CE 434 A – Irrigation Engineering

TTh 2:30-4:00 PM

Chapter 9: Open Channel of Irrigation Systems

Submitted by:
Fenita, Criz Deanver
Dimalig, Piere Carlo

Submitted to:
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan, Ph.D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

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Open Channels
Irrigation water is conveyed in either open channel or closed conduits. Open channels receive water from natural streams
or underground water and convey water to the farm for irrigation. Open channels have free surface. The free surface is
subjected to atmospheric pressure. The basic equations used for water flow in open channels are continuity equation,
Bernoulli equation and Darcy Weisbach equation.

Fig. 11.1. A trapezoidal shaped open channel.

(Source: w w w . n p t e l . i i t m . a c . i n / c o u r s e s / 1 0 5 1 0 7 0 5 9 / m o d u l e 1 / . . . / l e c t u r e 1 . p d f )

Types of Open Channels

(a) Prismatic and Non-Prismatic Channels

A channel in which the cross sectional shape, size and the bottom slope are constant over long stretches is termed as
prismatic channel. Most of the man-made or artificial channels are prismatic channels. The rectangular, trapezoidal (Fig.
11.2), triangular and half-circular are commonly used shapes in manmade channels. All natural channels generally have
varying cross section and consequently are nonprismatic.

Fig. 11.2. Sketch of a prismatic channel.

(Source: www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/105107059/module1/.../lecture1.pdf)

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(b) Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels

Rigid channels are those in which the boundary or cross section is not deformable. The shape and roughness magnitudes
are not functions of flow parameters. The lined channels and non erodible unlined channels are rigid channels. In rigid
channels the flow velocity and shear stress distribution are such that no major scouring, erosion or deposition takes place
in the channel and the channel geometry and roughness are essentially constant with respect to time. Channels are
classified as mobile channels when the boundary of the channel is mobile and flow carries considerable amounts of
sediment through suspension and is in contact with the bed. In the mobile channel, depth of flow bed width, longitudinal
slope of channel may undergo changes with space and time depending on type of flow.The resistance to flow, quantity of
sediment transported and channel geometry all depend on interaction of flow with channel boundaries.

(Source: https://esenotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/rigid-and-Mobile-Boundary-Channel-min-min-1024x310.jpg)

11.3 Types of Open Channel Flow

Open channel flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The following section describes
classification based on variation of flow properties such as depth of flow, velocity etc. with respect to time and space.

a) Steady and Unsteady Flows

Flow is steady if the velocity and depth are constant with respect to time. If the depth velocity or discharge changes with
time, the flow is termed as unsteady.

Flood flows in rivers and rapidly varying surges in canals are examples of unsteady flow.

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b) Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows

If the flow properties, say the depth of flow and discharge in an open channel remain constant along the length of the
channel, the flow is said to be uniform. A prismatic channel carrying a certain discharge with a constant velocity is an
example of uniform flow.

Fig. 11.3. Uniform flow in a prismatic channel.

(Source: Subramanya, 2000)

If the flow properties such as depth and discharge vary with distance along the channel is termed as non-uniform flow

Fig. 11.4. Uniform and non-uniform flows.

(Source: www.wegc203116.unigraz.at/meted/hydro/basic/ Routing/print Version/03-streamflow_characteristics.htm)

Fig. 11.4 shows a view of uniform and non uniform flow. In uniform flow, the gravity force on the flowing water balances
the frictional force between the flowing water and inside surface of the channel, which is in contact with the water. In case
of non-uniform flow, the friction and gravity forces are not in balance.

The flow in open channel can be steady or unsteady. It can be uniform or non -uniform. A non-uniform flow is also termed
as varied flow. Steady and unsteady flows can be uniform or varied.

c) Gradually Varied and Rapidly Varied Flow

The non-uniform flow can be classified as gradually varied flow (GVF) and rapidly varied flow (RVF). Varied flow
assumes that no flow is externally added to or taken out of channel system and hence the volume of water in a known time
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interval is conserved in the channel system and hence the volume of water in a known time interval is conserved in the
channel system. If the change of depth is gradual so that the curvature of streamlines is not excessive, such a flow is said to
be gradually varied flow (GVF).

