies openSUSE Leap 42.3

9.3 Managing Software Repositories and Services
If you want to install third-party software, add additional software repositories to your system.
By default, the product repositories such as openSUSE Leap-DVD 42.3 and a matching update
repository are automatically configured. Depending on the initially selected product, an addi-
tional repository containing translations, dictionaries, etc. might also be configured.
To manage repositories, start YaST and select Software Software Repositories. The Configured
Software Repositories dialog opens. Here, you can also manage subscriptions to so-called Services
by changing the View at the right corner of the dialog to All Services. A Service in this context is
a Repository Index Service (RIS) that can offer one or more software repositories. Such a Service
can be changed dynamically by its administrator or vendor.
Each repository provides les describing content of the repository (package names, versions,
etc.). These repository description les are downloaded to a local cache that is used by YaST. To
ensure their integrity, software repositories can be signed with the GPG Key of the repository
maintainer. Whenever you add a new repository, YaST offers the ability to import its key.

Warning: Trusting External Software Sources

Before adding external software repositories to your list of repositories, make sure this
repository can be trusted. SUSE is not responsible for any problems arising from software
installed from third-party software repositories.

9.3.1 Adding Software Repositories

You can either add repositories from DVD/CD, removable mass storage devices (such as ash
disks), a local directory, an ISO image or a network source.
To add repositories from the Configured Software Repositories dialog in YaST proceed as follows:

1. Click Add.

123 Managing Software Repositories and Services openSUSE Leap 42.3

 2. Select one of the options listed in the dialog:

FIGURE 9.2: ADDING A SOFTWARE REPOSITORY

To scan your network for installation servers announcing their services via SLP, select
Scan Using SLP and click Next.

To add a repository from a removable medium, choose the relevant option and insert
the medium or connect the USB device to the machine, respectively. Click Next to
start the installation.

For the majority of repositories, you will be asked to specify the path (or URL) to the
media after selecting the respective option and clicking Next. Specifying a Repository
Name is optional. If none is specified, YaST will use the product name or the URL
as repository name.

The option Download Repository Description Files is activated by default. If you deactivate
the option, YaST will automatically download the les later, if needed.

3. Depending on the repository you have added, you may be asked if you want to import the
GPG key with which it is signed or asked to agree to a license.
After confirming these messages, YaST will download and parse the metadata. It will add
the repository to the list of Configured Repositories.

4. If needed, adjust the repository Properties as described in Section 9.3.2, “Managing Repository
Properties”.

124 Adding Software Repositories openSUSE Leap 42.3

 5. Confirm your changes with OK to close the configuration dialog.

6. After having successfully added the repository, the software manager starts and you can
install packages from this repository. For details, refer to Chapter 9, Installing or Removing
Software.

9.3.2 Managing Repository Properties

The Configured Software Repositories overview of the Software Repositories lets you change the
following repository properties:

Status
The repository status can either be Enabled or Disabled. You can only install packages from
repositories that are enabled. To turn a repository o temporarily, select it and deactivate
Enable. You can also double-click a repository name to toggle its status. If you want to
remove a repository completely, click Delete.

Refresh
When refreshing a repository, its content description (package names, versions, etc.) is
downloaded to a local cache that is used by YaST. It is sufficient to do this once for static
repositories such as CDs or DVDs, whereas repositories whose content changes often should
be refreshed frequently. The easiest way to keep a repository's cache up-to-date is to choose
Automatically Refresh. To do a manual refresh click Refresh and select one of the options.

Keep Downloaded Packages

Packages from remote repositories are downloaded before being installed. By default, they
are deleted upon a successful installation. Activating Keep Downloaded Packages prevents
the deletion of downloaded packages. The download location is configured in /etc/zypp/
zypp.conf , by default it is /var/cache/zypp/packages .

Priority
The Priority of a repository is a value between 1 and 200 , with 1 being the highest priority
and 200 the lowest priority. Any new repositories that are added with YaST get a priority
of 99 by default. If you do not care about a priority value for a certain repository, you can
also set the value to 0 to apply the default priority to that repository ( 99 ). If a package is
available in more than one repository, then the repository with the highest priority takes
precedence. This is useful if you want to avoid downloading packages unnecessarily from
the Internet by giving a local repository (for example, a DVD) a higher priority.

125 Managing Repository Properties openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Important: Priority Compared to Version
The repository with the highest priority takes precedence in any case. Therefore,
make sure that the update repository always has the highest priority, otherwise you
might install an outdated version that will not be updated until the next online
update.

Name and URL

To change a repository name or its URL, select it from the list with a single-click and then
click Edit.

9.3.3 Managing Repository Keys

To ensure their integrity, software repositories can be signed with the GPG Key of the repository
maintainer. Whenever you add a new repository, YaST offers to import its key. Verify it as you
would do with any other GPG key and make sure it does not change. If you detect a key change,
something might be wrong with the repository. Disable the repository as an installation source
until you know the cause of the key change.
To manage all imported keys, click GPG Keys in the Configured Software Repositories dialog. Select
an entry with the mouse to show the key properties at the bottom of the window. Add, Edit or
Delete keys with a click on the respective buttons.

9.4 Keeping the System Up-to-date

SUSE offers a continuous stream of software security patches for your product. They can be
installed using the YaST Online Update module. It also offers advanced features to customize the
patch installation.
The GNOME desktop also provides a tool for installing patches and for installing package updates
of packages that are already installed. In contrast to a Patch, a package update is only related to
one package and provides a newer version of a package. The GNOME tool lets you install both
patches and package updates with a few clicks as described in Section 9.4.2, “Installing Patches
and Package Updates”.

126 Managing Repository Keys openSUSE Leap 42.3

9.4.1 The GNOME Software Updater
Whenever new patches or package updates are available, GNOME shows a notification about
this at the bottom of the desktop (or on the locked screen).

FIGURE 9.3: UPDATE NOTIFICATION ON GNOME LOCK SCREEN

9.4.2 Installing Patches and Package Updates

Whenever new patches or package updates are available, GNOME shows a notification about
this at the bottom of the desktop (or on the locked screen).

127 The GNOME Software Updater openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 9.4: UPDATE NOTIFICATION ON GNOME DESKTOP

1. To install the patches and updates, click Install updates in the notification message. This
opens the GNOME update viewer. Alternatively, open the update viewer from Applica-
tions System Tools Software Update or press Alt – F2 and enter gpk-update-viewer .

2. All Security Updates and Important Updates are preselected. It is strongly recommended to
install these patches. Other Updates can be manually selected by activating the respective
check boxes. Get detailed information on a patch or package update by clicking its title.

3. Click Install Updates to start the installation. You will be prompted for the root password.

4. Enter the root password in the authentication dialog and proceed.

128 Installing Patches and Package Updates openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 9.5: GNOME UPDATE VIEWER

9.4.3 Configuring the GNOME Software Updater

To define the appearance of the notification (where it appears on the screen, whether to dis-
play it on the lock screen), select Applications System Settings Notification Software Update
and change the settings according to your wishes.
To configure how often to check for updates or to activate or deactivate repositories, select
Applications System Tools Settings Software Settings. The tabs of the configuration dialog let
you modify the following settings:
UPDATE SETTINGS

Check for Updates

Choose how often a check for updates is performed: Hourly, Daily, Weekly, or Never.

Check for Major Upgrades

129 Configuring the GNOME Software Updater openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Choose how often a check for major upgrades is performed: Daily, Weekly, or Never.

Check for updates when using mobile broadband

This configuration option is only available on mobile computers. Turned o by default.

Check for updates on battery power

This configuration option is only available on mobile computers. Turned o by default.

SOFTWARE SOURCES

Repositories
Lists the repositories that will be checked for available patches and package updates. You
can enable or disable certain repositories.

Important: Keep Update Repository Enabled

To make sure that you are notified about any patches that are security-relevant,
keep the Updates repository for your product enabled.

More options are configurable using gconf-editor : apps gnome-packagekit.

130 Configuring the GNOME Software Updater openSUSE Leap 42.3

10 Installing Add-On Products

Add-on products are system extensions. You can install a third party add-on product
or a special system extension of openSUSE® Leap (for example, a CD with support
for additional languages or a CD with binary drivers). To install a new add-on, start
YaST and select Software Add-On Products. You can select various types of product
media, like CD, FTP, USB mass storage devices (such as USB ash drives or disks)
or a local directory. You can also work directly with ISO les. To add an add-on as
ISO le media, select Local ISO Image then enter the Path to ISO Image. The Reposito-
ry Name is arbitrary.

10.1 Add-Ons
To install a new add-on, proceed as follows:

1. In YaST select Software Add-On Products to see an overview of already installed add-on
products.

2. To install a new add-on product, click Add.

3. From the list of available Media Types specify the type matching your repository.

4. To add a repository from a removable medium, choose the relevant option and insert the
medium or connect the USB device to the machine, respectively.

5. You can choose to Download Repository Description Files now. If the option is unchecked,
YaST will automatically download the les later, if needed. Click Next to proceed.

6. When adding a repository from the network, enter the data you are prompted for. Continue
with Next.

7. Depending on the repository you have added, you may be asked if you want to import the
GPG key with which it is signed or asked to agree to a license.
After confirming these messages, YaST will download and parse the metadata and add the
repository to the list of Configured Repositories..

8. If needed, adjust the repository Properties as described in Section 9.3.2, “Managing Repository
Properties” or confirm your changes with OK to close the configuration dialog.

131 Add-Ons openSUSE Leap 42.3

 9. After having successfully added the repository for the add-on media, the software manager
starts and you can install packages. Refer to Chapter 9, Installing or Removing Software for
details.

10.2 Binary Drivers

Some hardware needs binary-only drivers to function properly. If you have such hardware, refer
to the release notes for more information about availability of binary drivers for your system.
To read the release notes, open YaST and select Miscellaneous Release Notes.

132 Binary Drivers openSUSE Leap 42.3

11 YaST Online Update

SUSE offers a continuous stream of software security updates for your product. By default, the
update applet is used to keep your system up-to-date. Refer to Section 9.4, “Keeping the System Up-
to-date” for further information on the update applet. This chapter covers the alternative tool
for updating software packages: YaST Online Update.
The current patches for openSUSE® Leap are available from an update software repository,
which is automatically configured during the installation. If you have registered your product
during the installation, an update repository is already configured. If you have not registered
openSUSE Leap, you can do so by starting the Product Registration in YaST. Alternatively, you
can manually add an update repository from a source you trust. To add or remove repositories,
start the Repository Manager with Software Software Repositories in YaST. Learn more about
the Repository Manager in Section 9.3, “Managing Software Repositories and Services”.
SUSE provides updates with different relevance levels:

Security Updates
Fix severe security hazards and should always be installed.

Recommended Updates
Fix issues that could compromise your computer.

Optional Updates
Fix non-security relevant issues or provide enhancements.

11.1 The Online Update Dialog

To open the YaST Online Update dialog, start YaST and select Software Online Update. Alterna-
tively, start it from the command line with yast2 online_update .
The Online Update window consists of four sections.

133 The Online Update Dialog openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 11.1: YAST ONLINE UPDATE

The Summary section on the left lists the available patches for openSUSE Leap. The patches are
sorted by security relevance: security , recommended , and optional . You can change the
view of the Summary section by selecting one of the following options from Show Patch Category:

Needed Patches (default view)

Non-installed patches that apply to packages installed on your system.

Unneeded Patches
Patches that either apply to packages not installed on your system, or patches that have
requirements which have already have been fulfilled (because the relevant packages have
already been updated from another source).

All Patches
All patches available for openSUSE Leap.

Each list entry in the Summary section consists of a symbol and the patch name. For an overview
of the possible symbols and their meaning, press Shift – F1 . Actions required by Security
and Recommended patches are automatically preset. These actions are Autoinstall, Autoupdate
and Autodelete.

134 The Online Update Dialog openSUSE Leap 42.3

If you install an up-to-date package from a repository other than the update repository, the
requirements of a patch for this package may be fulfilled with this installation. In this case a
check mark is displayed in front of the patch summary. The patch will be visible in the list until
you mark it for installation. This will in fact not install the patch (because the package already
is up-to-date), but mark the patch as having been installed.
Select an entry in the Summary section to view a short Patch Description at the bottom left corner
of the dialog. The upper right section lists the packages included in the selected patch (a patch
can consist of several packages). Click an entry in the upper right section to view details about
the respective package that is included in the patch.

11.2 Installing Patches

The YaST Online Update dialog allows you to either install all available patches at once or to
manually select the patches that you want to apply to your system. You may also revert patches
that have been applied to the system.
By default, all new patches (except optional ones) that are currently available for your system
are already marked for installation. They will be applied automatically once you click Accept or
Apply. If one or multiple patches require a system reboot, you will be notified about this before
the patch installation starts. You can then either decide to continue with the installation of the
selected patches, skip the installation of all patches that need rebooting and install the rest, or
go back to the manual patch selection.

PROCEDURE 11.1: APPLYING PATCHES WITH YAST ONLINE UPDATE

1. Start YaST and select Software Online Update.

2. To automatically apply all new patches (except optional ones) that are currently avail-
able for your system, proceed with Apply or Accept to start the installation of the prese-
lected patches.

3. First modify the selection of patches that you want to apply:

a. Use the respective filters and views that the interface provides. For details, refer to
Section 11.1, “The Online Update Dialog”.

b. Select or deselect patches according to your needs and wishes by right-clicking the
patch and choosing the respective action from the context menu.

135 Installing Patches openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Important: Always Apply Security Updates
Do not deselect any security -related patches without a very good reason.
These patches x severe security hazards and prevent your system from being
exploited.

c. Most patches include updates for several packages. If you want to change actions for
single packages, right-click a package in the package view and choose an action.

d. To confirm your selection and apply the selected patches, proceed with Apply or
Accept.

4. After the installation is complete, click Finish to leave the YaST Online Update. Your system
is now up-to-date.

11.3 Automatic Online Update

YaST also offers the possibility to set up an automatic update with daily, weekly or monthly
schedule. To use the respective module, you need to install the yast2-online-update-con-
figuration package rst.

By default, updates are downloaded as delta RPMs. Since rebuilding RPM packages from delta
RPMs is a memory- and processor-consuming task, certain setups or hardware configurations
might require you to disable the use of delta RPMs for the sake of performance.
Some patches, such as kernel updates or packages requiring license agreements, require user
interaction, which would cause the automatic update procedure to stop. You can configure to
skip patches that require user interaction.

PROCEDURE 11.2: CONFIGURING THE AUTOMATIC ONLINE UPDATE

1. After installation, start YaST and select Software Online Update Configuration.
Alternatively, start the module with yast2 online_update_configuration from the
command line.

2. Activate Automatic Online Update.

3. Choose the update interval: Daily, Weekly, or Monthly.

4. To automatically accept any license agreements, activate Agree with Licenses.

136 Automatic Online Update openSUSE Leap 42.3

 5. Select if you want to Skip Interactive Patches in case you want the update procedure to
proceed fully automatically.

Important: Skipping Patches

If you select to skip any packages that require interaction, run a manual Online Up-
date occasionally to install those patches, too. Otherwise you might miss important
patches.

6. To automatically install all packages recommended by updated packages, activate Include

Recommended Packages.

7. To disable the use of delta RPMs (for performance reasons), deactivate Use Delta RPMs.

8. To filter the patches by category (such as security or recommended), activate Filter by Cat-
egory and add the appropriate patch categories from the list. Only patches of the selected
categories will be installed. Others will be skipped.

9. Confirm your configuration with OK.

The automatic online update does not automatically restart the system afterward. If there are
package updates that require a system reboot, you need to do this manually.

137 Automatic Online Update openSUSE Leap 42.3

12 Upgrading the System and System Changes

You can upgrade an existing system without completely reinstalling it. There are
two types of renewing the system or parts of it: updating individual software packages
and upgrading the entire system. Updating individual packages is covered in Chapter 9,
Installing or Removing Software and Chapter 11, YaST Online Update. Two ways to up-
grade the system are discussed in the following sections— see Section 12.1.3, “Upgrad-
ing with YaST” and Section 12.1.4, “Distribution Upgrade with Zypper”.

12.1 Upgrading the System

Important: openSUSE Leap 42.3 is only available as

64-bit version
openSUSE Leap 42.3 is only available as 64-bit version. Upgrading 32-bit installations to
64-bit is not supported. Please follow the instructions in Chapter 1, Installation Quick Start
and Chapter 2, Installation with YaST to install openSUSE Leap on your computer or consider
switching to openSUSE Tumbleweed (https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Tumbleweed) .

Software tends to “grow” from version to version. Therefore, take a look at the available parti-
tion space with df before updating. If you suspect you are running short of disk space, secure
your data before you update and repartition your system. There is no general rule regarding
how much space each partition should have. Space requirements depend on your particular
partitioning profile, the software selected, and the version numbers of the system.

12.1.1 Preparations
Before upgrading, copy the old configuration les to a separate medium (such as removable
hard disk or USB ash drive) to secure the data. This primarily applies to les stored in /etc
as well as some of the directories and les in /var . You may also want to write the user data
in /home (the HOME directories) to a backup medium. Back up this data as root . Only root
has read permission for all local les.

138 Upgrading the System openSUSE Leap 42.3

Before starting your update, make note of the root partition. The command df / lists the device
name of the root partition. In Example 12.1, “List with df -h”, the root partition to write down
is /dev/sda3 (mounted as / ).

EXAMPLE 12.1: LIST WITH df -h

Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on

/dev/sda3 74G 22G 53G 29% /
udev 252M 124K 252M 1% /dev
/dev/sda5 116G 5.8G 111G 5% /home
/dev/sda1 39G 1.6G 37G 4% /windows/C
/dev/sda2 4.6G 2.6G 2.1G 57% /windows/D

12.1.2 Possible Problems

If you upgrade a default system from the previous version to this version, YaST works out the
necessary changes and performs them. Depending on your customization, some steps (or the
entire upgrade procedure) may fail and you must resort to copying back your backup data.
Check the following issues before starting the system update.