Fig. 11.5. (a) Gradually flow. (Source: Subramanya, 2000)

Fig. 11.5 (a) shows water surface profile of a GVF; here y1 and y2 are the depth at section 1and 2, respectively. In GVF,
the loss of energy is essentially due to boundary friction. Therefore, the distribution of pressure in the vertical direction
may be taken as hydrostatic. If the curvature in a varied flow is large and the depth changes appreciably over short lengths,
then the flow is termed as a varied flow. It is a local phenomenon. The examples of RVF are hydraulic jump and hydraulic
drop.

Fig. 11.5. (b) Rapidly varied flow. (Source: Subramanya, 2000)

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d) Spatially Varied Flow (SVF)

Addition or diminution of water along the course of flow causes non uniform discharge and the resulting flow is known as
spatially varied flow (SVF). Hydraulic behaviour of spatially varied flow with increasing discharge (case of drainage
channel) is different in certain respects from that of spatially varied flow with decreasing discharge (in case of irrigation
channel). Figs. 11.6 (a) shows a case of spatially varied flow with decreasing discharge. Figs. 11.6 (b) shows case of
increasing discharge.

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.6. Spatially varied flow: a) decreasing discharge, b) increasing discharge. (Source: Subramanya, 2000).

i) Spatially Varied Flow with Increasing Discharge

In this type of spatially varied flow, an appreciable portion of the energy loss is due to the turbulent mixing of the added
water and the water flowing in the channel. In the most cases, this mixing is of relatively high magnitude and uncertainty.
Because of the resulting high and uncertain losses, the momentum equation is more convenient than the energy equation in
solving spatially varied flow with increasing discharge. From a practical viewpoint, the high energy loss seems to make
channels designed for such spatially varied flow hydraulically inefficient, but physical circumstance and economical
considerations sometimes make the use of such channels desirable.

ii) Spatially Varied Flow with Decreasing Discharge

Fundamentally, these types of spatially varied flow may be treated as a flow diversion where the diverted water does not
affect the energy head. This concept has been verified by both theory and experiments. Therefore, the use of the energy
equation is more convenient in solving spatially varied flow with decreasing discharge. The theory of spatially varied flow
with decreasing discharge was probably employed first in the design of lateral spillways or side spillway weirs.This type of
structure is usually a long notch installed along the side of a channel for the purpose of diverting or spilling excess flow.

The spatially varied flow with decreasing discharge is encountered in the design of irrigation water conveyance system
whereas with increasing discharge in design of surface and subsurface drainage systems.

11.4 Sate of Flow

The state of flow in open channels is influenced by viscosity, gravity and inertial forces. The ratio of inertial to viscous
force is the Reynolds number.
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11.4.1 Effect of Viscosity

In open channel flow may be laminar, transitional or turbulent depending on viscosity in relation to inertial force. If
viscous forces are strong in comparison to inertial force, the flow can be laminar otherwise vice versa for turbulentant
flow.

The characteristic length-scale for an open channel of width (b) and depth (y), the hydraulic radius (R) = (by/b+2y). As a
general rule, open channel flow in laminar, if Reynolds number defined by

Re = VR/v is less than 500.

Where,

V = Flow Velocity

R = Hydraulic radius

v = Kinematic viscosity.

In open channels the transitional range of Re for practical purpose, is considered between 500 and 2000.The revalue
exceeding 2000 is considered as turbulent flow.

In close conduits the flow is i) laminar for Re < 2000, ii) transitional 2000 < Re < 4000 and iii) turbulent Re > 4000.

11.4.2 Effect of Gravity

The effect of gravity is represented by ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces. This ratio is known as Froude number
(Fr), given by

Fr = v/√gL

V = mean flow velocity,

g = acceleration due to gravity

L = characteristic length (it can be hydraulic depth, y or hydraulic radius, R ).

For the flow to be critical (Fr = 1) i.e.

V=√gy

For sub critical flow (Fr < 1) i.e.

V<√gy

For super critical flow (Fr > 1) i.e.

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 V>√gy

11.5 Seepage in Canals and Field Channels

Seepage loss in unlined canals and farm ditches often range from one-fourth to one-third of the total water diverted. In
extremely sandy or gravelly ditches, half the water can be lost through seepage. Reducing seepage by using improved
conveyance facilities can increase water available for crop needs, allowing irrigation of additional land, prevent water-
logging, increase in channel capacity, reduction in maintenance cost and more importantly enable to use available water
sustainably. Especially in the regions of water scarcity, minimising the seepage losses is important.

11.6 Measurement of Seepage in Canal

The most commonly used methods applied for measuring the quantity of water lost due to seepage in a canal section are as
follows:

Ponding method

Inflow-outflow method

Seepage meter method

11.6.1 Ponding Method: The ponding method is one of the simplest methods of determining seepage from a canal section.
Water is ponded in temporary water-tight dikes constructed in a straight length of canal under investigation. The time rate
of drop of the water in the canal level is measured. The dimension of the ponded reach of the canal are measured the
seepage computed as volume of water lost from the canal per unit wetted area of canal per unit time and normally is
expressed as m3/m2/day.

11.6.2. Inflow-Outflow Method: The inflow-outflow method is based on measuring the rates of water flowing into and
out of selected section of canal reach. It is based on water balance approach considering the inflows outflows and losses
into account. Canal sections with minimum number of outlets and diversions and no appreciable inflow from higher lands
are considered for seepage measurement. Water stage recorders are also used to record the height of flow in the flume as a
function of the elapsed time. The seepage is computed as the difference in inflow and outflow per unit wetted area of canal
section under consideration.

11.6.3. Seepage Meter Method: The seepage meter is a device for directly measuring the flow between ground water and
surface water body such as lake or stream. The seepage meter is a modified form of the constant head permeameter. It is
mainly used to determine location of relatively high seepage losses. Seepage meter can be constructed from inexpensive
material such as galvanised iron sheet. Seepage meters are suitable when many measurements are needed to characterize
groundwater surface water exchange in different sequent of water body.

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11.7 Materials for Lining Canals and Field Channels
A large variety of lining materials for seepage loss control from canals and field channels is available for use. Lining of
canals or channels offers other advantage such as enhance stability, increasing life, protection from flood in addition to
seepage control. The various types of channel lining material commonly used are as follows:

a) Hard surface linings

i) Cement concrete or pre cost concrete,

ii) Stone masonry,

iii) Brick tile or concrete tile

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 iv) Asphaltic concrete

b) Earth type lining

i) Compacted earth

ii) Soil cement

iii) Bentonite - clay soil mixture

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c) Synthetic sheet/film

i) Rubber or synthetic materials

ii) Low density polyethylene sheet

The following points are normally considered for selecting method of lining and materials.

a) Availability and cost of the material at the site or within reach.

b) Labour available for lining at a reasonable cost

c) Degree of water-tightness desired

d) Velocity of flow in the channel

e) Useful life of the lining material

f) Maintenance cost.

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Design of Open Channel

12.1 Introduction

Open Channel is a passage through which water flows and has upper surface exposed to atmosphere. Open channel design
involves determining cross-section dimensions of the channel for the amount of water the channel must carry (i.e.,
capacity) at a given flow velocity, slope and, shape or alternatively determining the discharge capacity for the given cross-
section dimensions.

The terminologies used in the design of open channels of different geometry are given below:

i) Area of Cross Section (a): Area of cross section of for a rectangular cross section, of wetted section. For a rectangular
cross section, if b = width of channel and y = depth of water, the area of wetted section of channel (a) = b.y.

ii) Wetted Perimeter (p): It is the sum of the lengths of that part of the channel sides and bottom which are in contact with
water. The wetted perimeter (p) = b+2y.

iii) Hydraulic Radius (R): It is the ration of area of wetted cross section to wetted perimeter. The hydraulic radius

121.png

iv) Hydraulic Slope (S): It is the ratio of vertical drop in longitudinal channel section (h) to the channel length (l).
Hydraulic slope

122.png

v) Freeboard: It is the vertical distance between the highest water level anticipated in channel flow and the top of the
retaining banks. This is provided to prevent over topping of channel embankments or damage due to trampling. This is
provided between 15.25% of normal depth of flow.