12.1.2.1 Checking passwd and group in /etc

Before upgrading the system, make sure that /etc/passwd and /etc/group do not contain
any syntax errors. For this purpose, start the verification utilities pwck and grpck as root to
eliminate any reported errors.

12.1.2.2 Shut Down Virtual Machines

If your machine serves as a VM Host Server for KVM or Xen, make sure to properly shut down
all running VM Guests prior to the update. Otherwise you may not be able to access the guests
after the update.

12.1.2.3 PostgreSQL

Before updating PostgreSQL ( postgres ), dump the databases. See the manual page of pg_dump .
This is only necessary if you actually used PostgreSQL prior to your update.

139 Possible Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

12.1.3 Upgrading with YaST

Following the preparation procedure outlined in Section 12.1.1, “Preparations”, you can now up-
grade your system:

1. Insert the openSUSE Leap DVD into the drive, then reboot the computer to start the in-
stallation program. On machines with a traditional BIOS you will see the graphical boot
screen shown below. On machines equipped with UEFI, a slightly different boot screen is
used. Secure boot on UEFI machines is supported.
Use F2 to change the language for the installer. A corresponding keyboard layout is cho-
sen automatically. See Section 2.2.1.1, “The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with Traditional
BIOS” or Section 2.2.1.2, “The Boot Screen on Machines Equipped with UEFI” for more information
about changing boot options.

2. Select Upgrade on the boot screen, then press Enter . This boots the system and loads the
openSUSE Leap installer. Do not select Installation.

3. The Language and Keyboard Layout are initialized with the language settings you have
chosen on the boot screen. Change them here, if necessary.
Read the License Agreement. It is presented in the language you have chosen on the boot
screen. License Translations are available. Proceed with Next.

140 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

 4. YaST determines if there are multiple root partitions. If there is only one, continue with the
next step. If there are several, select the right partition and confirm with Next ( /dev/sda3
was selected in the example in Section 12.1.1, “Preparations”). YaST reads the old fstab on
this partition to analyze and mount the le systems listed there.

141 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Tip: Release Notes
From this point on, the Release Notes can be viewed from any screen during the
installation process by selecting Release Notes.

5. YaST shows a list of Previously Used Repositories. By default all repositories will get re-
moved. If you had not added any custom repositories, do not change the settings. The
packages for the upgrade will be installed from DVD and you can optionally enable the
default online repositories can be chosen in the next step.
If you have had added custom repositories, for example from the openSUSE Build Service,
you have two choices:

Leave the repository in state Removed . Software that was installed from this reposi-
tory will get removed during the upgrade. Use this method if no version of the repos-
itory that matches the new openSUSE Leap version, is available.

Update and enable the repository. Use this method if a version that matches the new
openSUSE Leap version is available for the repository. Change it's URL by clicking the
repository in the list and then Change. Enable the repository afterwards by clicking
Toggle Status until it is set to Enable.

Do not use repositories matching the previous version unless you are absolutely sure they
will also work with the new openSUSE version. If not, the system may be unstable or not
work at all.

142 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

 6. In case an Internet connection is available, you may now activate optional online repos-
itories. Please enable all repositories you had enable before to ensure all packages get
upgraded correctly. Enabling the update repositories is strongly recommended—this will
ensure that you get the latest package versions available, including ll security updates
and fixes.

143 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

 After having proceeded with Next, you need to confirm the license agreement for the
online repositories with Next.

7. Use the Installation Settings screen to review and—if necessary—change several proposed
installation settings. The current configuration is listed for each setting. To change it, click
the headline.

System
View detailed hardware information by clicking System. In the resulting screen you
can also change Kernel Settings—see Section 2.12.5, “System” for more information.

Update Options
By default, YaST will update perform full Update with Installation of New Software
and Features based on a selection of patterns. Each pattern contains several software
packages needed for specific functions (for example, Web and LAMP server or a print
server).
Here you can change the package selection or change the Update Mode to Only Update
Installed Packages.

Packages
You can further tweak the package selection on the Packages screen. Here you can not
only select patterns but also list their contents and search for individual packages.
See Chapter 9, Installing or Removing Software for more information.
If you intend to enhance your system, it is recommended to finish the upgrade rst
and then install additional software.

Backup
You also have the possibility to make backups of various system components. Select-
ing backups slows down the upgrade process. Use this option if you do not have a
recent system backup.

Language
This section allows you to change the Primary Languageprimary language and con-
figure additional Secontry Languages.. Optionally, you can adjust the keyboard layout
and timezone to the selected primary language.

Keyboard Layout
Here you can change the keyboard layout and adjust additional Expert Keyboard
Settings.

144 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Booting
This section shows the boot loader configuration. Changing the defaults is only rec-
ommended if really needed. Refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 12 “The Boot Loader
GRUB 2” for details.

8. After you have finalized the system configuration on the Installation Settings screen, click
Update. Depending on your software selection you may need to agree to license agreements
before the installation confirmation screen pops up. Up to this point no changes have been
made to your system. After you click Update a second time, the upgrade process starts.

145 Upgrading with YaST openSUSE Leap 42.3

Once the basic upgrade installation is finished, YaST reboots the system. Finally, YaST updates
the remaining software, if any and displays the release notes, if wanted.

12.1.4 Distribution Upgrade with Zypper

With the zypper command line utility you can upgrade to the next version of the distribution.
Most importantly, you can initiate the system upgrade process from within the running system.
This feature is attractive for advanced users who want to run remote upgrades or upgrades on
many similarly configured systems.

12.1.4.1 Preparing the Upgrade with Zypper

To avoid unexpected errors during the upgrade process using zypper , minimize risky constel-
lations.

146 Distribution Upgrade with Zypper openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Quit as many applications and stop unneeded services as possible and log out all regular
users.

Disable third party repositories before starting the upgrade, or lower the priority of these
repositories to make sure packages from the default system repositories will get preference.
Enable them again after the upgrade and edit their version string to match the version
number of the distribution of the upgraded now running system.

12.1.4.2 The Upgrade Procedure

Warning: Check Your System Backup

Before actually starting the upgrade procedure, check that your system backup is up-to-
date and restorable. This is especially important because you need to enter many of the
following steps manually.

The program zypper supports long and short command names. For example, you can abbreviate
zypper install as zypper in . In the following text, the short variants are used.

1. Run the online update to make sure the software management stack is up-to-date. For
more information, see Chapter 11, YaST Online Update.

2. Configure the repositories you want to use as update sources. Getting this right is crucial.
Either use YaST (see Section 9.3, “Managing Software Repositories and Services”) or zypper (see
Book “Reference”, Chapter 2 “Managing Software with Command Line Tools”, Section 2.1 “Using
Zypper”). The name of the repositories used in the following steps may vary depending on
your customisation's.
To view your current repositories enter:

zypper lr -u

a. Increase the version number of the system repositories from 42.2 to 42.3 leap/ . Add
the new repositories with commands such as:

server=http://download.example.org
zypper ar $server/distribution/leap/42.3/repo/oss/ Leap-42.3-OSS
zypper ar $server/update/leap/42.3/oss/ Leap-42.3-Update

147 Distribution Upgrade with Zypper openSUSE Leap 42.3

 And remove the old repositories:

zypper rr Leap-42.2-OSS
zypper rr Leap-42.2-Update

If necessary, repeat these steps for other repositories to ensure a clean upgrade path
for all your packages.

b. Disable third party repositories or other openSUSE Build Server repositories, because
zypper dup is guaranteed to work with the default repositories only (replace RE-
PO-ALIAS with the name of the repository you want to disable):

zypper mr -d REPO-ALIAS

Alternatively, you can lower the priority of these repositories.

Note: Handling of Unresolved Dependencies

zypper dup will remove all packages having unresolved dependencies, but
it keeps packages of disabled repositories as long as their dependencies are
satisfied.

zypper dup ensures that all installed packages come from one of the available
repositories. It does not consider the version, architecture, or vendor of the installed
packages; thus it emulates a fresh installation. Packages that are no longer avail-
able in the repositories are considered orphaned. Such packages get uninstalled if
their dependencies cannot be satisfied. If they can be satisfied, such packages stay
installed.

c. Once done, check your repository configuration with:

zypper lr -d

3. Refresh local metadata and repository contents with zypper ref .

4. Update Zypper and the package management itself with zypper patch --updates-
tack-only .

148 Distribution Upgrade with Zypper openSUSE Leap 42.3

 5. Run the actual distribution upgrade with zypper dup . You are asked to confirm the li-
cense of openSUSE Leap and of some packages—depending on the set of installed pack-
ages.

6. Reboot the system with shutdown -r now .

12.1.5 Updating Individual Packages

Regardless of your overall updated environment, you can always update individual packages.
From this point on, however, it is your responsibility to ensure that your system remains con-
sistent.
Use the YaST software management tool to update packages as described in Chapter 9, Installing
or Removing Software. Select components from the YaST package selection list according to your
needs. If a newer version of a package exists, the version numbers of the installed and the
available versions are listed in blue color in the Installed (Available) column. If you select a
package essential for the overall operation of the system, YaST issues a warning. Such packages
should be updated only in the update mode. For example, many packages contain shared libraries.
Updating these programs and applications in the running system may lead to system instability.

12.2 For More Information

Problems and special issues of the various versions are published online as they are identified.
See the links listed below. Important updates of individual packages can be accessed using the
YaST Online Update. For more information, see Chapter 11, YaST Online Update.
Refer to the Product highlights (http://en.opensuse.org/Product_highlights and the Bugs
article in the openSUSE wiki at http://en.opensuse.org/openSUSE:Most_annoying_bugs for in-
formation about recent changes and issues.

149 Updating Individual Packages openSUSE Leap 42.3

IV The Bash Shell

13 Shell Basics 151

14 Bash and Bash Scripts 189

13 Shell Basics

When working with Linux these days, you can communicate with the system almost without
ever requiring a command line interpreter (the shell). After booting your Linux system, you
are usually directed to a graphical user interface that guides you through the login process and
the following interactions with the operating system. The graphical user interface in Linux (the
X Window System or X11) is initially configured during installation. Both KDE and GNOME
desktop (and other window managers you can install) use it for interaction with the user.
Nevertheless, it is useful to have some basic knowledge of working with a shell because you
might encounter situations where the graphical user interface is not available. For example, if
some problem with the X Window System occurs. If you are not familiar with a shell, you might
feel a bit uncomfortable at rst when entering commands, but the more you get used to it, the
more you will realize that the command line is often the quickest and easiest way to perform
some daily tasks.
For UNIX or Linux several shells are available which differ slightly in behavior and in the com-
mands they accept. The default shell in openSUSE® Leap is Bash (GNU Bourne-Again Shell).
The following sections will guide you through your rst steps with the Bash shell and will show
you how to complete some basic tasks via the command line. If you are interested in learning
more or rather feel like a shell “power user” already, refer to Chapter 14, Bash and Bash Scripts.

13.1 Starting a Shell

Basically, there are two different ways to start a shell from the graphical user interface which
usually shows after you have booted your computer:

you can leave the graphical user interface or

you can start a terminal window within the graphical user interface.

While the rst option is always available, you can only make use of the second option when you
are already logged in to a desktop such as KDE or GNOME. Whichever way you choose, there
is always a way back and you can switch back and forth between the shell and the graphical
user interface.

151 Starting a Shell openSUSE Leap 42.3

If you want to give it a try, press Ctrl – Alt – F2 to leave the graphical user interface. The
graphical user interface disappears and you are taken to a shell which prompts you to log in.
Type your username and press Enter . Then type your password and press Enter . The prompt
now changes and shows some useful information as in the following example:

1 2 3

tux@linux:~>

1 Your login.
2 The hostname of your computer.
3 Path to the current directory. Directly after login, the current directory usually is your
home directory, indicated by the ~ symbol (tilde) .
When you are logged in at a remote computer the information provided by the prompt always
shows you which system you are currently working on.
When the cursor is located behind this prompt, you can pass commands directly to your com-
puter system. For example, you can now enter ls -l to list the contents of the current directory
in a detailed format. If this is enough for your rst encounter with the shell and you want to go
back to the graphical user interface, you should log out from your shell session rst. To do so,
type exit and press Enter . Then press Alt – F7 to switch back to the graphical user interface.
You will nd your desktop and the applications running on it unchanged.
When you are already logged in to the GNOME or the KDE desktop and want to start a terminal
window within the desktop, press Alt – F2 and enter konsole (for KDE) or gnome-terminal
(for GNOME). This opens a terminal window on your desktop. As you are already logged in to
your desktop, the prompt shows information about your system as described above. You can now
enter commands and execute tasks just like in any shell which runs parallel to your desktop. To
switch to another application on the desktop just click on the corresponding application window
or select it from the taskbar of your panel. To close the terminal window press Alt – F4 .

13.2 Entering Commands

As soon as the prompt appears on the shell it is ready to receive and execute commands. A
command can consist of several elements. The rst element is the actual command, followed by
parameters or options. You can type a command and edit it by using the following keys: ← , → ,
Home , End , <— (Backspace), Del , and Space . You can correct typing errors or add options.
The command is not executed until you press Enter .

152 Entering Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Important: No News Is Good News
The shell is not verbose: in contrast to some graphical user interfaces, it usually does
not provide confirmation messages when commands have been executed. Messages only
appear in case of problems or errors —or if you explicitly ask for them by executing a
command with a certain option.
Also keep this in mind for commands to delete objects. Before entering a command like
rm (without any option) for removing a le, you should know if you really want to get
rid of the object: it will be deleted irretrievably, without confirmation.

13.2.1 Using Commands without Options

In Section 13.5.1, “Permissions for User, Group and Others” you already got to know one of the most
basic commands: ls ,
which used to list the contents of a directory. This command can be used with or without options.
Entering the plain ls command shows the contents of the current directory:

tux > ls
bin Desktop Documents public_html tux.txt
tux >

Files in Linux may have a le extension or a suffix, such as .txt , but do not need to have
one. This makes it difficult to differentiate between les and folders in this output of the ls .
By default, the colors in the Bash shell give you a hint: directories are usually shown in blue,
les in black.

13.2.2 Using Commands with Options

A better way to get more details about the contents of a directory is using the ls command
with a string of options. Options modify the way a command works so that you can get it to
carry out specific tasks. Options are separated from the command with a blank and are usually
prefixed with a hyphen. The ls -l command shows the contents of the same directory in full
detail (long listing format):

tux > ls -l
drwxr-xr-x 1 tux users 48 2015-06-23 16:08 bin
drwx---r-- 1 tux users 53279 2015-06-21 13:16 Desktop

153 Using Commands without Options openSUSE Leap 42.3

drwx------ 1 tux users 280 2015-06-23 16:08 Documents
drwxr-xr-x 1 tux users 70733 2015-06-21 09:35 public_html
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 47896 2015-06-21 09:46 tux.txt
tux >

This output shows the following information about each object:

drwxr-xr-x 1 1 2 tux 3 users 4 48 5 2006-06-23 16:08 6 bin 7

1 Type of object and access permissions. For further information, refer to Section 13.5.1, “Per-
missions for User, Group and Others”.

2 Number of hard links to this le.

3 Owner of the le or directory. For further information, refer to Section 13.5.1, “Permissions
for User, Group and Others”.

4 Group assigned to the le or directory. For further information, refer to Section 13.5.1, “Per-
missions for User, Group and Others”.

5 File size in bytes.

6 Date and time of the last change.
7 Name of the object.
Usually, you can combine several options by prefixing only the rst option with a hyphen and
then write the others consecutively without a blank. For example, if you want to see all les in
a directory in long listing format, you can combine the two options -l and -a (show all les)
for the ls command. Executing ls -la shows also hidden les in the directory, indicated by
a dot in front (for example, .hiddenfile ).
The list of contents you get with ls is sorted alphabetically by filenames. But like in a graphical
le manager, you can also sort the output of ls -l according to various criteria such as date,
le extension or le size:

For date and time, use ls -lt (displays newest rst).

For extensions, use ls -lx (displays les with no extension rst).

For le size, use ls -lS (displays largest rst).

To revert the order of sorting, add -r as an option to your ls command. For example, ls -
lr gives you the contents list sorted in reverse alphabetical order, ls -ltr shows the oldest
les rst. There are lots of other useful options for ls . In the following section you will learn
how to investigate them.

154 Using Commands with Options openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.2.3 Getting Help
Nobody is expected to know all options of all commands by heart. If you remember the command
name but are not sure about the options or the syntax of the command, choose one of the
following possibilities:

--help option
If you only want to look up the options of a certain command, try entering the command
followed by a space and --help . This --help option exists for many commands. For
example, ls --help displays all the options for the ls command.

Manual Pages
To learn more about the various commands, you can also use the manual pages. Manual
pages also give a short description of what the command does. They can be accessed with
man followed by the name of the command, for example, man ls .
The man pages are displayed directly in the shell. To navigate them, move up and down
with Page ↑ and Page ↓ . Move between the beginning and the end of a document with
Home and End . End this viewing mode by pressing Q . Learn more about the man com-
mand itself with man man .

Info Pages
Info pages usually provide even more information about commands. To view the info page
for a certain command, enter info followed by the name of the command (for example,
info ls ). You can browse an info page with a viewer directly in the shell and display the
different sections, called “nodes.” Use Space to move forward and <— to move backward.
Within a node, you can also browse with Page ↑ and Page ↓ but only Space and <—

will take you also to the previous or subsequent node. Like for the man pages, press Q

to end the viewing mode.

Note that man pages and info pages do not exist for all commands. Sometimes both are available
(usually for key commands), sometimes only a man page or an info page exists, and sometimes
neither of them are available.

13.2.4 Bash Shortcut Keys

After having entered several commands, your shell will begin to ll up with all sorts of com-
mands and the corresponding outputs. In the following table, nd some useful shortcut keys for
navigating and editing in the shell.

155 Getting Help openSUSE Leap 42.3

Shortcut Key Function

Ctrl –L Clears the screen and moves the current line

to the top of the page.

Ctrl –C Aborts the command which is currently be-

ing executed.

Shift – Page ↑ Scrolls upwards.

Shift – Page ↓ Scrolls downwards.

Ctrl –U Deletes from cursor position to start of line.