12.2 Discharge Capacity of Channel

Channel capacity can be estimated by equation given as:

123.png (12.1)

where,

Q = channel capacity (L/min)

DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (mm/day)

A = irrigated area supplied by canal or ditch (ha)

HPD = hours per day that water is delivered

Ei = irrigation efficiency including conveyance efficiency of canal or ditch (percent).

The velocity of flow in a canal or ditch should be non erosive and non silting that prevent the deposition of suspended
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substances. Normally flow velocity in excess of 0.6 m/s is non silting (Schwab et al., 1993). The maximum velocity that
does not cause excessive erosion depends on the erodibility of the soil or lining material. The maximum allowable
velocities for lined canals and unlined ditches listed in Table 12.1 can be used when local information is not available.

12.3 Economical Section of a Channel

A channel section is said to be economical when the cost of construction of the channel is minimum. The cost of
construction of a channel depends on depth of excavation and construction for lining. The cost of construction of channel
is minimum when it passes maximum discharge for its given cross sectional area. It is evident from the continuity
equation and uniform flow formulae that for a given value of slope and surface roughness, the velocity of flow is
maximum when hydraulic radius is maximum. The hydraulic radius is maximum for given area if wetted perimeter is
minimum. Hence the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge should be minimum to keep the cost down or minimum. This
condition is utilized for determining the dimensions of economical sections of different forms of channels. Most
economical section is also called the best section or hydraulic efficient section as the discharge passing through a most
economical section of channel for a given cross-sectional area (A), slope of the bed (S0) and a roughness coefficient (n), is
maximum.

The conditions for the most economical section of channel

A rectangular channel section is the most economical when either the depth of flow is equal to half the bottom width or
hydraulic radius is equal to half the depth of flow.

A trapezoidal section is the most economical if half the top width is equal to one of the sloping sides of the channel or the
hydraulic radius is equal to half the depth of flow.

A triangular channel section is the most economical when each of its sloping side makes an angle of 45o with vertical or is
half square described on a diagonal and having equal sloping sides.

The discharge from a channel is given by

124.png (12.2)

where Q = discharge (m3/s), A = area of cross section (m2), C = Chezys constant,

R= Hydraulic radius (m), P = wetted perimeter (m), = bed slope (fraction or m/m), K = constant for given cross sectional
area and bed slope and = A3/2 C So1/2

In equation (12.2) the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted perimeter P is minimum.

(i) Channel Shape: Among the various shapes of open channel the semi-circle shape is the best hydraulic efficient cross
sectional shape. However the construction of semicircle cross section is difficult for earthen unlined channel. Trapezoidal
section is commonly used cross section.

(ii) Channel Dimensions: The channel dimensions can be obtained using uniform flow formula, which is given by

Q=AV (12.3)

Where,

V = flow velocity (m/s)

A = cross-sectional area of canal perpendicular to flow (m2)

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Q = capacity of the channel (m3/s)

Velocity is computed by Manning’s formula or Chezy formula.

Manning’s Equation is given by

125.png (12.4)

Chezy’s equation is given by

V = C R1/2 S1/2 (12.5)

Where,

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

C = Chezy’s roughness coefficient

R = hydraulic radius (m)

S = bed slope (m/m)

Table 12.1. Limiting velocities for clear and turbid water from straight channels after aging (Source: Schwab et al., 1993)

Velocity Water

transporting

Clear colloidal silts

Material m/s m/s

Fine sand, colloidal 0.46 0.76

Sandy loam, noncolloidal 0.53 0.76

Silt loam, noncolloidal 0.61 0.92

Alluvial silts, noncolloidal 0.61 1.07

Ordinary firm loam 0.76 1.07

Volcanic ash 0.76 1.07

Stiff clay, very colloidal 1.14 1.52

Alluval silts, colloidal 1.14 1.52

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Shales and hardpans 1.83 1.83