Ctrl –K Deletes from cursor position to the end of

line.

Ctrl –D Closes the shell session.

↑ , ↓ Browses in the history of executed com-

mands.

13.3 Working with Files and Directories

To address a certain le or directory, you must specify the path leading to that directory or le.
As you may know from MS DOS or Mac OS already, there are two ways to specify a path:

Absolute Path
Enter the entire path from the root directory to the relevant le or directory.

Relative Path
Enter a path to the relevant le or directory by using the current directory as a starting
point. This implies to give the levels you have to move up or down in the le system tree
to reach the target directory of le, starting from the current directory.

Paths contain filenames, directories or both, separated by slashes. Absolute paths always start
with a slash. Relative paths do not have a slash at the beginning, but can have one or two dots.

156 Working with Files and Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3

When entering commands, you can choose either way to specify a path, depending on your
preferences or the amount of typing, both will lead to the same result. To change directories,
use the cd command and specify the path to the directory.

Note: Handling Blanks in Filenames or Directory

Names
If a filename or the name of a directory contains a space, either escape the space using a
back slash ( \ ) in front of the blank or enclose the filename in single quotes. Otherwise
Bash interprets a filename like My Documents as the names of two les or directories,
My and Documents in this case.

When specifying paths, the following “shortcuts” can save you a lot of typing:

The tilde symbol ( ~ ) is a shortcut for home directories. For example, to list the contents
of your home directory, use ls ~ . To list the contents of another user's home directory,
enter ls ~USERNAME (or course, this will only work if you have permission to view the
contents, see Section 13.5, “File Access Permissions”). For example, entering ls ~tux would
list the contents of the home directory of a user named tux . You can use the tilde symbol
as shortcut for home directories also if you are working in a network environment where
your home directory may not be called /home but can be mapped to any directory in the
le system.
From anywhere in the le system, you can reach your home directory by entering cd ~
or by simply entering cd without any options.

When using relative paths, refer to the current directory with a dot ( . ). This is mainly
useful for commands such as cp or mv by which you can copy or move les and directories.

The next higher level in the tree is represented by two dots ( .. ). In order to switch to
the parent directory of your current directory, enter cd .. , to go up two levels from the
current directory enter cd ../.. etc.

To apply your knowledge, nd some examples below. They address basic tasks you may want
to execute with les or folders using Bash.

157 Working with Files and Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.3.1 Examples for Working with Files and Directories
Suppose you want to copy a le located somewhere in your home directory to a subdirectory
of /tmp that you need to create rst.

PROCEDURE 13.1: CREATING AND CHANGING DIRECTORIES

From your home directory create a subdirectory in /tmp :

1. Enter

tux > mkdir /tmp/test

mkdir stands for “make directory”. This command creates a new directory named test
in the /tmp directory. In this case, you are using an absolute path to create the test
directory.

2. To check what happened, now enter

tux > ls -l /tmp

The new directory test should appear in the list of contents of the /tmp directory.

3. Switch to the newly created directory with

tux > cd /tmp/test

PROCEDURE 13.2: CREATING AND COPYING FILES

Now create a new le in a subdirectory of your home directory and copy it to /tmp/test .
Use a relative path for this task.

Important: Overwriting of Existing Files

Before copying, moving or renaming a le, check if your target directory already
contains a le with the same name. If yes, consider changing one of the filenames
or use cp or mv with options like -i , which will prompt before overwriting an
existing le. Otherwise Bash will overwrite the existing le without confirmation.

1. To list the contents of your home directory, enter

tux > ls -l ~

158 Examples for Working with Files and Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3
 It should contain a subdirectory called Documents by default. If not, create this subdirec-
tory with the mkdir command you already know:

tux > mkdir ~/Documents

2. To create a new, empty le named myfile.txt in the Documents directory, enter

tux > touch ~/Documents/myfile.txt

Usually, the touch command updates the modification and access date for an existing
le. If you use touch with a filename which does not exist in your target directory, it
creates a new le.

3. Enter

tux > ls -l ~/Documents

The new le should appear in the list of contents.

4. To copy the newly created le, enter

tux > cp ~/Documents/myfile.txt .

Do not forget the dot at the end.

This command tells Bash to go to your home directory and to copy myfile.txt from
the Documents subdirectory to the current directory, /tmp/test , without changing the
name of the le.

5. Check the result by entering

tux > ls -l

The le myfile.txt should appear in the list of contents for /tmp/test .

PROCEDURE 13.3: RENAMING AND REMOVING FILES OR DIRECTORIES

Now suppose you want to rename myfile.txt into tuxfile.txt . Finally you decide
to remove the renamed le and the test subdirectory.

1. To rename the le, enter

tux > mv myfile.txt tuxfile.txt

2. To check what happened, enter

159 Examples for Working with Files and Directories openSUSE Leap 42.3
 tux > ls -l

Instead of myfile.txt , tuxfile.txt should appear in the list of contents.

mv stands for move and is used with two options: the rst option specifies the source, the
second option specifies the target of the operation. You can use mv either

to rename a le or a directory,

to move a le or directory to a new location or

to do both in one step.

3. Coming to the conclusion that you do not need the le any longer, you can delete it by
entering

tux > rm tuxfile.txt

Bash deletes the le without any confirmation.

4. Move up one level with cd .. and check with

tux > ls -l test

if the test directory is empty now.

5. If yes, you can remove the test directory by entering

tux > rmdir test

13.4 Becoming Root

root , also called the superuser, has privileges which authorize him to access all parts of the
system and to execute administrative tasks. He or she has the unrestricted capacity to make
changes to the system and has unlimited access to all les. Therefore performing some admin-
istrative tasks or running certain programs such as YaST requires root permissions.

160 Becoming Root openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.4.1 Using su
In order to temporarily become root in a shell, proceed as follows:

1. Enter su . You are prompted for the root password.

2. Enter the password. If you mistyped the root password, the shell displays a message.
In this case, you have to re-enter su before retyping the password. If your password is
correct, a hash symbol # appears at the end of the prompt, signaling that you are acting
as root now.

3. Execute your task. For example, transfer ownership of a le to a new user which only
root is allowed to do:

tux > chown wilber kde_quick.xml

4. After having completed your tasks as root , switch back to your normal user account.
To do so, enter

tux > exit

The hash symbol disappears and you are acting as “normal” user again.

13.4.2 Using sudo

Alternatively, you can also use sudo (superuser “do”) to execute some tasks which normally
are for root s only. With sudo, administrators can grant certain users root privileges for some
commands. Depending on the system configuration, users can then run root commands by
entering their normal password only. Due to a timestamp function, users are only granted a
“ticket” for a restricted period of time after having entered their password. The ticket usually
expires after a few minutes. In openSUSE, sudo requires the root password by default (if not
configured otherwise by your system administrator).
For users, sudo is convenient as it prevents you from switching accounts twice (to root and
back again). To change the ownership of a le using sudo, only one command is necessary
instead of three:

tux > sudo chown wilber kde_quick.xml

161 Using su openSUSE Leap 42.3

After you have entered the password which you are prompted for, the command is executed. If
you enter a second root command shortly after that, you are not prompted for the password
again, because your ticket is still valid. After a certain amount of time, the ticket automatically
expires and the password is required again. This also prevents unauthorized persons from gain-
ing root privileges in case a user forgets to switch back to his normal user account again and
leaves a root shell open.

13.5 File Access Permissions

In Linux, objects such as les or folders or processes generally belong to the user who created
or initiated them. There are some exceptions to this rule. For more information about the ex-
ceptions, refer to Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 10 “Access Control Lists in Linux”. The group which
is associated with a le or a folder depends on the primary group the user belongs to when
creating the object.
When you create a new le or directory, initial access permissions for this object are set ac-
cording to a predefined scheme. As an owner of a le or directory, you can change the access
permissions for this object. For example, you can protect les holding sensitive data against
read access by other users and you can authorize the members of your group or other users to
write, read, or execute several of your les where appropriate. As root , you can also change
the ownership of les or folders.

13.5.1 Permissions for User, Group and Others

Three permission sets are defined for each le object on a Linux system. These sets include the
read, write, and execute permissions for each of three types of users—the owner, the group,
and other users.
The following example shows the output of an ls -l command in a shell. This command lists
the contents of a directory and shows the details for each le and folder in that directory.

EXAMPLE 13.1: ACCESS PERMISSIONS FOR FILES AND FOLDERS

-rw-r----- 1 tux users 0 2015-06-23 16:08 checklist.txt

-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 53279 2015-06-21 13:16 gnome_quick.xml
-rw-rw---- 1 tux users 0 2015-06-23 16:08 index.htm
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 70733 2015-06-21 09:35 kde-start.xml
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 47896 2015-06-21 09:46 kde_quick.xml

162 File Access Permissions openSUSE Leap 42.3

drwxr-xr-x 2 tux users 48 2015-06-23 16:09 local
-rwxr--r-- 1 tux users 624398 2015-06-23 15:43 tux.sh

As shown in the third column, all objects belong to user tux . They are assigned to the group
users which is the primary group the user tux belongs to. To retrieve the access permissions
the rst column of the list must be examined more closely. Let's have a look at the le kde-
start.xml :

Type User Permissions Group Permissions Permissions for Oth-

ers

- rw- r-- r--

The rst column of the list consists of one leading character followed by nine characters grouped
in three blocks. The leading character indicates the le type of the object: in this case, the
hyphen ( – ) shows that kde-start.xml is a le. If you nd the character d instead, this shows
that the object is a directory, like local in Example 13.1, “Access Permissions For Files and Folders”.
The next three blocks show the access permissions for the owner, the group and other users (from
left to right). Each block follows the same pattern: the rst position shows read permissions
( r ), the next position shows write permissions ( w ), the last one shows execute permission ( x ).
A lack of either permission is indicated by - . In our example, the owner of kde-start.xml
has read and write access to the le but cannot execute it. The users group can read the le
but cannot write or execute it. The same holds true for the other users as shown in the third
block of characters.

13.5.2 Files and Folders

Access permissions have a slightly different impact depending on the type of object they apply
to: le or directory. The following table shows the details:

TABLE 13.1: ACCESS PERMISSIONS FOR FILES AND DIRECTORIES

Access Permission File Folder

Read (r) Users can open and read the Users can view the contents
le. of the directory. Without this
permission, users cannot list
the contents of this directo-

163 Files and Folders openSUSE Leap 42.3

Access Permission File Folder
ry with ls -l , for example.
However, if they only have
execute permission for the
directory, they can never-
theless access certain les in
this directory if they know of
their existence.

Write (w) Users can change the le: Users can create, rename or
They can add or drop data delete les in the directory.
and can even delete the con-
tents of the le. However,
this does not include the per-
mission to remove the le
completely from the direc-
tory as long as they do not
have write permissions for
the directory where the le is
located.

Execute (x) Users can execute the le. Users can change into the
This permission is only rele- directory and execute les
vant for les like programs there. If they do not have
or shell scripts, not for text read access to that directo-
les. If the operating system ry they cannot list the les
can execute the le directly, but can access them never-
users do not need read per- theless if they know of their
mission to execute the le. existence.
However, if the le must me
interpreted like a shell script
or a perl program, additional
read permission is needed.

Note that access to a certain le is always dependent on the correct combination of access
permissions for the le itself and the directory it is located in.

164 Files and Folders openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.5.3 Modifying File Permissions
In Linux, objects such as les or folder or processes generally belong to the user who created
or initiated them. The group which is associated with a le or a folder depends on the primary
group the user belongs to when creating the object. When you create a new le or directory,
initial access permissions for this object are set according to a predefined scheme. For further
details refer to Section 13.5, “File Access Permissions”.
As the owner of a le or directory (and, of course, as root ), you can change the access permis-
sions to this object.
To change object attributes like access permissions of a le or folder, use the chmod command
followed by the following parameters:

the users for which to change the permissions,

the type of access permission you want to remove, set or add and

the les or folders for which you want to change permissions separated by spaces.

The users for which you can change le access permissions fall into the following categories: the
owner of the le (user, u ), the group that own the le (group, g ) and the other users (others,
o ). You can add, remove or set one or more of the following permissions: read, write or execute.

As root , you can also change the ownership of a le: with the command chown
(change owner) you can transfer ownership to a new user.

13.5.3.1 Examples for Changing Access Permissions and Ownership

The following example shows the output of an ls -l command in a shell.
EXAMPLE 13.2: ACCESS PERMISSIONS FOR FILES AND FOLDERS

-rw-r----- 1 tux users 0 2015-06-23 16:08 checklist.txt

-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 53279 2015-06-21 13:16 gnome_quick.xml
-rw-rw---- 1 tux users 0 2015-06-23 16:08 index.htm
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 70733 2015-06-21 09:35 kde-start.xml
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 47896 2015-06-21 09:46 kde_quick.xml
drwxr-xr-x 2 tux users 48 2015-06-23 16:09 local
-r-xr-xr-x 1 tux users 624398 2015-06-23 15:43 tux.jpg

In the example above, user tux owns the le kde-start.xml and has read and write access
to the le but cannot execute it. The users group can read the le but cannot write or execute
it. The same holds true for the other users as shown by the third block of characters.

165 Modifying File Permissions openSUSE Leap 42.3

PROCEDURE 13.4: CHANGING ACCESS PERMISSIONS

Suppose you are tux and want to modify the access permissions to your les:

1. If you want to grant the users group also write access to kde-start.xml , enter

chmod g+w kde-start.xml

2. To grant the users group and other users write access to kde-start.xml , enter

chmod go+w kde-start.xml

3. To remove write access for all users, enter

chmod -w kde-start.xml

If you do not specify any kind of users, the changes apply to all users— the owner of
the le, the owning group and the others. Now even the owner tux does not have write
access to the le without rst reestablishing write permissions.

4. To prohibit the users group and others to change into the directory local , enter

chmod go-x local

5. To grant others write permissions for two les, for kde_quick.xml and
gnome_quick.xml , enter

chmod o+w kde_quick.xml gnome_quick.xml

PROCEDURE 13.5: CHANGING OWNERSHIP

Suppose you are tux and want to transfer the ownership of the le kde_quick.xml to
an other user, named wilber . In this case, proceed as follows:

1. Enter the username and password for root .

2. Enter

chown wilber kde_quick.xml

3. Check what happened with

ls -l kde_quick.xml

166 Modifying File Permissions openSUSE Leap 42.3

 You should get the following output:

-rw-r--r-- 1 wilber users 47896 2006-06-21 09:46 kde_quick.xml

4. If the ownership is set according to your wishes, switch back to your normal user account.

13.6 Useful Features of the Shell

As you probably noticed in the examples above, entering commands in Bash can include a lot
of typing. In the following, get to know some features of the Bash that can make your work a
lot easier and save a lot of typing.

History
By default, Bash “remembers” commands you have entered. This feature is called history.
You can browse through commands that have been entered before, select one you want to
repeat and then execute it again. To do so, press ↑ repeatedly until the desired command
appears at the prompt. To move forward through the list of previously entered commands,
press ↓ . For easier repetition of a certain command from Bash history, just type the rst
letter of the command you want to repeat and press Page ↑ .
You can now edit the selected command (for example, change the name of a le or a path),
before you execute the command by pressing Enter . To edit the command line, just move
the cursor to the desired position using the arrow keys and start typing.
You can also search for a certain command in the history. Press Ctrl – R to start an
incremental search function. showing the following prompt:

tux > (reverse-i-search)`':

Just type one or several letters from the command you are searching for. Each character
you enter narrows down the search. The corresponding search result is shown on the right
side of the colon whereas your input appears on the left of the colon. To accept a search
result, press Esc . The prompt now changes to its normal appearance and shows the com-
mand you chose. You can now edit the command or directly execute it by pressing Enter .

Completion
Completing a filename or directory name to its full length after typing its rst letters is
another helpful feature of Bash. To do so, type the rst letters then press →| (Tabulator).
If the filename or path can be uniquely identified, it is completed at once and the cursor

167 Useful Features of the Shell openSUSE Leap 42.3

 moves to the end of the filename. You can then enter the next option of the command, if
necessary. If the filename or path cannot be uniquely identified (because there are several
filenames starting with the same letters), the filename or path is only completed up to the
point where it becomes ambiguous again. You can then obtain a list of them by pressing
→| a second time. After this, you can enter the next letters of the le or path then try
completion again by pressing →| . When completing filenames and paths with →| , you
can simultaneously check whether the le or path you want to enter really exists (and you
can be sure of getting the spelling right).

Wild Cards
You can replace one or more characters in a filename with a wild card for pathname
expansion. Wild cards are characters that can stand for other characters. There are three
different types of these in Bash:

Wild Card Function

? Matches exactly one arbitrary character

* Matches any number of characters

[SET] Matches one of the characters from the

group specified inside the square brackets,
which is represented here by the string
SET .

13.6.1 Examples For Using History, Completion and Wildcards

The following examples illustrate how to make use of these convenient features of Bash.

PROCEDURE 13.6: USING HISTORY AND COMPLETION

If you already did the example Section 13.3.1, “Examples for Working with Files and Directories”
your shell buer should be lled with commands which you can retrieve using the history
function.

1. Press ↑ repeatedly until cd ~ appears.

2. Press Enter to execute the command and to switch to your home directory.
By default, your home directory contains two subdirectories starting with the same letter,
Documents and Desktop .

168 Examples For Using History, Completion and Wildcards openSUSE Leap 42.3
 3. Enter cd D and press →| .
Nothing happens since Bash cannot identify to which one of the subdirectories you want
to change.

4. Press →| again to see the list of possible choices:

tux > cd D Desktop/ Documents/

tux > cd D

5. The prompt still shows your initial input. Type the next character of the subdirectory you
want to go to and press →| again.
Bash now completes the path.

6. You can now execute the command with Enter .

PROCEDURE 13.7: USING WILDCARDS

Now suppose that your home directory contains several les with various le extensions.
It also holds several versions of one le which you saved under different filenames my-
file1.txt , myfile2.txt etc. You want to search for certain les according to their
properties.

1. First, create some test les in your home directory:

a. Use the touch command to create several (empty) les with different le extensions,
for example .pdf , .xml and .jpg .
You can do this consecutively (do not forget to use the Bash history function) or with
only one touch command: simply add several filenames separated by a space.

b. Create at least two les that have the same le extension, for example .html .

c. To create several “versions” of one le, enter

tux > touch myfile{1..5}.txt

This command creates ve consecutively numbered les:

tux > myfile1.txt,…,myfile5.txt

d. List the contents of the directory. It should look similar to this:

tux > ls -l
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:34 foo.xml

169 Examples For Using History, Completion and Wildcards openSUSE Leap 42.3
 -rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:47 home.html
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:47 index.html
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:47 toc.html
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:34 manual.pdf
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:49 myfile1.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:49 myfile2.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:49 myfile3.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:49 myfile4.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:49 myfile5.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 tux users 0 2006-07-14 13:32 tux.png

2. With wild cards, select certain subsets of the les according to various criteria:

a. To list all les with the .html extension, enter

tux > ls -l *.html

b. To list all “versions” of myfile.txt , enter

tux > ls -l myfile?.txt

Note that you can only use the ? wild card here because the numbering of the les
is single-digit. As soon as you have a le named myfile10.txt you must to use the
* wild card to view all versions of myfile.txt (or add another question mark, so
your string looks like myfile??.txt ).

c. To remove, for example, version 1-3 and version 5 of myfile.txt , enter

tux > rm myfile[1-3,5].txt

d. Check the result with

tux > ls -l

Of all myfile.txt versions only myfile4.txt should be left.

You can also combine several wild cards in one command. In the example above, rm my-
file[1-3,5].* would lead to the same result as rm myfile[1-3,5].txt because there are
only les with the extension .txt available.

170 Examples For Using History, Completion and Wildcards openSUSE Leap 42.3
 Note: Using Wildcards in rm Commands
Wildcards in a rm command can be very useful but also dangerous: you might delete
more les from your directory than intended. To see which les would be affected by the
rm , run your wildcard string with ls instead of rm rst.

13.7 Editing Texts

In order to edit les from the command line, you will need to know the vi editor. vi is a default
editor which can be found on nearly every UNIX/Linux system. It can run several operating
modes in which the keys you press have different functions. This does not make it very easy
for beginners, but you should know at least the most basic operations with vi. There may be
situations where no other editor than vi is available.
Basically, vi makes use of three operating modes:

command mode
In this mode, vi accepts certain key combinations as commands. Simple tasks such as
searching words or deleting a line can be executed.

insert mode
In this mode, you can write normal text.

extended mode
In this mode, also known as colon mode (as you have to enter a colon to switch to this
mode), vi can execute also more complex tasks such as searching and replacing text.

In the following (very simple) example, you will learn how to open and edit a le with vi, how
to save your changes and quit vi.

171 Editing Texts openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.7.1 Example: Editing with vi

Note: Display of Keys

In the following, nd several commands that you can enter in vi by just pressing
keys. These appear in uppercase as on a keyboard. If you need to enter a key in
uppercase, this is stated explicitly by showing a key combination including the
Shift key.

1. To create and open a new le with vi, enter

tux > vi textfile.txt

By default, vi opens in command mode in which you cannot enter text.

2. Press I to switch to insert mode. The bottom line changes and indicates that you now
can insert text.

3. Write some sentences. If you want to insert a new line, rst press Esc to switch back to
command mode. Press O to insert a new line and to switch to insert mode again.

4. In the insert mode, you can edit the text with the arrow keys and with Del .

5. To leave vi, press Esc to switch to command mode again. Then press : which takes
you to the extended mode. The bottom line now shows a colon.

6. To leave vi and save your changes, type wq ( w for write ; q for quit ) and press Enter .
If you want to save the le under a different name, type w FILENAME and press Enter .
To leave vi without saving, type q! instead and press Enter .

13.8 Searching for Files or Contents

Bash offers you several commands to search for les and to search for the contents of les:

locate
This utility is only available if you have installed the findutils-locate package. With
this command you can nd out in which directory a specified le is located. If desired,
use wild cards to specify filenames. The program is very quick, because it uses a database
specifically created for the purpose (rather than searching through the entire le system).

172 Example: Editing with vi openSUSE Leap 42.3

 This very fact, however, also results in a major drawback: locate is unable to nd any les
created after the latest update of its database. The database can be generated by root
running updatedb .

find
With find , search for a le in a given directory. The rst argument specifies the directory
in which to start the search. The option -name must be followed by a search string, which
may also include wild cards. Unlike locate , which uses a database, find scans the actual
directory.

grep
The grep command nds a specific search string in the specified text les. If the search
string is found, the command displays the line in which searchstring was found, along
with the filename. If desired, use wild cards to specify filenames.

13.8.1 Examples for Searching

The KDE and GNOME desktops store user-specific application data in hidden directories,
for example .kde and .gnome .

1. To locate these directories on your computer, enter

tux > locate .kde

if you have installed KDE desktop or

tux > locate .gnome

if you have installed GNOME desktop.

You will see that locate displays all le names in the database that contain the string
.kde or .gnome anywhere. To learn how to modify this behavior refer to the man page
of locate .

2. To search your home directory for all occurrences of filenames that contain the le ex-
tension .txt , use

tux > find ~ -name '*.txt' -print

3. To search a directory (in this case, your home directory) for all occurrences of les which
contain, for example, the word music , enter

173 Examples for Searching openSUSE Leap 42.3

 tux > grep music ~/*

Note that grep is case-sensitive— unless you use it with the -i option. With the command
above you will not nd any les containing Music .
If you want to use a search string which consists of more than one word, enclose the string
in double quotation marks, for example:

tux > grep "music is great" ~/*

13.9 Viewing Text Files

When searching for the contents of a le with grep , the output gives you the line in which
the searchstring was found along with the filename. Often this contextual information is still
not enough information to decide whether you want to open and edit this le. Bash offers you
several commands to have a quick look at the contents of a text le directly in the shell, without
opening an editor.

head
With head you can view the rst lines of a text le. If you do not specify the command
any further, head shows the rst 10 lines of a text le.

tail
The tail command is the counterpart of head . If you use tail without any further
options it displays the last 10 lines of a text le. This can be very useful to view log les
of your system, where the most recent messages or log entries are usually found at the
end of the le.

less
With less , display the whole contents of a text le. To move up and down half a page
use Page ↑ and Page ↓ . Use Space to scroll down one page. Home takes you to the
beginning, and End to the end of the document. To end the viewing mode, press Q .

more
Instead of less , you can also use the older program more . It has basically the same
function—however, it is less convenient because it does not allow you to scroll backward.
Use Space to move forward. When you reach the end of the document, the viewer closes
automatically.

174 Viewing Text Files openSUSE Leap 42.3

cat
The cat command displays the contents of a le, printing the entire contents to the screen
without interruption. As cat does not allow you to scroll it is not very useful as viewer
but it is rather often used in combination with other commands.

13.10 Redirection and Pipes

Sometimes it would be useful if you could write the output of a command to a le for further
editing or if you could combine several commands, using the output of one command as the
input for the next one. The shell offers this function by means of redirection or pipes.
Normally, the standard output in the shell is your screen (or an open shell window) and the
standard input is the keyboard. With certain symbols you can redirect the input or the output
to another object, such as a le or another command.

Redirection
With > you can forward the output of a command to a le (output redirection), with <
you can use a le as input for a command (input redirection).

Pipe
By means of a pipe symbol | you can also redirect the output: with a pipe, you can combine
several commands, using the output of one command as input for the next command. In
contrast to the other redirection symbols > and <, the use of the pipe is not constrained
to les.

13.10.1 Examples for Redirection and Pipe

1. To write the output of a command like ls to a le, enter

tux > ls -l > filelist.txt

This creates a le named filelist.txt that contains the list of contents of your current
directory as generated by the ls command.
However, if a le named filelist.txt already exists, this command overwrites the
existing le. To prevent this, use >> instead of >. Entering

tux > ls -l >> filelist.txt

175 Redirection and Pipes openSUSE Leap 42.3

 simply appends the output of the ls command to an already existing le named
filelist.txt . If the le does not exist, it is created.

2. Redirections also works the other way round. Instead of using the standard input from the
keyboard for a command, you can use a le as input:

tux > sort < filelist.txt

This will force the sort command to get its input from the contents of filelist.txt .
The result is shown on the screen. Of course, you can also write the result into another
le, using a combination of redirections:

tux > sort < filelist.txt > sorted_filelist.txt

3. If a command generates a lengthy output, like ls -l may do, it may be useful to pipe
the output to a viewer like less to be able to scroll through the pages. To do so, enter

tux > ls -l | less

The list of contents of the current directory is shown in less .

The pipe is also often used in combination with the grep command in order to search for
a certain string in the output of another command. For example, if you want to view a list
of les in a directory which are owned by the user tux , enter

tux > ls -l | grep tux

13.11 Starting Programs and Handling Processes

As you have seen in Section 13.7, “Editing Texts”, programs can be started from the shell. Applica-
tions with a graphical user interface need the X Window System and can only be started from
a terminal window within a graphical user interface. For example, if you want to open a le
named vacation.pdf in your home directory from a terminal window in KDE or GNOME,
simply run okular ~/vacation.pdf (or evince ~/vacation.pdf ) to start a PDF viewer dis-
playing your le.

176 Starting Programs and Handling Processes openSUSE Leap 42.3

When looking at the terminal window again you will realize that the command line is blocked
as long as the PDF viewer is open, meaning that your prompt is not available. To change this,
press Ctrl – Z to suspend the process and enter
bg to send the process to the background. Now you can still have a look at vacation.pdf
while your prompt is available for further commands. An easier way to achieve this is by sending
a process to the background directly when starting it. To do so, add an ampersand at the end
of the command:

tux > okular ~/vacation.pdf &

If you have started several background processes (also named jobs) from the same shell, the
jobs
command gives you an overview of the jobs. It also shows the job number in brackets and their
status:

tux > jobs

[1] Running okular book.opensuse.startup-xep.pdf &
[2]- Running okular book.opensuse.reference-xep.pdf &
[3]+ Stopped man jobs

To bring a job to the foreground again, enter

fg JOB_NUMBER .

Whereas job only shows the background processes started from a specific shell, the ps com-
mand (run without options) shows a list of all your processes—those you started. Find an ex-
ample output below:

tux > ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
15500 pts/1 00:00:00 bash
28214 pts/1 00:00:00 okular
30187 pts/1 00:00:00 kwrite
30280 pts/1 00:00:00 ps

In case a program cannot be terminated in the normal way, use the kill command to stop the
process (or processes) belonging to that program. To do so, specify the process ID (PID) shown
by the output of ps . For example, to shut down the KWrite editor in the example above, enter

tux > kill 30187

This sends a TERM signal that instructs the program to shut itself down.

177 Starting Programs and Handling Processes openSUSE Leap 42.3

Alternatively, if the program or process you want to terminate is a background job and is shown
by the jobs command, you can also use the kill command in combination with the job
number to terminate this process. When identifying the job with the job number, you must prefix
the number with a percent character ( % ):

tux > kill %JOB_NUMBER

If kill does not help—as is sometimes the case for “runaway” programs—try

tux > kill -9 PID

This sends a KILL signal instead of a TERM signal, usually bringing the specified process to an
end.
This section is intended to introduce the most basic set of commands for handling jobs and
processes. Find an overview for system administrators in Book “System Analysis and Tuning Guide”,
Chapter 2 “System Monitoring Utilities”, Section 2.3 “Processes”.

13.12 Important Linux Commands

This section gives insight into the most important commands. There are many more commands
than listed in this chapter. Along with the individual commands, parameters are listed and,
where appropriate, a typical sample application is introduced. To learn more about the various
commands, use the manual pages, accessed with man followed by the name of the command,
for example, man ls .
Man pages are displayed directly in the shell. To navigate them, move up and down with Page ↑

and Page ↓ . Move between the beginning and the end of a document with Home and End . End
this viewing mode by pressing Q . Learn more about the man command itself with man man .
In the following overview, the individual command elements are written in different typefaces.
The actual command and its mandatory options are always printed as command option . Spec-
ifications or parameters that are not required are placed in [square brackets] .
Adjust the settings to your needs. It makes no sense to write ls file if no le named file
actually exists. You can usually combine several parameters, for example, by writing ls -la
instead of ls -l -a .

178 Important Linux Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

13.12.1 File Commands
The following section lists the most important commands for le management. It covers every-
thing from general le administration to the manipulation of le system ACLs.

13.12.1.1 File Administration

ls [options] [files]
If you run ls without any additional parameters, the program lists the contents of the
current directory in short form.

-l
Detailed list

-a
Displays hidden les

cp [options] source target

Copies source to target .

-i
Waits for confirmation, if necessary, before an existing target is overwritten

-r
Copies recursively (includes subdirectories)

mv [options] source target

Copies source to target then deletes the original source .

-b
Creates a backup copy of the source before moving

-i
Waits for confirmation, if necessary, before an existing targetfile is overwritten

rm [options] files
Removes the specified les from the le system. Directories are not removed by rm unless
the option -r is used.

-r
Deletes any existing subdirectories

-i

179 File Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Waits for confirmation before deleting each le

ln [options] source target

Creates an internal link from source to target . Normally, such a link points directly to
source on the same le system. However, if ln is executed with the -s option, it creates
a symbolic link that only points to the directory in which source is located, enabling
linking across le systems.

-s
Creates a symbolic link

cd [options] [directory]
Changes the current directory. cd without any parameters changes to the user's home
directory.

mkdir [options] directory

Creates a new directory.

rmdir [options] directory

Deletes the specified directory if it is already empty.

chown [options] username[:[group]] files

Transfers ownership of a le to the user with the specified username.

-R
Changes les and directories in all subdirectories

chgrp [options] groupname files

Transfers the group ownership of a given file to the group with the specified group
name. The le owner can change group ownership only if a member of both the current
and the new group.

chmod [options] mode files

Changes the access permissions.
The mode parameter has three parts: group , access , and access type . group accepts
the following characters:

u
User

g
Group

180 File Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 o
Others
For access , grant access with + and deny it with - .
The access type is controlled by the following options:

r
Read

w
Write

x
Execute—executing les or changing to the directory

s
Setuid bit—the application or program is started as if it were started by the owner
of the le
As an alternative, a numeric code can be used. The four digits of this code are composed of
the sum of the values 4, 2, and 1—the decimal result of a binary mask. The rst digit sets
the set user ID (SUID) (4), the set group ID (2), and the sticky (1) bits. The second digit
defines the permissions of the owner of the le. The third digit defines the permissions
of the group members and the last digit sets the permissions for all other users. The read
permission is set with 4, the write permission with 2, and the permission for executing a
le is set with 1. The owner of a le would usually receive a 6 or a 7 for executable les.

gzip [parameters] files

This program compresses the contents of les using complex mathematical algorithms.
Files compressed in this way are given the extension .gz and need to be uncompressed
before they can be used. To compress several les or even entire directories, use the tar
command.

-d
Decompresses the packed gzip les so they return to their original size and can be
processed normally (like the command gunzip )

tar options archive files

tar puts one or more les into an archive. Compression is optional. tar is a quite complex
command with several options available. The most frequently used options are:

-f

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 Writes the output to a le and not to the screen as is usually the case

-c
Creates a new tar archive

-r
Adds les to an existing archive

-t
Outputs the contents of an archive

-u
Adds les, but only if they are newer than the les already contained in the archive

-x
Unpacks les from an archive (extraction)

-z
Packs the resulting archive with gzip

-j
Compresses the resulting archive with bzip2

-v
Lists les processed
The archive les created by tar end with .tar . If the tar archive was also compressed
using gzip , the ending is .tgz or .tar.gz . If it was compressed using bzip2 , the ending
is .tar.bz2 .

locate patterns
This command is only available if you have installed the findutils-locate package.
The locate command can nd in which directory a specified le is located. If desired,
use wild cards
to specify filenames. The program is very fast, because it uses a database specifically cre-
ated for the purpose (rather than searching through the entire le system). This very fact,
however, also results in a major drawback: locate is unable to nd any les created after
the latest update of its database. The database can be generated by root with updatedb .

182 File Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

updatedb [options]
This command performs an update of the database used by locate . To include les in
all existing directories, run the program as root . It also makes sense to place it in the
background by appending an ampersand ( & ), so you can immediately continue working
on the same command line ( updatedb & ). This command usually runs as a daily cron
job (see cron.daily ).

find [options]
With find , search for a le in a given directory. The rst argument specifies the directory
in which to start the search. The option -name must be followed by a search string, which
may also include wild cards. Unlike locate , which uses a database, find scans the actual
directory.

13.12.1.2 Commands to Access File Contents

file [options] [files]

With file , detect the contents of the specified les.

-z
Tries to look inside compressed les

cat [options] files

The cat command displays the contents of a le, printing the entire contents to the screen
without interruption.

-n
Numbers the output on the left margin

less [options] files

This command can be used to browse the contents of the specified le. Scroll half a screen
page up or down with PgUp and PgDn or a full screen page down with Space . Jump to
the beginning or end of a le using Home and End . Press Q to exit the program.

grep [options] searchstring files

The grep command nds a specific search string in the specified les. If the search string
is found, the command displays the line in which searchstring was found along with
the filename.

-i

183 File Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Ignores case

-H
Only displays the names of the relevant les, but not the text lines

-n
Additionally displays the numbers of the lines in which it found a hit

-l
Only lists the les in which searchstring does not occur

diff [options] file1 file2

The diff command compares the contents of any two les. The output produced by the
program lists all lines that do not match. This is frequently used by programmers who need
only to send their program alterations and not the entire source code.

-q
Only reports whether the two les differ

-u
Produces a “unified” di, which makes the output more readable

13.12.1.3 File Systems

mount [options] [device] mountpoint

This command can be used to mount any data media, such as hard disks, CD-ROM drives,
and other drives, to a directory of the Linux le system.

-r
Mount read-only

-t filesystem
Specify the le system, commonly ext2 for Linux hard disks, msdos for MS-DOS
media, vfat for the Windows le system, and iso9660 for CDs
For hard disks not defined in the le /etc/fstab , the device type must also be specified.
In this case, only root can mount it. If the le system needs to also be mounted by other
users, enter the option user in the appropriate line in the /etc/fstab le (separated
by commas) and save this change. Further information is available in the mount(1) man
page.