Fine gravel 0.76 1.52

Graded loam to cobbles 1.14 1.52

when noncollodal

Graded silts to cobbles 1.22 1.68

when colloidal

Coarse gravel, noncolloidal 1.22 1.83

Cobbles and shingles 1.53 1.68

Example12.1: Compute the mean velocity and discharge for a depth of flow of 0.30 m from a lined trapezoidal channel of
0.6 m wide and side slope of 1.5 horizontal : 1 vertical. The Manning’s roughness (n) is 0.012 and the bed slope is 0.0003.

Solution:

Area of cross section (a) = by + zy2

= 0.60 x 0.30 + 1.5(0.30)2

= 0.18 + 0.135

= 0.315 m2

Wetted perimeter

126.png

Hydraulic radius (R) 127.png

Mean velocity (v) 128.png

Discharge (Q) = A x V

= 0.315 x 0.473

= 0.149

12.4 Energy Depth Relationship

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From hydraulic point of view, the total energy of water in any streamline passing through a channel section may be
expressed as total head, which is equal to sum of the elevation above a datum, the pressure head, and the velocity head.
The total energy at the channel section is given by

129.png (12.6)

where,

H = total energy, z = elevation head above datum, y = depth of water in channel, V = velocity of flow, g = acceleration due
to gravity. The specific energy is the total energy at any cross section with respect to channel bed. Considering slope of the
channel bed is very small, the specific energy E is

1210.png (12.7)

For the channel of rectangular section having width b, the cross sectional area of channel

A=by

then

1211.png (12.8)

Differentiating equation (12.8), equating it to zero for minimum condition, this becomes

1212.png

but 1213.png

Hence 1214.png

When V Vc, Y = (Critical depth)

1215.png (12.9)

1216.png is defined as Froude number, for flow to be critical its value is equal to 1. It is greater than 1 for super critical
flow and less than 1 for sub critical flow.

Critical depth ( Yc) for rectangular channel is given by

1217.png (12.10)

The principle of design of flumes and hydraulic structures (open drop and chute spillways) is based on the concept of
specific energy and critical flow.

Example 12.2: Compute the critical depth and specific energy for discharge of 6.0 m3s-1 channel from a rectangular
channel. The bottom width of rectangular is 2.4 m.

Solution:

Discharge / unit width (q) = 1218.png

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Critical depth 1219.png

= 0.860 m.

Since specific energy at critical depth (EC) = 1220.png yc Therefore EC = 1.290 m.

Example 12.3: Determine the critical depth for specific energy head of 2.0 m in a trapezoidal channel of 2.0 m bottom
width and side slopes of 1:1.

Solution:

Specific energy at initial depth ( yc) is given by

1221.png

As for critical flow 1222.png

where,

1223.png

12.5 Velocity Distribution in a Channel Section

The velocity of flow in any channel section is not uniformly distributed. The non- uniform distribution of velocity is due to
the presence of a free surface and the frictional resistance along the channel surface. In a straight reach of channel section,
maximum velocity usually occurs below the free surface at a depth of 0.05 to 0.15 of the total depth of flow. The velocity
distribution in a channel section depends on various factors such as the shape of the section, the roughness of the channel
and the presence of bends in the channel alignment. The man velocity of flow in a channel section can be computed from
the vertical velocity distribution curve obtained by actual measurements. It is observed that the velocity at 0.6 depth from
the free water surface or average of the velocities measured at 0.2 depth and 0.8 depth from free water surface which is
very close to the mean velocity of flow in the vertical section. The velocity can be measured by pitot tube or current meter.

References

Schwab, G. O., Fangmeier, D. D., Elliot, W. J., and Frevert, R. K. (1993). Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. John
Willey & Sons, Inc., New York, USA: 269.

Subramanya, K. (1992). Flow in Open Channels, Tata McGraw-Hill New Delhi: 34-38.

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Suggested Readings

Chow, V. T. (1959). Open-Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Singapore.

Jain C. Subhash. (2001). Open-Channel Flow, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

James, Larry G. (1988). Principles of Farm Irrigation System Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

References

Subramanya, K. (2000). Flow in Open Channels. Third Reprint Tata McGraw-Hill Publication Company Ltd. New Delhi.

www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/105107059/module1/.../lecture1.pdf.

www.wegc203116.unigraz.at/meted/hydro/basic/Routing/print_Version/03-

streamflow_characteristics.htm.

Suggested Readings

Chow, V. T. (1959). Open-Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Book Company Singapore.

James, Larry G. (1988). Principles of Farm Irrigation System Design. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Kruse, E. G., Humpheyes, A.S., Pope, E. J. (1980). Farm Water Distribution System. (In Design and Operation of Farm
Irrigation Systems, Edited by Jensen, M. E), ASAE Monograph 3, St. Joseph, MI: 395-439.

Michael, A. M. (2010). Irrigation Theory and Practice, Second Edition Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, Noida, U.P.
India: 313-318.

www.ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth...and...to.../ch5.pdf.

DESIGN OF CHANNELS AND IRRIGATION STRUCTURES

2 DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR STEADY UNIFORM FLOW
Channels are very important in Engineering projects especially in Irrigation and, Drainage.
Channels used for irrigation are normally called canals
Channels used for drainage are normally called drains.

3 ESTIMATION OF CANAL DESIGN FLOWS (Q)

For Irrigation Canals, Design Flows are estimated Using the Peak Gross Irrigation Requirement
For Example, in a Location with the Peak Gross Irrigation Requirement of 7.69 mm/day.
Peak flow (Q) = /1000 m x x 1/ x 1/24 x
= L/s/ha
For a canal serving an area of 1000 ha, canal design flow is then 890 L/s or 0.89 m 3 /s.
Typically, for humid areas, magnitude of discharges are in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 L/s/ha.
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4 Dimensions of Channels and Definitions
5 Definitions
a) Freeboard: Vertical distance between the highest water level anticipated in the design and the top of the retaining banks.
It is a safety factor to prevent the overtopping of structures.
b) Side Slope (Z): The ratio of the horizontal to vertical distance of the sides of the channel. Z = e/d = e’/D

6 Table 6.1: Maximum Canal Side Slopes (Z)

Sand, Soft Clay
3: 1 (Horizontal: Vertical)
Sandy Clay, Silt Loam, Sandy Loam
2:1
Fine Clay, Clay Loam
1.5:1
Heavy Clay
1:1
Stiff Clay with Concrete Lining
0.5 to 1:1
Lined Canals

7 6.1.3 Estimation of Velocity in Channels

The most prominent Equation used in the design is the Manning formula described in Values of Manning's n can be found
in standard texts.
Design of Channels
Design of open channels can be sub-divided into 2:
a) For Non-Erodible Channels (lined)
b) Erodible Channels carrying clean water

9 Design of Non-Erodible Channels

When a channel conveying clear water is to be lined, or the earth used for its construction is non-erodible in the normal
range of canal velocities, Manning's equation is used. We are not interested about maximum velocity in design. Manning's
equation is:
`
Q and S are basic requirements of canal determined from crop
water needs. The slope of the channels follows the natural
channel. Manning's n can also be got from Tables or estimated
using the Strickler equation: n = d1/6 , d is the particle size diameter (m)

10 Design of Non-Erodible Channels Contd.

LHS of equation (1) can be calculated in terms of A R2/ termed section factor. For a trapezoidal section:
A = b d + Z d ; P = b d (1 + Z)1/2
The value of Z is decided (see Table 6.1) and the value of b is chosen based on the material for the construction of the
channel.
The only unknown d is obtained by trial and error to contain the design flow. Check flow velocity and add freeboard.