184 File Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

umount [options] mountpoint
This command unmounts a mounted drive from the le system. To prevent data loss, run
this command before taking a removable data medium from its drive. Normally, only root
is allowed to run the commands mount and umount . To enable other users to run these
commands, edit the /etc/fstab le to specify the option user for the relevant drive.

13.12.2 System Commands

The following section lists a few of the most important commands needed for retrieving system
information and controlling processes and the network.

13.12.2.1 System Information

df [options] [directory]
The df (disk free) command, when used without any options, displays information about
the total disk space, the disk space currently in use, and the free space on all the mounted
drives. If a directory is specified, the information is limited to the drive on which that
directory is located.

-h
Shows the number of occupied blocks in gigabytes, megabytes, or kilobytes—in hu-
man-readable format

-T
Type of le system (ext2, nfs, etc.)

du [options] [path]
This command, when executed without any parameters, shows the total disk space occu-
pied by les and subdirectories in the current directory.

-a
Displays the size of each individual le

-h
Output in human-readable form

-s
Displays only the calculated total size

185 System Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

free [options]
The command free displays information about RAM and swap space usage, showing
the total and the used amount in both categories. See Book “Reference”, Chapter 15 “Special
System Features”, Section 15.1.7 “The free Command” for more information.

-b
Output in bytes

-k
Output in kilobytes

-m
Output in megabytes

date [options]
This simple program displays the current system time. If run as root , it can also be used to
change the system time. Details about the program are available in the date(1) man page.

13.12.2.2 Processes

top [options]
top provides a quick overview of the currently running processes. Press H to access a
page that briey explains the main options for customizing the program.

ps [options] [process_ID]
If run without any options, this command displays a table of all your own programs or
processes—those you started. The options for this command are not preceded by hyphen.

aux
Displays a detailed list of all processes, independent of the owner

kill [options] process_ID

Unfortunately, sometimes a program cannot be terminated in the normal way. In most
cases, you should still be able to stop such a runaway program by executing the kill
command, specifying the respective process ID (see top and ps ). kill sends a TERM
signal that instructs the program to shut itself down. If this does not help, the following
parameter can be used:

-9

186 System Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Sends a KILL signal instead of a TERM signal, bringing the specified process to an
end in almost all cases

killall [options] processname

This command is similar to kill , but uses the process name (instead of the process ID)
as an argument, killing all processes with that name.

13.12.2.3 Network

ping [options] hostname_or_IP address

The ping command is the standard tool for testing the basic functionality of TCP/IP net-
works. It sends a small data packet to the destination host, requesting an immediate reply.
If this works, ping displays a message to that effect, which indicates that the network
link is basically functioning.

-c NUMBER
Determines the total number of packages to send and ends after they have been
dispatched (by default, there is no limitation set)

-f
ood ping: sends as many data packages as possible; a popular means, reserved for
root , to test networks

-i VALUE
Specifies the interval between two data packages in seconds (default: one second)

host [options] hostname [server]

The domain name system resolves domain names to IP addresses. With this tool, send
queries to name servers (DNS servers).

ssh [options] [user@]hostname [command]

187 System Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 SSH is actually an Internet protocol that enables you to work on remote hosts across a
network. SSH is also the name of a Linux program that uses this protocol to enable oper-
ations on remote computers.

13.12.2.4 Miscellaneous

passwd [options] [username]

Users may change their own passwords at any time using this command. The administrator
root can use the command to change the password of any user on the system.

su [options] [username]
The su command makes it possible to log in under a different username from a running
session. Specify a username and the corresponding password. The password is not required
from root , because root is authorized to assume the identity of any user. When using
the command without specifying a username, you are prompted for the root password
and change to the superuser ( root ). Use su - to start a login shell for a different user.

halt [options]
To avoid loss of data, you should always use this program to shut down your system.

reboot [options]
Does the same as halt except the system performs an immediate reboot.

clear
This command cleans up the visible area of the console. It has no options.

13.12.3 For More Information

There are many more commands than listed in this chapter. For information about other com-
mands or more detailed information, the O'Reilly publication Linux in a Nutshell is recommended.

188 For More Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

14 Bash and Bash Scripts

These days many people use computers with a graphical user interface (GUI) like
GNOME. Although they offer lots of features, their use is limited when it comes to
the execution of automated tasks. Shells are a good addition to GUIs and this chap-
ter gives you an overview of some aspects of shells, in this case Bash.

14.1 What is “The Shell”?

Traditionally, the shell is Bash (Bourne again Shell). When this chapter speaks about “the shell”
it means Bash. There are actually more available shells than Bash (ash, csh, ksh, zsh, …), each
employing different features and characteristics. If you need further information about other
shells, search for shell in YaST.

14.1.1 Knowing the Bash Configuration Files

A shell can be invoked as an:

1. Interactive login shell. This is used when logging in to a machine, invoking Bash with the
--login option or when logging in to a remote machine with SSH.

2. “Ordinary” interactive shell. This is normally the case when starting xterm, konsole,
gnome-terminal or similar tools.

3. Non-interactive shell. This is used when invoking a shell script at the command line.

Depending on which type of shell you use, different configuration les are being read. The
following tables show the login and non-login shell configuration les.

TABLE 14.1: BASH CONFIGURATION FILES FOR LOGIN SHELLS

File Description

/etc/profile Do not modify this le, otherwise your mod-

ifications can be destroyed during your next
update!

189 What is “The Shell”? openSUSE Leap 42.3

 File Description

/etc/profile.local Use this le if you extend /etc/profile

/etc/profile.d/ Contains system-wide configuration les for

specific programs

~/.profile Insert user specific configuration for login

shells here

Note that the login shell also sources the configuration les listed under Table 14.2, “Bash Config-
uration Files for Non-Login Shells”.

TABLE 14.2: BASH CONFIGURATION FILES FOR NON-LOGIN SHELLS

/etc/bash.bashrc Do not modify this le, otherwise your mod-

ifications can be destroyed during your next
update!

/etc/bash.bashrc.local Use this le to insert your system-wide modi-

fications for Bash only

~/.bashrc Insert user specific configuration here

Additionally, Bash uses some more les:

TABLE 14.3: SPECIAL FILES FOR BASH

File Description

~/.bash_history Contains a list of all commands you have

been typing

~/.bash_logout Executed when logging out

~/.alias User defined aliases of frequently used com-

mands. See man 1 alias for more details
about how to define aliases.

190 Knowing the Bash Configuration Files openSUSE Leap 42.3

14.1.2 The Directory Structure

The following table provides a short overview of the most important higher-level directories that
you nd on a Linux system. Find more detailed information about the directories and important
subdirectories in the following list.

TABLE 14.4: OVERVIEW OF A STANDARD DIRECTORY TREE

Directory Contents

/ Root directory—the starting point of the directory tree.

/bin Essential binary les, such as commands that are needed by both
the system administrator and normal users. Usually also contains the
shells, such as Bash.

/boot Static les of the boot loader.

/dev Files needed to access host-specific devices.

/etc Host-specific system configuration les.

/home Holds the home directories of all users who have accounts on the
system. However, root 's home directory is not located in /home
but in /root .

/lib Essential shared libraries and kernel modules.

/media Mount points for removable media.

/mnt Mount point for temporarily mounting a le system.

/opt Add-on application software packages.

/root Home directory for the superuser root .

/sbin Essential system binaries.

/srv Data for services provided by the system.

/tmp Temporary les.

191 The Directory Structure openSUSE Leap 42.3

Directory Contents

/usr Secondary hierarchy with read-only data.

/var Variable data such as log les.

/windows Only available if you have both Microsoft Windows* and Linux in-
stalled on your system. Contains the Windows data.

The following list provides more detailed information and gives some examples of which les
and subdirectories can be found in the directories:

/bin
Contains the basic shell commands that may be used both by root and by other users.
These commands include ls , mkdir , cp , mv , rm and rmdir . /bin also contains Bash,
the default shell in openSUSE Leap.

/boot
Contains data required for booting, such as the boot loader, the kernel, and other data that
is used before the kernel begins executing user-mode programs.

/dev
Holds device les that represent hardware components.

/etc
Contains local configuration les that control the operation of programs like the X Window
System. The /etc/init.d subdirectory contains LSB init scripts that can be executed
during the boot process.

/home/USERNAME
Holds the private data of every user who has an account on the system. The les located
here can only be modified by their owner or by the system administrator. By default, your
e-mail directory and personal desktop configuration are located here in the form of hidden
les and directories, such as .gconf/ and .config .

Note: Home Directory in a Network

Environment
If you are working in a network environment, your home directory may be mapped
to a directory in the le system other than /home .

192 The Directory Structure openSUSE Leap 42.3

/lib
Contains the essential shared libraries needed to boot the system and to run the commands
in the root le system. The Windows equivalent for shared libraries are DLL les.

/media
Contains mount points for removable media, such as CD-ROMs, ash disks, and digital
cameras (if they use USB). /media generally holds any type of drive except the hard disk of
your system. When your removable medium has been inserted or connected to the system
and has been mounted, you can access it from here.

/mnt
This directory provides a mount point for a temporarily mounted le system. root may
mount le systems here.

/opt
Reserved for the installation of third-party software. Optional software and larger add-on
program packages can be found here.

/root
Home directory for the root user. The personal data of root is located here.

/run
A tmpfs directory used by systemd and various components. /var/run is a symbolic link
to /run .

/sbin
As the s indicates, this directory holds utilities for the superuser. /sbin contains the bi-
naries essential for booting, restoring and recovering the system in addition to the binaries
in /bin .

/srv
Holds data for services provided by the system, such as FTP and HTTP.

/tmp
This directory is used by programs that require temporary storage of les.

Important: Cleaning up /tmp at Boot Time

Data stored in /tmp is not guaranteed to survive a system reboot. It depends, for
example, on settings made in /etc/tmpfiles.d/tmp.conf .

193 The Directory Structure openSUSE Leap 42.3

/usr
/usr has nothing to do with users, but is the acronym for Unix system resources. The
data in /usr is static, read-only data that can be shared among various hosts compliant
with the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS). This directory contains all application
programs including the graphical desktops such as GNOME and establishes a secondary
hierarchy in the le system. /usr holds several subdirectories, such as /usr/bin , /usr/
sbin , /usr/local , and /usr/share/doc .

/usr/bin
Contains generally accessible programs.

/usr/sbin
Contains programs reserved for the system administrator, such as repair functions.

/usr/local
In this directory the system administrator can install local, distribution-independent ex-
tensions.

/usr/share/doc
Holds various documentation les and the release notes for your system. In the manual
subdirectory nd an online version of this manual. If more than one language is installed,
this directory may contain versions of the manuals for different languages.
Under packages nd the documentation included in the software packages installed on
your system. For every package, a subdirectory /usr/share/doc/packages/PACKAGE-
NAME is created that often holds README les for the package and sometimes examples,
configuration les or additional scripts.
If HOWTOs are installed on your system /usr/share/doc also holds the howto subdi-
rectory in which to nd additional documentation on many tasks related to the setup and
operation of Linux software.

/var
Whereas /usr holds static, read-only data, /var is for data which is written during system
operation and thus is variable data, such as log les or spooling data. For an overview of
the most important log les you can nd under /var/log/ , refer to Table 16.1, “Log Files”.

/windows
Only available if you have both Microsoft Windows and Linux installed on your system.
Contains the Windows data available on the Windows partition of your system. Whether
you can edit the data in this directory depends on the le system your Windows partition

194 The Directory Structure openSUSE Leap 42.3

 uses. If it is FAT32, you can open and edit the les in this directory. For NTFS, openSUSE
Leap also includes write access support. However, the driver for the NTFS-3g le system
has limited functionality.

14.2 Writing Shell Scripts

Shell scripts are a convenient way of doing all sorts of tasks: collecting data, searching for a
word or phrase in a text and many other useful things. The following example shows a small
shell script that prints a text:

EXAMPLE 14.1: A SHELL SCRIPT PRINTING A TEXT

#!/bin/sh 1

# Output the following line: 2

echo "Hello World" 3

1 The rst line begins with the Shebang

characters ( #! ) which is an indicator that this le is a script. The script is executed with
the specified interpreter after the Shebang, in this case /bin/sh .
2 The second line is a comment beginning with the hash sign. It is recommended to comment
difficult lines to remember what they do.
3 The third line uses the built-in command echo to print the corresponding text.

Before you can run this script you need some prerequisites:

1. Every script should contain a Shebang line (this is already the case with our example
above.) If a script does not have this line, you need to call the interpreter manually.

2. You can save the script wherever you want. However, it is a good idea to save it in a
directory where the shell can nd it. The search path in a shell is determined by the
environment variable PATH . Usually a normal user does not have write access to /usr/
bin . Therefore it is recommended to save your scripts in the users' directory ~/bin/ . The
above example gets the name hello.sh .

3. The script needs executable permissions. Set the permissions with the following command:

chmod +x ~/bin/hello.sh

195 Writing Shell Scripts openSUSE Leap 42.3

If you have fulfilled all of the above prerequisites, you can execute the script in the following
ways:

1. As Absolute Path. The script can be executed with an absolute path. In our case, it is ~/
bin/hello.sh .

2. Everywhere. If the PATH environment variable contains the directory where the script is
located, you can execute the script with hello.sh .

14.3 Redirecting Command Events

Each command can use three channels, either for input or output:

Standard Output. This is the default output channel. Whenever a command prints some-
thing, it uses the standard output channel.

Standard Input. If a command needs input from users or other commands, it uses this
channel.

Standard Error. Commands use this channel for error reporting.

To redirect these channels, there are the following possibilities:

Command > File

Saves the output of the command into a le, an existing le will be deleted. For example,
the ls command writes its output into the le listing.txt :

ls > listing.txt

Command >> File

Appends the output of the command to a le. For example, the ls command appends its
output to the le listing.txt :

ls >> listing.txt

Command < File

Reads the le as input for the given command. For example, the read command reads in
the content of the le into the variable:

read a < foo

196 Redirecting Command Events openSUSE Leap 42.3

Command1 | Command2
Redirects the output of the left command as input for the right command. For example,
the cat command outputs the content of the /proc/cpuinfo le. This output is used by
grep to filter only those lines which contain cpu :

cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep cpu

Every channel has a le descriptor: 0 (zero) for standard input, 1 for standard output and 2 for
standard error. It is allowed to insert this le descriptor before a < or > character. For example,
the following line searches for a le starting with foo , but suppresses its errors by redirecting
it to /dev/null :

find / -name "foo*" 2>/dev/null

14.4 Using Aliases

An alias is a shortcut definition of one or more commands. The syntax for an alias is:

alias NAME=DEFINITION

For example, the following line defines an alias lt which outputs a long listing (option -l ),
sorts it by modification time ( -t ) and prints it in reverse order while sorting ( -r ):

alias lt='ls -ltr'

To view all alias definitions, use alias . Remove your alias with unalias and the corresponding
alias name.

14.5 Using Variables in Bash

A shell variable can be global or local. Global variables, or environment variables, can be ac-
cessed in all shells. In contrast, local variables are visible in the current shell only.
To view all environment variables, use the printenv command. If you need to know the value
of a variable, insert the name of your variable as an argument:

printenv PATH

197 Using Aliases openSUSE Leap 42.3

A variable, be it global or local, can also be viewed with echo :

echo $PATH

To set a local variable, use a variable name followed by the equal sign, followed by the value:

PROJECT="SLED"

Do not insert spaces around the equal sign, otherwise you get an error. To set an environment
variable, use export :

export NAME="tux"

To remove a variable, use unset :

unset NAME

The following table contains some common environment variables which can be used in you
shell scripts:

TABLE 14.5: USEFUL ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES

HOME the home directory of the current user

HOST the current host name

LANG when a tool is localized, it uses the language

from this environment variable. English can
also be set to C

PATH the search path of the shell, a list of directo-

ries separated by colon

PS1 specifies the normal prompt printed before

each command

PS2 specifies the secondary prompt printed when

you execute a multi-line command

PWD current working directory

USER the current user

198 Using Variables in Bash openSUSE Leap 42.3

14.5.1 Using Argument Variables
For example, if you have the script foo.sh you can execute it like this:

foo.sh "Tux Penguin" 2000

To access all the arguments which are passed to your script, you need positional parameters.
These are $1 for the rst argument, $2 for the second, and so on. You can have up to nine
parameters. To get the script name, use $0 .
The following script foo.sh prints all arguments from 1 to 4:

#!/bin/sh
echo \"$1\" \"$2\" \"$3\" \"$4\"

If you execute this script with the above arguments, you get:

"Tux Penguin" "2000" "" ""

14.5.2 Using Variable Substitution

Variable substitutions apply a pattern to the content of a variable either from the left or right
side. The following list contains the possible syntax forms:

${VAR#pattern}
removes the shortest possible match from the left:

file=/home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2
echo ${file#*/}
home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2

${VAR##pattern}
removes the longest possible match from the left:

file=/home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2
echo ${file##*/}
book.tar.bz2

${VAR%pattern}
removes the shortest possible match from the right:

file=/home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2

199 Using Argument Variables openSUSE Leap 42.3

 echo ${file%.*}
/home/tux/book/book.tar

${VAR%%pattern}
removes the longest possible match from the right:

file=/home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2
echo ${file%%.*}
/home/tux/book/book

${VAR/pattern_1/pattern_2}
substitutes the content of VAR from the PATTERN_1 with PATTERN_2 :

file=/home/tux/book/book.tar.bz2
echo ${file/tux/wilber}
/home/wilber/book/book.tar.bz2

14.6 Grouping and Combining Commands

Shells allow you to concatenate and group commands for conditional execution. Each command
returns an exit code which determines the success or failure of its operation. If it is 0 (zero) the
command was successful, everything else marks an error which is specific to the command.
The following list shows, how commands can be grouped:

Command1 ; Command2
executes the commands in sequential order. The exit code is not checked. The following
line displays the content of the le with cat and then prints its le properties with ls
regardless of their exit codes:

cat filelist.txt ; ls -l filelist.txt

Command1 && Command2

runs the right command, if the left command was successful (logical AND). The following
line displays the content of the le and prints its le properties only, when the previous
command was successful (compare it with the previous entry in this list):

cat filelist.txt && ls -l filelist.txt

Command1 || Command2

200 Grouping and Combining Commands openSUSE Leap 42.3

 runs the right command, when the left command has failed (logical OR). The following
line creates only a directory in /home/wilber/bar when the creation of the directory in
/home/tux/foo has failed:

mkdir /home/tux/foo || mkdir /home/wilber/bar

funcname(){ ... }
creates a shell function. You can use the positional parameters to access its arguments. The
following line defines the function hello to print a short message:

hello() { echo "Hello $1"; }

You can call this function like this:

hello Tux

which prints:

Hello Tux

14.7 Working with Common Flow Constructs

To control the ow of your script, a shell has while , if , for and case constructs.

14.7.1 The if Control Command

The if command is used to check expressions. For example, the following code tests whether
the current user is Tux:

if test $USER = "tux"; then

echo "Hello Tux."
else
echo "You are not Tux."
fi

The test expression can be as complex or simple as possible. The following expression checks
if the le foo.txt exists:

if test -e /tmp/foo.txt ; then

echo "Found foo.txt"

201 Working with Common Flow Constructs openSUSE Leap 42.3

fi

The test expression can also be abbreviated in angled brackets:

if [ -e /tmp/foo.txt ] ; then
echo "Found foo.txt"
fi

Find more useful expressions at http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/linux/docs/uniqlinuxfea-

tures/lsst/ch03sec02.html .

14.7.2 Creating Loops with the for Command

The for loop allows you to execute commands to a list of entries. For example, the following
code prints some information about PNG les in the current directory:

for i in *.png; do
ls -l $i
done

14.8 For More Information

Important information about Bash is provided in the man pages man bash . More about this
topic can be found in the following list:

http://tldp.org/LDP/Bash-Beginners-Guide/html/index.html —Bash Guide for Beginners

http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Bash-Prog-Intro-HOWTO.html —BASH Programming - Introduc-

tion HOW-TO

http://tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/index.html —Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide

http://www.grymoire.com/Unix/Sh.html —Sh - the Bourne Shell

202 Creating Loops with the for Command openSUSE Leap 42.3
V Help and Troubleshooting

15 Help and Documentation 204

16 Common Problems and Their Solutions 209

15 Help and Documentation

openSUSE® Leap comes with various sources of information and documentation, many of which
are already integrated into your installed system.

Documentation in /usr/share/doc
This traditional help directory holds various documentation les and release notes for your
system. It contains also information of installed packages in the subdirectory packages .
Find more detailed information in Section 15.1, “Documentation Directory”.

Man Pages and Info Pages for Shell Commands

When working with the shell, you do not need to know the options of the commands by
heart. Traditionally, the shell provides integrated help by means of man pages and info
pages. Read more in Section 15.2, “Man Pages” and Section 15.3, “Info Pages”.

Desktop Help Center

The help center of the GNOME desktop (Help) provides central access to the most impor-
tant documentation resources on your system in searchable form. These resources include
online help for installed applications, man pages, info pages, and the SUSE manuals deliv-
ered with your product.

Separate Help Packages for Some Applications

When installing new software with YaST, the software documentation is usually installed
automatically and appears in the help center of your desktop. However, some applications,
such as GIMP, may have different online help packages that can be installed separately
with YaST and do not integrate into the help centers.

15.1 Documentation Directory

The traditional directory to nd documentation on your installed Linux system is /usr/share/
doc . Usually, the directory contains information about the packages installed on your system,
plus release notes, manuals, and more.

204 Documentation Directory openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Note: Contents Depends on Installed Packages
In the Linux world, many manuals and other kinds of documentation are available in the
form of packages, like software. How much and which information you nd in /usr/
share/docs also depends on the (documentation) packages installed. If you cannot nd
the subdirectories mentioned here, check if the respective packages are installed on your
system and add them with YaST, if needed.

15.1.1 SUSE Manuals

We provide HTML and PDF versions of our books in different languages. In the manual subdi-
rectory, nd HTML versions of most of the SUSE manuals available for your product. For an
overview of all documentation available for your product refer to the preface of the manuals.
If more than one language is installed, /usr/share/doc/manual may contain different lan-
guage versions of the manuals. The HTML versions of the SUSE manuals are also available in
the help center of both desktops. For information on where to nd the PDF and HTML versions
of the books on your installation media, refer to the openSUSE Leap Release Notes. They are
available on your installed system under /usr/share/doc/release-notes/ or online at your
product-specific Web page at https://doc.opensuse.org/release-notes/ .

15.1.2 Package Documentation

Under packages , nd the documentation that is included in the software packages installed on
your system. For every package, a subdirectory /usr/share/doc/packages/PACKAGENAME is
created. It often contains README les for the package and sometimes examples, configuration
les, or additional scripts. The following list introduces typical les to be found under /usr/
share/doc/packages . None of these entries are mandatory and many packages might only
include a few of them.

AUTHORS
List of the main developers.

BUGS
Known bugs or malfunctions. Might also contain a link to a Bugzilla Web page where you
can search all bugs.

205 SUSE Manuals openSUSE Leap 42.3

CHANGES ,
ChangeLog
Summary of changes from version to version. Usually interesting for developers, because
it is very detailed.

COPYING ,
LICENSE
Licensing information.

FAQ
Question and answers collected from mailing lists or newsgroups.

INSTALL
How to install this package on your system. As the package is already installed by the time
you get to read this le, you can safely ignore the contents of this le.

README , README.*
General information on the software. For example, for what purpose and how to use it.

TODO
Things that are not implemented yet, but probably will be in the future.

MANIFEST
List of les with a brief summary.

NEWS
Description of what is new in this version.

15.2 Man Pages

Man pages are an essential part of any Linux system. They explain the usage of a command
and all available options and parameters. Man pages can be accessed with man followed by the
name of the command, for example, man ls .
Man pages are displayed directly in the shell. To navigate them, move up and down with Page ↑

and Page ↓ . Move between the beginning and the end of a document with Home and End . End
this viewing mode by pressing Q . Learn more about the man command itself with man man .
Man pages are sorted in categories as shown in Table 15.1, “Man Pages—Categories and Descriptions”
(taken from the man page for man itself).

206 Man Pages openSUSE Leap 42.3

TABLE 15.1: MAN PAGES—CATEGORIES AND DESCRIPTIONS

Number Description

1 Executable programs or shell commands

2 System calls (functions provided by the ker-

nel)

3 Library calls (functions within program li-

braries)

4 Special les (usually found in /dev )

5 File formats and conventions ( /etc/fstab )

6 Games

7 Miscellaneous (including macro packages

and conventions), for example, man(7),
gro(7)

8 System administration commands (usually

only for root )

9 Kernel routines (nonstandard)

Each man page consists of several parts labeled NAME , SYNOPSIS , DESCRIPTION , SEE ALSO ,
LICENSING , and AUTHOR . There may be additional sections available depending on the type
of command.

15.3 Info Pages

Info pages are another important source of information on your system. Usually, they are more
detailed than man pages. They consist of more than command line options and contain some-
times whole tutorials or reference documentation. To view the info page for a certain command,
enter info followed by the name of the command, for example, info ls . You can browse an
info page with a viewer directly in the shell and display the different sections, called “nodes”.
Use Space to move forward and <— to move backward. Within a node, you can also browse

207 Info Pages openSUSE Leap 42.3

with Page ↑ and Page ↓ but only Space and <— will take you also to the previous or subse-
quent node. Press Q to end the viewing mode. Not every command comes with an info page
and vice versa.

15.4 Online Resources

In addition to the online versions of the SUSE manuals installed under /usr/share/doc , you
can also access the product-specific manuals and documentation on the Web. For an overview of
all documentation available for openSUSE Leap check out your product-specific documentation
Web page at http:/doc.opensuse.org/ .
If you are searching for additional product-related information, you can also refer to the follow-
ing Web sites:

SUSE Forums
There are several forums where you can dive in on discussions about SUSE products. See
http://forums.opensuse.org/ for a list.

GNOME Documentation
Documentation for GNOME users, administrators and developers is available at http://
library.gnome.org/ .

The Linux Documentation Project

The Linux Documentation Project (TLDP) is run by a team of volunteers who write Lin-
ux-related documentation (see http://www.tldp.org ). It is probably the most comprehen-
sive documentation resource for Linux. The set of documents contains tutorials for begin-
ners, but is mainly focused on experienced users and professional system administrators.
TLDP publishes HOWTOs, FAQs, and guides (handbooks) under a free license. Parts of the
documentation from TLDP are also available on openSUSE Leap.

You can also try general-purpose search engines. For example, use the search terms Linux CD-
RW help or OpenOffice file conversion problem if you have trouble with burning CDs
or LibreOffice le conversion.

208 Online Resources openSUSE Leap 42.3

16 Common Problems and Their Solutions
This chapter describes a range of potential problems and their solutions. Even if your situation
is not precisely listed here, there may be one similar enough to offer hints to the solution of
your problem.

16.1 Finding and Gathering Information

Linux reports things in a very detailed way. There are several places to look when you en-
counter problems with your system, most of which are standard to Linux systems in general,
and some are relevant to openSUSE Leap systems. Most log les can be viewed with YaST (Mis-
cellaneous Start-Up Log).
YaST offers the possibility to collect all system information needed by the support team. Use
Other Support and select the problem category. When all information is gathered, attach it to
your support request.
A list of the most frequently checked log les follows with the description of their typical pur-
pose. Paths containing ~ refer to the current user's home directory.

TABLE 16.1: LOG FILES

Log File Description

~/.xsession-errors Messages from the desktop applications cur-

rently running.

/var/log/apparmor/ Log les from AppArmor, see Book “Security

Guide” for detailed information.

/var/log/audit/audit.log Log le from Audit to track any access to

les, directories, or resources of your sys-
tem, and trace system calls. See Book “Securi-
ty Guide” for detailed information.

/var/log/mail.* Messages from the mail system.

/var/log/NetworkManager Log le from NetworkManager to collect

problems with network connectivity

209 Finding and Gathering Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

Log File Description

/var/log/samba/ Directory containing Samba server and client

log messages.

/var/log/warn All messages from the kernel and system log

daemon with the “warning” level or higher.

/var/log/wtmp Binary le containing user login records for

the current machine session. View it with
last .

/var/log/Xorg.*.log Various start-up and runtime log les from

the X Window System. It is useful for debug-
ging failed X start-ups.

/var/log/YaST2/ Directory containing YaST's actions and their

results.

/var/log/zypper.log Log le of Zypper.

Apart from log les, your machine also supplies you with information about the running system.
See Table 16.2: System Information With the /proc File System

TABLE 16.2: SYSTEM INFORMATION WITH THE /proc FILE SYSTEM

File Description

/proc/cpuinfo Contains processor information, including its

type, make, model, and performance.

/proc/dma Shows which DMA channels are currently

being used.

/proc/interrupts Shows which interrupts are in use, and how

many of each have been in use.

/proc/iomem Displays the status of I/O (input/output)

memory.

210 Finding and Gathering Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

File Description

/proc/ioports Shows which I/O ports are in use at the mo-

ment.

/proc/meminfo Displays memory status.

/proc/modules Displays the individual modules.

/proc/mounts Displays devices currently mounted.

/proc/partitions Shows the partitioning of all hard disks.

/proc/version Displays the current version of Linux.

Apart from the /proc le system, the Linux kernel exports information with the sysfs mod-
ule, an in-memory le system. This module represents kernel objects, their attributes and re-
lationships. For more information about sysfs , see the context of udev in Book “Reference”,
Chapter 16 “Dynamic Kernel Device Management with udev”. Table 16.3 contains an overview of the
most common directories under /sys .

TABLE 16.3: SYSTEM INFORMATION WITH THE /sys FILE SYSTEM

File Description

/sys/block Contains subdirectories for each block device

discovered in the system. Generally, these
are mostly disk type devices.

/sys/bus Contains subdirectories for each physical bus

type.

/sys/class Contains subdirectories grouped together as

a functional types of devices (like graphics,
net, printer, etc.)

/sys/device Contains the global device hierarchy.

Linux comes with several tools for system analysis and monitoring. See Book “System Analysis
and Tuning Guide”, Chapter 2 “System Monitoring Utilities” for a selection of the most important ones
used in system diagnostics.

211 Finding and Gathering Information openSUSE Leap 42.3

Each of the following scenarios begins with a header describing the problem followed by a
paragraph or two offering suggested solutions, available references for more detailed solutions,
and cross-references to other scenarios that are related.

16.2 Installation Problems

Installation problems are situations when a machine fails to install. It may fail entirely or it may
not be able to start the graphical installer. This section highlights some typical problems you
may run into, and offers possible solutions or workarounds for these kinds of situations.

16.2.1 Checking Media

If you encounter any problems using the openSUSE Leap installation media, check the integrity
of your installation media. Boot from the media and choose Check Installation Media from the
boot menu. In a running system, start YaST and choose Software Media Check. To check the
openSUSE Leap medium, insert it into the drive and click Start Check in the Media Check screen
of YaST. This may take several minutes. If errors are detected, do not use this medium for
installation. Media problems may occur when having burned the medium yourself. Burning the
media at a low speed (4x) helps to avoid problems.

212 Installation Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

FIGURE 16.1: CHECKING MEDIA

16.2.2 No Bootable DVD Drive Available

If your computer does not contain a bootable DVD-ROM drive or if the one you have is not
supported by Linux, there are several options you can install your machine without a built-in
DVD drive:

Using an External Boot Device

If it is supported by your BIOS and the installation kernel, boot from external DVD drives
or USB storage devices. Refer to Section 2.2.1, “PC (AMD64/Intel 64/ARM AArch64): System Start-
up” for instructions on how to create a bootable USB storage device.

Network Boot via PXE

If a machine lacks a DVD drive, but provides a working Ethernet connection, perform a
completely network-based installation.

213 No Bootable DVD Drive Available openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.2.2.1 External Boot Devices

Linux supports most existing DVD drives. If the system has no DVD drive, it is still possible
that an external DVD drive, connected through USB, FireWire, or SCSI, can be used to boot the
system. This depends mainly on the interaction of the BIOS and the hardware used. Sometimes
a BIOS update may help if you encounter problems.
When installing from a Live CD, you can also create a “Live ash disk” to boot from.

16.2.3 Booting from Installation Media Fails

One reason a machine does not boot the installation media can be an incorrect boot sequence
setting in BIOS. The BIOS boot sequence must have DVD drive set as the rst entry for booting.
Otherwise the machine would try to boot from another medium, typically the hard disk. Guid-
ance for changing the BIOS boot sequence can be found the documentation provided with your
mainboard, or in the following paragraphs.
The BIOS is the software that enables the very basic functions of a computer. Motherboard
vendors provide a BIOS specifically made for their hardware. Normally, the BIOS setup can only
be accessed at a specific time—when the machine is booting. During this initialization phase, the
machine performs several diagnostic hardware tests. One of them is a memory check, indicated
by a memory counter. When the counter appears, look for a line, usually below the counter or
somewhere at the bottom, mentioning the key to press to access the BIOS setup. Usually the key
to press is one of Del , F1 , or Esc . Press this key until the BIOS setup screen appears.

PROCEDURE 16.1: CHANGING THE BIOS BOOT SEQUENCE

1. Enter the BIOS using the proper key as announced by the boot routines and wait for the
BIOS screen to appear.

2. To change the boot sequence in an AWARD BIOS, look for the BIOS FEATURES SETUP
entry. Other manufacturers may have a different name for this, such as ADVANCED CMOS
SETUP. When you have found the entry, select it and confirm with Enter .

3. In the screen that opens, look for a subentry called BOOT SEQUENCE or BOOT ORDER.
Change the settings by pressing Page ↑ or Page ↓ until the DVD drive is listed rst.

4. Leave the BIOS setup screen by pressing Esc . To save the changes, select SAVE & EXIT
SETUP, or press F10 . To confirm that your settings should be saved, press Y .

214 Booting from Installation Media Fails openSUSE Leap 42.3

PROCEDURE 16.2: CHANGING THE BOOT SEQUENCE IN AN SCSI BIOS (ADAPTEC HOST ADAPTER)

1. Open the setup by pressing Ctrl –A .

2. Select Disk Utilities. The connected hardware components are now displayed.
Make note of the SCSI ID of your DVD drive.

3. Exit the menu with Esc .

4. Open Configure Adapter Settings. Under Additional Options, select Boot Device Options and
press Enter .

5. Enter the ID of the DVD drive and press Enter again.

6. Press Esc twice to return to the start screen of the SCSI BIOS.

7. Exit this screen and confirm with Yes to boot the computer.

Regardless of what language and keyboard layout your final installation will be using, most
BIOS configurations use the US keyboard layout as depicted in the following figure:

FIGURE 16.2: US KEYBOARD LAYOUT

16.2.4 Fails to Boot

Some hardware types, mainly very old or very recent ones, fail to install. Often this may happen
because support for this type of hardware is missing in the installation kernel, or because of
certain functionality included in this kernel, such as ACPI, that can still cause problems on some
hardware.

215 Fails to Boot openSUSE Leap 42.3

If your system fails to install using the standard Installation mode from the rst installation boot
screen, try the following:

1. With the DVD still in the drive, reboot the machine with Ctrl – Alt – Del or using the
hardware reset button.

2. When the boot screen appears, press F5 , use the arrow keys of your keyboard to navigate
to No ACPI and press Enter to launch the boot and installation process. This option
disables the support for ACPI power management techniques.

3. Proceed with the installation as described in Chapter 2, Installation with YaST.

If this fails, proceed as above, but choose Safe Settings instead. This option disables ACPI and
DMA support. Most hardware will boot with this option.
If both of these options fail, use the boot options prompt to pass any additional parameters
needed to support this type of hardware to the installation kernel. For more information about
the parameters available as boot options, refer to the kernel documentation located in /usr/
src/linux/Documentation/kernel-parameters.txt .