11 Example 6.1
Design a Non-Erodible Channel to convey 10 m3/s flow, the slope is and the mean particle diameter of the soil is 5 mm.
The side slope is 2 : 1.
Solution: Q = 1/n AR 2/3 S 1/2 ….. (1)
With particle diameter, d being 5 mm, Using Strickler Equation, n = d 1/6
= x /6 =

12 Solution of Example Contd.

Z = Choose a value of 1.5 m for 'b‘
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For a trapezoidal channel, A = b d + Z d = 1.5 d + 2 d2
P = b d (Z )1/2 = d 51/2 = d
Try different values of d to contain the design flow of 10 m3/s

13 Soln of Example 6.1 Contd. d(m) A(m2 ) P(m) R(m) R2/3 Q(m3/s) Comment
Small flow
Too big
slightly big
slightly small
O.K.
The design parameters are then d = m and b = 1.5 m
Check Velocity : Velocity = Q/A = 10/ = m/s
Note: For earth channels, it is advisable that Velocity should be above 0.8 m/s to inhibit weed growth but this may be
impracticable for small channels.
Assuming freeboard of 0.2 d ie m, Final design parameters are:
D = 2.5 m and b = m

14 Final Design Diagram T = 11.5 m D = 2.5 m Z = 2:1 b = 1.5 m

T = b + 2 Z d = x2 x 2.5 = 11.5 m

15 Design of Erodible Channels Carrying Clean Water

The problem here is to find the velocity at which scour is initiated and to keep safely below it. Different procedures and
thresholds are involved including maximum permissible velocity and tractive force criteria.
Maximum Permissible Velocities: The maximum permissible velocities for different earth materials can be found in text
books e.g. Hudson's Field Engineering, Table 8.2.

16 Procedure For Design

i) Determine the maximum permissible velocity from tables.
ii) With the permissible velocity equal to Q/A, determine A.
iii) With permissible velocity = 1/n S1/2 R2/3
Slope, s and n are normally given.
iv) R = A/P , so determine P as A/R
v) Then A = b d + Z d and
P = b+ 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 ,
Solve and obtain values of b and d

17 Example 6.2:
From previous example, design the channel using the maximum permissible velocity method.
Solution: Given: Q = 10 m3 /s , Slope = , n = 0.016
,Z=2:1
i) From permissible velocity table, velocity = m/s
A = Q/V = 10/0.75 = m
`
iv) P = A/R = /0.97 = m
v) A = b d + Z d2 = b d d2
P = b d (Z )1/2 = b d 51/ = b d
ie. b d + 2 d2 = m (1)
b d = m (2)
From previo

18 Solution of Equation 6.2 Contd.

From (2), b = d (3)
Substitute (3) into (1), ( d)d d2 = 13.33
13.74 d d d =
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13.74 d d2 =
ie d d = 0
Recall the quadratic equation formula:
d = 1.26 m is more practicable
From (3), b = (4.5 x 1.26) = m
Adding 20% freeboard, Final Dimensions are depth = 1.5 m and width = 8.07 m
See Final Diagram in note book

19 6.1.5 Classification of Canals Based on Capacity:

Canals can be classified as:
(a) Main Canal: It is the principal channel of a canal system taking off from the headworks or a reservoir or tail of a
feeder.
It is a large capacity channel and usually there is no direct irrigation from it.
Small capacity ditch distributaries running parallel to the canal are taken off from the main canal to irrigate adjoining
areas.
Main canals deliver supply to branch canal and main distributaries.

20 Canals Contd.
(b) Branch or Secondary Canal:
Branch canals take their supply from the main canal and convey to the distributaries.
Very little direct irrigation is done from the branch canals.
Sub-branch is a canal, which takes off from the branch canal but has capacity higher than a distributary.

21 Canals Contd.
(c) Major Distributary:
It is a distributing channel, which may take off from a main canal, branch canal or sub-branch and has discharge capacity
less than that of a branch canal.
It supplies water to another distributary.
Distributaries and minors take off from it.
Irrigation is done through outlets fixed along
it.

22 Canals Contd. (d) Distributary:

It is a channel receiving supply from branch canal or major distributary and has discharge less than that of major
distributary.
Minors take off from it, besides irrigation is done from it through outlets.

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