Tip: Obtaining Kernel Documentation

Install the kernel-source package to view the kernel documentation.

There are various other ACPI-related kernel parameters that can be entered at the boot prompt
prior to booting for installation:

acpi=off
This parameter disables the complete ACPI subsystem on your computer. This may be
useful if your computer cannot handle ACPI or if you think ACPI in your computer causes
trouble.

acpi=force
Always enable ACPI even if your computer has an old BIOS dated before the year 2000.
This parameter also enables ACPI if it is set in addition to acpi=off .

acpi=noirq
Do not use ACPI for IRQ routing.

acpi=ht
Run only enough ACPI to enable hyper-threading.

216 Fails to Boot openSUSE Leap 42.3

acpi=strict
Be less tolerant of platforms that are not strictly ACPI specification compliant.

pci=noacpi
Disable PCI IRQ routing of the new ACPI system.

pnpacpi=off
This option is for serial or parallel problems when your BIOS setup contains wrong inter-
rupts or ports.

notsc
Disable the time stamp counter. This option can be used to work around timing problems
on your systems. It is a recent feature, if you see regressions on your machine, especially
time related or even total hangs, this option is worth a try.

nohz=off
Disable the nohz feature. If your machine hangs, this option may help. Otherwise it is of
no use.

Once you have determined the right parameter combination, YaST automatically writes them
to the boot loader configuration to make sure that the system boots properly next time.
If unexplainable errors occur when the kernel is loaded or during the installation, select Memory
Test in the boot menu to check the memory. If Memory Test returns an error, it is usually a
hardware error.

16.2.5 Fails to Launch Graphical Installer

After you insert the medium into your drive and reboot your machine, the installation screen
comes up, but after you select Installation, the graphical installer does not start.
There are several ways to deal with this situation:

Try to select another screen resolution for the installation dialogs.

Select Text Mode for installation.

Do a remote installation via VNC using the graphical installer.

PROCEDURE 16.3: CHANGE SCREEN RESOLUTION FOR INSTALLATION

1. Boot for installation.

2. Press F3 to open a menu from which to select a lower resolution for installation purposes.

217 Fails to Launch Graphical Installer openSUSE Leap 42.3

 3. Select Installation and proceed with the installation as described in Chapter 2, Installation
with YaST.

PROCEDURE 16.4: INSTALLATION IN TEXT MODE

1. Boot for installation.

2. Press F3 and select Text Mode.

3. Select Installation and proceed with the installation as described in Chapter 2, Installation
with YaST.

PROCEDURE 16.5: VNC INSTALLATION

1. Boot for installation.

2. Enter the following text at the boot options prompt:

vnc=1 vncpassword=SOME_PASSWORD

Replace SOME_PASSWORD with the password to use for VNC installation.

3. Select Installation then press Enter to start the installation.

Instead of starting right into the graphical installation routine, the system continues to run
in a text mode, then halts, displaying a message containing the IP address and port number
at which the installer can be reached via a browser interface or a VNC viewer application.

4. If using a browser to access the installer, launch the browser and enter the address infor-
mation provided by the installation routines on the future openSUSE Leap machine and
press Enter :

http://IP_ADDRESS_OF_MACHINE:5801

A dialog opens in the browser window prompting you for the VNC password. Enter it and
proceed with the installation as described in Chapter 2, Installation with YaST.

Important: Cross-platform Support

Installation via VNC works with any browser under any operating system, provided
Java support is enabled.

Provide the IP address and password to your VNC viewer when prompted. A window
opens, displaying the installation dialogs. Proceed with the installation as usual.

218 Fails to Launch Graphical Installer openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.2.6 Only Minimalistic Boot Screen Started
You inserted the medium into the drive, the BIOS routines are finished, but the system does not
start with the graphical boot screen. Instead it launches a very minimalistic text-based interface.
This may happen on any machine not providing sufficient graphics memory for rendering a
graphical boot screen.
Although the text boot screen looks minimalistic, it provides nearly the same functionality as
the graphical one:

Boot Options
Unlike the graphical interface, the different boot options cannot be selected using the
cursor keys of your keyboard. The boot menu of the text mode boot screen offers some
keywords to enter at the boot prompt. These keywords map to the options offered in the
graphical version. Enter your choice and press Enter to launch the boot process.

Custom Boot Options

After selecting a boot option, enter the appropriate keyword at the boot prompt or enter
some custom boot options as described in Section 16.2.4, “Fails to Boot”. To launch the instal-
lation process, press Enter .

Screen Resolutions
Use the function keys ( F1 ... F12 ) to determine the screen resolution for installation. If
you need to boot in text mode, choose F3 .

16.3 Boot Problems

Boot problems are situations when your system does not boot properly (does not boot to the
expected target and login screen).

16.3.1 The GRUB 2 Boot Loader Fails to Load

If the hardware is functioning properly, it is possible that the boot loader is corrupted and Linux
cannot start on the machine. In this case, it is necessary to repair the boot loader. To do so, you
need to start the Rescue System as described in Section 16.6.2, “Using the Rescue System” and follow
the instructions in Section 16.6.2.4, “Modifying and Re-installing the Boot Loader”.

219 Only Minimalistic Boot Screen Started openSUSE Leap 42.3

Alternatively, you can use the Rescue System to x the boot loader as follows. Boot your machine
from the installation media. In the boot screen, choose More Boot Linux System. Select the disk
containing the installed system and kernel with the default kernel options.

FIGURE 16.3: SELECT DISK

When the system is booted, start YaST and switch to System Boot Loader. Make sure that the
Write generic Boot Code to MRB option is enabled, and press OK. This fixes the corrupted boot
loader by overwriting it, or installs the boot loader if it's missing.
Other reasons for the machine not booting may be BIOS-related:

BIOS Settings
Check your BIOS for references to your hard disk. GRUB 2 may simply not be started if
the hard disk itself cannot be found with the current BIOS settings.

BIOS Boot Order

Check whether your system's boot order includes the hard disk. If the hard disk option
was not enabled, your system may install properly, but fails to boot when access to the
hard disk is required.

220 The GRUB 2 Boot Loader Fails to Load openSUSE Leap 42.3
16.3.2 No Login or Prompt Appears
This behavior typically occurs after a failed kernel upgrade and it is known as a kernel panic
because of the type of error on the system console that sometimes can be seen at the final stage
of the process. If, in fact, the machine has just been rebooted following a software update, the
immediate goal is to reboot it using the old, proven version of the Linux kernel and associated
les. This can be done in the GRUB 2 boot loader screen during the boot process as follows:

1. Reboot the computer using the reset button, or switch it o and on again.

2. When the GRUB 2 boot screen becomes visible, select the Advanced Options entry and
choose the previous kernel from the menu. The machine will boot using the prior version
of the kernel and its associated les.

3. After the boot process has completed, remove the newly installed kernel and, if necessary,
set the default boot entry to the old kernel using the YaST Boot Loader module. For more
information refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 12 “The Boot Loader GRUB 2”, Section 12.3 “Con-
figuring the Boot Loader with YaST”. However, doing this is probably not necessary because
automated update tools normally modify it for you during the rollback process.

4. Reboot.

If this does not x the problem, boot the computer using the installation media. After the ma-
chine has booted, continue with Step 3.

16.3.3 No Graphical Login

If the machine comes up, but does not boot into the graphical login manager, anticipate problems
either with the choice of the default systemd target or the configuration of the X Window System.
To check the current systemd default target run the command sudo systemctl get-default .
If the value returned is not graphical.target , run the command sudo systemctl isolate
graphical.target . If the graphical login screen starts, log in and start YaST System Services
Manager and set the Default System Target to Graphical Interface. From now on the system should
boot into the graphical login screen.
If the graphical login screen does not start even if having booted or switched to the graphical
target, your desktop or X Window software is probably misconfigured or corrupted. Examine
the log les at /var/log/Xorg.*.log for detailed messages from the X server as it attempted
to start. If the desktop fails during start, it may log error messages to the system journal that

221 No Login or Prompt Appears openSUSE Leap 42.3

can be queried with the command journalctl (see Book “Reference”, Chapter 11 “journalctl:
Query the systemd Journal” for more information). If these error messages hint at a configuration
problem in the X server, try to x these issues. If the graphical system still does not come up,
consider reinstalling the graphical desktop.

16.3.4 Root Btrfs Partition Cannot Be Mounted

If a btrfs root partition becomes corrupted, try the following options:

Mount the partition with the -o recovery option.

If that fails, run btrfs-zero-log on your root partition.

16.3.5 Force Checking Root Partitions

If the root partition becomes corrupted, use the parameter forcefsck on the boot prompt. This
passes the option -f (force) to the fsck command.

16.4 Login Problems

Login problems are those where your machine does, in fact, boot to the expected welcome
screen or login prompt, but refuses to accept the user name and password, or accepts them but
then does not behave properly (fails to start the graphic desktop, produces errors, drops to a
command line, etc.).

222 Root Btrfs Partition Cannot Be Mounted openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.4.1 Valid User Name and Password Combinations Fail
This usually occurs when the system is configured to use network authentication or directory
services and, for some reason, cannot retrieve results from its configured servers. The root
user, as the only local user, is the only user that can still log in to these machines. The following
are some common reasons a machine appears functional but cannot process logins correctly:

The network is not working. For further directions on this, turn to Section 16.5, “Network
Problems”.

DNS is not working at the moment (which prevents GNOME from working and the system
from making validated requests to secure servers). One indication that this is the case
is that the machine takes an extremely long time to respond to any action. Find more
information about this topic in Section 16.5, “Network Problems”.

If the system is configured to use Kerberos, the system's local time may have drifted past
the accepted variance with the Kerberos server time (this is typically 300 seconds). If NTP
(network time protocol) is not working properly or local NTP servers are not working,
Kerberos authentication ceases to function because it depends on common clock synchro-
nization across the network.

The system's authentication configuration is misconfigured. Check the PAM configuration

les involved for any typographical errors or misordering of directives. For additional
background information about PAM and the syntax of the configuration les involved,
refer to Book “Security Guide”, Chapter 2 “Authentication with PAM”.

The home partition is encrypted. Find more information about this topic in Section 16.4.3,
“Login to Encrypted Home Partition Fails”.

In all cases that do not involve external network problems, the solution is to reboot the system
into single-user mode and repair the configuration before booting again into operating mode
and attempting to log in again. To boot into single-user mode:

1. Reboot the system. The boot screen appears, offering a prompt.

2. Press Esc to exit the splash screen and get to the GRUB 2 text-based menu.

3. Press B to enter the GRUB 2 editor.

4. Add the following parameter to the line containing the kernel parameters:

systemd.unit=rescue.target

223 Valid User Name and Password Combinations Fail openSUSE Leap 42.3
 5. Press F10 .

6. Enter the user name and password for root .

7. Make all the necessary changes.

8. Boot into the full multiuser and network mode by entering systemctl isolate graph-
ical.target at the command line.

16.4.2 Valid User Name and Password Not Accepted

This is by far the most common problem users encounter, because there are many reasons this
can occur. Depending on whether you use local user management and authentication or network
authentication, login failures occur for different reasons.
Local user management can fail for the following reasons:

The user may have entered the wrong password.

The user's home directory containing the desktop configuration les is corrupted or write
protected.

There may be problems with the X Window System authenticating this particular user,
especially if the user's home directory has been used with another Linux distribution prior
to installing the current one.

To locate the reason for a local login failure, proceed as follows:

1. Check whether the user remembered his password correctly before you start debugging the
whole authentication mechanism. If the user may not remember his password correctly,
use the YaST User Management module to change the user's password. Pay attention to
the Caps Lock key and unlock it, if necessary.

2. Log in as root and check the system journal with journalctl -e for error messages
of the login process and of PAM.

3. Try to log in from a console (using Ctrl – Alt – F1 ). If this is successful, the blame cannot
be put on PAM, because it is possible to authenticate this user on this machine. Try to locate
any problems with the X Window System or the GNOME desktop. For more information,
refer to Section 16.4.4, “Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails”.

224 Valid User Name and Password Not Accepted openSUSE Leap 42.3
 4. If the user's home directory has been used with another Linux distribution, remove the
Xauthority le in the user's home. Use a console login via Ctrl – Alt – F1 and run
rm .Xauthority as this user. This should eliminate X authentication problems for this
user. Try graphical login again.

5. If the desktop could not start because of corrupt configuration les, proceed with Sec-
tion 16.4.4, “Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails”.

In the following, common reasons a network authentication for a particular user may fail on a
specific machine are listed:

The user may have entered the wrong password.

The user name exists in the machine's local authentication les and is also provided by a
network authentication system, causing conflicts.

The home directory exists but is corrupt or unavailable. Perhaps it is write protected or is
on a server that is inaccessible at the moment.

The user does not have permission to log in to that particular host in the authentication
system.

The machine has changed host names, for whatever reason, and the user does not have
permission to log in to that host.

The machine cannot reach the authentication server or directory server that contains that
user's information.

There may be problems with the X Window System authenticating this particular user, es-
pecially if the user's home has been used with another Linux distribution prior to installing
the current one.

To locate the cause of the login failures with network authentication, proceed as follows:

1. Check whether the user remembered their password correctly before you start debugging
the whole authentication mechanism.

2. Determine the directory server which the machine relies on for authentication and make
sure that it is up and running and properly communicating with the other machines.

3. Determine that the user's user name and password work on other machines to make sure
that his authentication data exists and is properly distributed.

225 Valid User Name and Password Not Accepted openSUSE Leap 42.3
 4. See if another user can log in to the misbehaving machine. If another user can log in with-
out difficulty or if root can log in, log in and examine the system journal with jour-
nalctl -e > le. Locate the time stamps that correspond to the login attempts and de-
termine if PAM has produced any error messages.

5. Try to log in from a console (using Ctrl – Alt – F1 ). If this is successful, the problem is
not with PAM or the directory server on which the user's home is hosted, because it is
possible to authenticate this user on this machine. Try to locate any problems with the
X Window System or the GNOME desktop. For more information, refer to Section 16.4.4,
“Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails”.

6. If the user's home directory has been used with another Linux distribution, remove the
Xauthority le in the user's home. Use a console login via Ctrl – Alt – F1 and run
rm .Xauthority as this user. This should eliminate X authentication problems for this
user. Try graphical login again.

7. If the desktop could not start because of corrupt configuration les, proceed with Sec-
tion 16.4.4, “Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails”.

16.4.3 Login to Encrypted Home Partition Fails

It is recommended to use an encrypted home partition for laptops. If you cannot log in to your
laptop, the reason is usually simple: your partition could not be unlocked.
During the boot time, you need to enter the passphrase to unlock your encrypted partition. If
you do not enter it, the boot process continues, leaving the partition locked.
To unlock your encrypted partition, proceed as follows:

1. Switch to the text console with Ctrl – Alt – F1 .

2. Become root .

3. Restart the unlocking process again with:

systemctl restart home.mount

4. Enter your passphrase to unlock your encrypted partition.

5. Exit the text console and switch back to the login screen with Alt – F7 .

226 Login to Encrypted Home Partition Fails openSUSE Leap 42.3

 6. Log in as usual.

16.4.4 Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails

If this is the case, it is likely that your GNOME configuration les have become corrupted. Some
symptoms may include the keyboard failing to work, the screen geometry becoming distorted, or
even the screen coming up as a bare gray eld. The important distinction is that if another user
logs in, the machine works normally. It is then likely that the problem can be xed relatively
quickly by simply moving the user's GNOME configuration directory to a new location, which
causes GNOME to initialize a new one. Although the user is forced to reconfigure GNOME, no
data is lost.

1. Switch to a text console by pressing Ctrl – Alt – F1 .

2. Log in with your user name.

3. Move the user's GNOME configuration directories to a temporary location:

mv .gconf .gconf-ORIG-RECOVER
mv .gnome2 .gnome2-ORIG-RECOVER

4. Log out.

5. Log in again, but do not run any applications.

6. Recover your individual application configuration data (including the Evolution e-mail
client data) by copying the ~/.gconf-ORIG-RECOVER/apps/ directory back into the new
~/.gconf directory as follows:

cp -a .gconf-ORIG-RECOVER/apps .gconf/

If this causes the login problems, attempt to recover only the critical application data and
reconfigure the remainder of the applications.

16.5 Network Problems

Many problems of your system may be network-related, even though they do not seem to be
at rst. For example, the reason for a system not allowing users to log in may be a network
problem of some kind. This section introduces a simple checklist you can apply to identify the
cause of any network problem encountered.

227 Login Successful but GNOME Desktop Fails openSUSE Leap 42.3
PROCEDURE 16.6: HOW TO IDENTIFY NETWORK PROBLEMS

When checking the network connection of your machine, proceed as follows:

1. If you use an Ethernet connection, check the hardware rst. Make sure that your network
cable is properly plugged into your computer and router (or hub, etc.). The control lights
next to your Ethernet connector are normally both be active.
If the connection fails, check whether your network cable works with another machine.
If it does, your network card causes the failure. If hubs or switches are included in your
network setup, they may be faulty, as well.

2. If using a wireless connection, check whether the wireless link can be established by other
machines. If not, contact the wireless network's administrator.

3. Once you have checked your basic network connectivity, try to nd out which service
is not responding. Gather the address information of all network servers needed in your
setup. Either look them up in the appropriate YaST module or ask your system adminis-
trator. The following list gives some typical network servers involved in a setup together
with the symptoms of an outage.

DNS (Name Service)

A broken or malfunctioning name service affects the network's functionality in many
ways. If the local machine relies on any network servers for authentication and these
servers cannot be found because of name resolution issues, users would not even be
able to log in. Machines in the network managed by a broken name server would
not be able to “see” each other and communicate.

NTP (Time Service)

A malfunctioning or completely broken NTP service could affect Kerberos authenti-
cation and X server functionality.

NFS (File Service)

If any application needs data stored in an NFS mounted directory, it cannot start
or function properly if this service was down or misconfigured. In the worst case
scenario, a user's personal desktop configuration would not come up if their home
directory containing the .gconf subdirectory could not be found because of a faulty
NFS server.

Samba (File Service)

If any application needs data stored in a directory on a faulty Samba server, it cannot
start or function properly.

228 Network Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

 NIS (User Management)
If your openSUSE Leap system relies on a faulty NIS server to provide the user data,
users cannot log in to this machine.

LDAP (User Management)

If your openSUSE Leap system relies on a faulty LDAP server to provide the user
data, users cannot log in to this machine.

Kerberos (Authentication)
Authentication will not work and login to any machine fails.

CUPS (Network Printing)

Users cannot print.

4. Check whether the network servers are running and whether your network setup allows
you to establish a connection:

Important: Limitations
The debugging procedure described below only applies to a simple network serv-
er/client setup that does not involve any internal routing. It assumes both server
and client are members of the same subnet without the need for additional routing.

a. Use ping IP_ADDRESS/HOSTNAME (replace with the host name or IP address of the
server) to check whether each one of them is up and responding to the network. If
this command is successful, it tells you that the host you were looking for is up and
running and that the name service for your network is configured correctly.
If ping fails with destination host unreachable , either your system or the desired
server is not properly configured or down. Check whether your system is reachable
by running ping IP address or YOUR_HOSTNAME from another machine. If you
can reach your machine from another machine, it is the server that is not running
or not configured correctly.
If ping fails with unknown host , the name service is not configured correctly or
the host name used was incorrect. For further checks on this matter, refer to Step
4.b. If ping still fails, either your network card is not configured correctly or your
network hardware is faulty.

229 Network Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

 b. Use host HOSTNAME to check whether the host name of the server you are trying to
connect to is properly translated into an IP address and vice versa. If this command
returns the IP address of this host, the name service is up and running. If the host
command fails, check all network configuration les relating to name and address
resolution on your host:

/etc/resolv.conf
This le is used to keep track of the name server and domain you are currently
using. It can be modified manually or automatically adjusted by YaST or DHCP.
Automatic adjustment is preferable. However, make sure that this le has the
following structure and all network addresses and domain names are correct:

search FULLY_QUALIFIED_DOMAIN_NAME
nameserver IPADDRESS_OF_NAMESERVER

This le can contain more than one name server address, but at least one of
them must be correct to provide name resolution to your host. If needed, adjust
this le using the YaST Network Settings module (Hostname/DNS tab).
If your network connection is handled via DHCP, enable DHCP to change host
name and name service information by selecting Set Hostname via DHCP (can
be set globally for any interface or per interface) and Update Name Servers and
Search List via DHCP in the YaST Network Settings module (Hostname/DNS
tab).

/etc/nsswitch.conf
This le tells Linux where to look for name service information. It should look
like this:

...
hosts: files dns
networks: files dns
...

The dns entry is vital. It tells Linux to use an external name server. Normally,
these entries are automatically managed by YaST, but it would be prudent to
check.
If all the relevant entries on the host are correct, let your system administrator
check the DNS server configuration for the correct zone information. For de-
tailed information about DNS, refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 19 “The Domain

230 Network Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

 Name System”. If you have made sure that the DNS configuration of your host
and the DNS server are correct, proceed with checking the configuration of
your network and network device.

c. If your system cannot establish a connection to a network server and you have ex-
cluded name service problems from the list of possible culprits, check the configu-
ration of your network card.
Use the command ip addr show NETWORK_DEVICE to check whether this device was
properly configured. Make sure that the inet address with the netmask ( /MASK )
is configured correctly. An error in the IP address or a missing bit in your network
mask would render your network configuration unusable. If necessary, perform this
check on the server as well.

d. If the name service and network hardware are properly configured and running,
but some external network connections still get long time-outs or fail entirely, use
traceroute FULLY_QUALIFIED_DOMAIN_NAME (executed as root ) to track the net-
work route these requests are taking. This command lists any gateway (hop) that a
request from your machine passes on its way to its destination. It lists the response
time of each hop and whether this hop is reachable. Use a combination of traceroute
and ping to track down the culprit and let the administrators know.

Once you have identified the cause of your network trouble, you can resolve it yourself (if the
problem is located on your machine) or let the system administrators of your network know
about your findings so they can reconfigure the services or repair the necessary systems.

16.5.1 NetworkManager Problems

If you have a problem with network connectivity, narrow it down as described in Procedure 16.6,
“How to Identify Network Problems”. If NetworkManager seems to be the culprit, proceed as follows
to get logs providing hints on why NetworkManager fails:

1. Open a shell and log in as root .

2. Restart the NetworkManager:

systemctl restart Network.Manager

3. Open a Web page, for example, http://www.opensuse.org as normal user to see, if you
can connect.

231 NetworkManager Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

 4. Collect any information about the state of NetworkManager in /var/log/NetworkMan-
ager .

For more information about NetworkManager, refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 28 “Using Net-
workManager”.

16.6 Data Problems

Data problems are when the machine may or may not boot properly but, in either case, it is
clear that there is data corruption on the system and that the system needs to be recovered.
These situations call for a backup of your critical data, enabling you to recover the system state
from before your system failed.

16.6.1 Managing Partition Images

Sometimes you need to perform a backup from an entire partition or even hard disk. Linux
comes with the dd tool which can create an exact copy of your disk. Combined with gzip you
save some space.

PROCEDURE 16.7: BACKING UP AND RESTORING HARD DISKS

1. Start a Shell as user root .

2. Select your source device. Typically this is something like /dev/sda (labeled as SOURCE ).

3. Decide where you want to store your image (labeled as BACKUP_PATH ). It must be different
from your source device. In other words: if you make a backup from /dev/sda , your
image le must not to be stored under /dev/sda .

4. Run the commands to create a compressed image le:

dd if=/dev/SOURCE | gzip > /BACKUP_PATH/image.gz

5. Restore the hard disk with the following commands:

gzip -dc /BACKUP_PATH/image.gz | dd of=/dev/SOURCE

If you only need to back up a partition, replace the SOURCE placeholder with your respective
partition. In this case, your image le can lie on the same hard disk, but on a different partition.

232 Data Problems openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.6.2 Using the Rescue System

There are several reasons a system could fail to come up and run properly. A corrupted le
system following a system crash, corrupted configuration les, or a corrupted boot loader con-
figuration are the most common ones.
To help you to resolve these situations, openSUSE Leap contains a rescue system that you can
boot. The rescue system is a small Linux system that can be loaded into a RAM disk and mounted
as root le system, allowing you to access your Linux partitions from the outside. Using the
rescue system, you can recover or modify any important aspect of your system.

Manipulate any type of configuration le.

Check the le system for defects and start automatic repair processes.

Access the installed system in a “change root” environment.

Check, modify, and re-install the boot loader configuration.

Recover from a badly installed device driver or unusable kernel.

Resize partitions using the parted command. Find more information about this tool at the
GNU Parted Web site http://www.gnu.org/software/parted/parted.html .

The rescue system can be loaded from various sources and locations. The simplest option is to
boot the rescue system from the original installation medium.

1. Insert the installation medium into your DVD drive.

2. Reboot the system.

3. At the boot screen, press F4 and choose DVD-ROM. Then choose Rescue System from the
main menu.

4. Enter root at the Rescue: prompt. A password is not required.

If your hardware setup does not include a DVD drive, you can boot the rescue system
from a network source. The following example applies to a remote boot scenario—if using
another boot medium, such as a DVD, modify the info le accordingly and boot as you
would for a normal installation.

233 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

 1. Enter the configuration of your PXE boot setup and add the lines install=PROTO-
COL://INSTSOURCE and rescue=1 . If you need to start the repair system, use repair=1
instead. As with a normal installation, PROTOCOL stands for any of the supported network
protocols (NFS, HTTP, FTP, etc.) and INSTSOURCE for the path to your network installa-
tion source.

2. Boot the system using “Wake on LAN”.

3. Enter root at the Rescue: prompt. A password is not required.

Once you have entered the rescue system, you can use the virtual consoles that can be reached
with Alt – F1 to Alt – F6 .
A shell and many other useful utilities, such as the mount program, are available in the /bin
directory. The /sbin directory contains important le and network utilities for reviewing and
repairing the le system. This directory also contains the most important binaries for system
maintenance, such as fdisk , mkfs , mkswap , mount , and shutdown , ip and ss for maintain-
ing the network. The directory /usr/bin contains the vi editor, nd, less, and SSH.
To see the system messages, either use the command dmesg or view the system log with jour-
nalctl .

16.6.2.1 Checking and Manipulating Configuration Files

As an example for a configuration that might be xed using the rescue system, imagine you
have a broken configuration le that prevents the system from booting properly. You can x
this using the rescue system.

To manipulate a configuration le, proceed as follows:

1. Start the rescue system using one of the methods described above.

2. To mount a root le system located under /dev/sda6 to the rescue system, use the fol-
lowing command:

mount /dev/sda6 /mnt

All directories of the system are now located under /mnt

3. Change the directory to the mounted root le system:

cd /mnt

234 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

 4. Open the problematic configuration le in the vi editor. Adjust and save the configuration.

5. Unmount the root le system from the rescue system:

umount /mnt

6. Reboot the machine.

16.6.2.2 Repairing and Checking File Systems

Generally, le systems cannot be repaired on a running system. If you encounter serious prob-
lems, you may not even be able to mount your root le system and the system boot may end
with a “kernel panic”. In this case, the only way is to repair the system from the outside. The
system contains the utilities to check and repair the btrfs , ext2 , ext3 , ext4 , reiserfs ,
xfs , dosfs , and vfat le systems. Look for the command fsck. FILESYSTEM , for example,
if you need a le system check for btrfs , use fsck.btrfs .

16.6.2.3 Accessing the Installed System

If you need to access the installed system from the rescue system, you need to do this in a
change root environment. For example, to modify the boot loader configuration, or to execute
a hardware configuration utility.
To set up a change root environment based on the installed system, proceed as follows:

1.
Tip: Import LVM Volume Groups
If you are using a LVM setup (refer to Book “Reference”, Chapter 5 “Advanced Disk
Setup”, Section 5.2 “LVM Configuration” for more general details), import all existing
volume groups in order to be able to nd and mount the device(s):

rootvgimport -a

Run lsblk to check which node corresponds to the root partition. It is /dev/sda2 in
our example:

lsblk
NAME MAJ:MIN RM SIZE RO TYPE MOUNTPOINT

235 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

 sda 8:0 0 149,1G 0 disk
├─sda1 8:1 0 2G 0 part [SWAP]
├─sda2 8:2 0 20G 0 part /
└─sda3 8:3 0 127G 0 part
└─cr_home 254:0 0 127G 0 crypt /home

2. Mount the root partition from the installed system:

mount /dev/sda2 /mnt

3. Mount /proc , /dev , and /sys partitions:

mount -t proc none /mnt/proc

mount --rbind /dev /mnt/dev
mount --rbind /sys /mnt/sys

4. Now you can “change root” into the new environment, keeping the bash shell:

chroot /mnt /bin/bash

5. Finally, mount the remaining partitions from the installed system:

mount -a

6. Now you have access to the installed system. Before rebooting the system, unmount the
partitions with umount -a and leave the “change root” environment with exit .

Warning: Limitations
Although you have full access to the les and applications of the installed system, there
are some limitations. The kernel that is running is the one that was booted with the res-
cue system, not with the change root environment. It only supports essential hardware
and it is not possible to add kernel modules from the installed system unless the kernel
versions are identical. Always check the version of the currently running (rescue) kernel
with uname -r and then nd out if a matching subdirectory exists in the /lib/modules
directory in the change root environment. If yes, you can use the installed modules, oth-
erwise you need to supply their correct versions on other media, such as a ash disk. Most
often the rescue kernel version differs from the installed one — then you cannot simply
access a sound card, for example. It is also not possible to start a graphical user interface.
Also note that you leave the “change root” environment when you switch the console
with Alt – F1 to Alt – F6 .

236 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.6.2.4 Modifying and Re-installing the Boot Loader

Sometimes a system cannot boot because the boot loader configuration is corrupted. The start-
up routines cannot, for example, translate physical drives to the actual locations in the Linux
le system without a working boot loader.
To check the boot loader configuration and re-install the boot loader, proceed as follows:

1. Perform the necessary steps to access the installed system as described in Section 16.6.2.3,
“Accessing the Installed System”.

2. Check that the GRUB 2 boot loader is installed on the system. If not, install the package
grub2 and run

grub2-install /dev/sda

3. Check whether the following les are correctly configured according to the GRUB 2 con-
figuration principles outlined in Book “Reference”, Chapter 12 “The Boot Loader GRUB 2” and
apply fixes if necessary.

/etc/default/grub

/boot/grub2/device.map (optional le, only present if created manually)

/boot/grub2/grub.cfg (this le is generated, do not edit)

/etc/sysconfig/bootloader

4. Re-install the boot loader using the following command sequence:

grub2-mkconfig -o /boot/grub2/grub.cfg

5. Unmount the partitions, log out from the “change root” environment, and reboot the sys-
tem:

umount -a
exit
reboot

237 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

16.6.2.5 Fixing Kernel Installation

A kernel update may introduce a new bug which can impact the operation of your system. For
example a driver for a piece of hardware in your system may be faulty, which prevents you from
accessing and using it. In this case, revert to the last working kernel (if available on the system)
or install the original kernel from the installation media.

Tip: How to Keep Last Kernels after Update

To prevent failures to boot after a faulty kernel update, use the kernel multiversion feature
and tell libzypp which kernels you want to keep after the update.
For example to always keep the last two kernels and the currently running one, add

multiversion.kernels = latest,latest-1,running

to the /etc/zypp/zypp.conf le. See Book “Reference”, Chapter 6 “Installing Multiple Kernel
Versions” for more information.

A similar case is when you need to re-install or update a broken driver for a device not supported
by openSUSE Leap. For example when a hardware vendor uses a specific device, such as a
hardware RAID controller, which needs a binary driver to be recognized by the operating system.
The vendor typically releases a Driver Update Disk (DUD) with the xed or updated version of
the required driver.
In both cases you need to access the installed system in the rescue mode and x the kernel
related problem, otherwise the system may fail to boot correctly:

1. Boot from the openSUSE Leap installation media.

2. If you are recovering after a faulty kernel update, skip this step. If you need to use a driver
update disk (DUD), press F6 to load the driver update after the boot menu appears, and
choose the path or URL to the driver update and confirm with Yes.

3. Choose Rescue System from the boot menu and press Enter . If you chose to use DUD, you
will be asked to specify where the driver update is stored.

4. Enter root at the Rescue: prompt. A password is not required.

5. Manually mount the target system and “change root” into the new environment. For more
information, see Section 16.6.2.3, “Accessing the Installed System”.

238 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

 6. If using DUD, install/re-install/update the faulty device driver package. Always make sure
the installed kernel version exactly matches the version of the driver you are installing.
If fixing faulty kernel update installation, you can install the original kernel from the
installation media with the following procedure.

a. Identify your DVD device with hwinfo --cdrom and mount it with mount /dev/
sr0 /mnt .

b. Navigate to the directory where your kernel les are stored on the DVD, for example
cd /mnt/suse/x86_64/ .

c. Install required kernel-* , kernel-*-base , and kernel-*-extra packages of

your flavor with the rpm -i command.

7. Update configuration les and reinitialize the boot loader if needed. For more information,
see Section 16.6.2.4, “Modifying and Re-installing the Boot Loader”.

8. Remove any bootable media from the system drive and reboot.

239 Using the Rescue System openSUSE Leap 42.3

A GNU Licenses
formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for
This appendix contains the GNU Free Docu- which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generat-
ed HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
mentation License version 1.2. The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as
are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For
works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the
GNU Free Documentation License most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely
Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language.
Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA. Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when
you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this
definition.
0. PREAMBLE
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included
document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication
and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or non-commercially. that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their License.
work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must 2. VERBATIM COPYING
themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which
is a copyleft license designed for free software. You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or non-
We have designed this License to use it for manuals for free software, because free software commercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct
be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you
printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of
or reference. copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a
notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the
the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts,
member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts:
copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers
A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover
of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language. must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may
add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as
A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that
long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the
as verbatim copying in other respects.
Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly
within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to t legibly, you should put the
Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter rst ones listed (as many as t reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, adjacent pages.
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you
The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or
those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general net-
License. If a section does not t the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be work-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete
designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you
does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quanti-
ty, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or
at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your
Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A
agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.
Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a for-
redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an
mat whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the doc-
updated version of the Document.
ument straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic
paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable
for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for
input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent le format whose markup,
or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification
by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial
amount of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Tex-
info input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and stan-
dard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples
of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary

240 openSUSE Leap 42.3

 The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use
4. MODIFICATIONS
their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of
sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under
must do these things in the Modified Version: the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the
combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any,
preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a
previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invari-
ant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least ve at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
than ve), unless they release you from this requirement. Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original
publisher. documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled
"Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
Entitled "Endorsements".
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
copyright notices.
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under
shown in the Addendum below. this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a
single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
Texts given in the Document's license notice.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow
this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item
stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version
as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given
on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent docu-
the previous sentence. ments or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate"
if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the com-
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
pilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in
a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in
an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not
the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the
themselves derivative works of the Document.
"History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then

version it refers to gives permission. if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts
may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on
of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and 8. TRANSLATION
in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the
section titles. Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the

M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires

in the Modified Version. special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some
or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and
title with any Invariant Section. any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement
between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Se- original version will prevail.
condary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option
If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the
designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of
requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the
Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from
actual title.
any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorse-
ments of your Modified Version by various parties--for example, statements of peer review
9. TERMINATION
or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly pro-
standard.
vided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the
You may add a passage of up to ve words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25
Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their
one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through
licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.
arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the
same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are
acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

241 openSUSE Leap 42.3

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documen-
tation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present
version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/
copyleft/ .
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies
that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have
the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any
later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the
Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever
published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute
and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the
section entitled “GNU
Free Documentation License”.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the
“with...Texts.” line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST

THEIR TITLES, with the
Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the
Back-Cover Texts being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three,
merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing
these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General
Public License, to permit their use in free software.

242 openSUSE Leap 42.3