Drexler 2020
Drexler 2020
Drexler 2020
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and brine is key to determine the Capillary Number, which governs capillary
Interfacial tension forces in the porous medium. As a result, changes in IFT affect the displacement efficiency and the residual oil
CO2 flooding saturation having direct impact on the Recovery Factor. Fluids in Pre-salt fields (offshore Brazil) have particular
Pre-salt reservoirs
characteristics, such as high salinity in the brines, elevated content of asphaltenes and resins in the oils and high
WAG
Reservoir fluid characterization
CO2 content in the produced gas for some fields. The effect of CO2 on the IFT depends on complex electrostatic
Capillary forces and acid-base equilibria, and cannot be predicted by a single fluid property. This work presents the experimental
Dynamic IFT study of the effect of CO2 dissolution on the IFT between a Pre-salt oil with a high total base number (TBN) and
non-negligible total acid number (TAN) and a high salinity brine using the pendant drop technique. The oil and
its asphaltenic fraction were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic reso
nance spectroscopy, and elemental analysis identifying characteristic functional groups and indicating both
acidic and basic polar functional groups. CO2 dissolution resulted in an IFT increase of 56% evidencing that,
despite the high TBN of this oil, basic groups have low surface-activity. Moreover, a study of IFT as a function of
pH showed that the maximum IFT was found in strongly acidic environments, but constant IFT values were
obtained at neutral and basic pH values. Thus, the interfacial activity is governed by asphaltenes and resins with
polar groups of varying acid/base behavior. The presence of CO2 also accelerated the dynamic behavior of IFT
reducing the equilibrium time by 70%. This is caused by the reduction of oil viscosity, which impacts the
relaxation time and enhances the diffusion of surface-active species towards the interface. The results in this
work evidence that the CO2 content should be considered when modeling fluid properties for this type of res
ervoirs, as it affects the oil-brine IFT. In addition, for this oil with high content of surface-active compounds and
non-negligible TAN and TBN, CO2 flooding does not contribute to reduce the IFT. Therefore, the efficiency of this
Enhanced Oil Recovery technique in this type of field relies on viscosity reduction, miscible displacement and
wettability alteration rather than IFT reduction.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107095
Received 20 December 2019; Received in revised form 17 February 2020; Accepted 17 February 2020
Available online 20 February 2020
0920-4105/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Drexler et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 190 (2020) 107095
terms of connectivity of the reservoir and sustained well productivity. where they are positively charged.
CO2 flooding is a mature EOR technique which has been applied for Lashkarbolooki et al. studied the effect of CO2 dissolution in brine on
over 60 years. The main mechanisms for incremental oil production in the IFT for oils with different concentrations of acid groups and found
miscible flooding are viscosity reduction and oil swelling (Lake, 1989). that carbonated brine resulted in higher interfacial tension for more
Stalkup discussed the physical properties that affect sweeping and acidic oils. They also reported that the hydrophobicity of the native
displacement efficiencies in immiscible gas flooding (Stalkup, 1978). At surfactants in the crude oil sample increased when CO2 was dissolved in
high pressures and moderate temperatures, CO2 density is in the same the brine. In addition, they studied the dynamic behavior of IFT
order of magnitude than that of average oils reducing the effects of concluding that the mass transfer and surface orientation of native
gravity segregation. However, the viscosity ratio between CO2 and oil is surfactants is affected by CO2 diffusion in the oil phase (Lashkarbolooki
unfavorable (i.e. much lower than 1), giving place to WAG to improve et al., 2017). In posterior research (Lashkarbolooki et al., 2018), the
mobility ratio increasing the sweeping efficiency. authors investigated the dynamic IFT between different oils and brines
The most relevant operational parameters including common prob at elevated pressures and temperatures. They found that the key factors
lems in WAG projects, such as poor injectivity and corrosion among controlling the change of IFT are the concentration and nature of acid
others, were reviewed elsewhere (Christensen et al., 2001). A more and basic compounds and the pH of the aqueous phase. In contrast,
recent publication presented a sensitivity analysis of key aspects of WAG pressure and temperature did not show a critical effect. Also, their re
and gas flooding, i.e. gas and water injected volumes and well pattern sults supported the idea that CO2 diffusion in crude oil acts as a mass
design (Perera et al., 2016). One key variable for modeling reservoir transfer barrier for the efficient packing of the surface-active compo
scenarios is interfacial tension (IFT), as it is directly related to the nents. This diffusion has a contrary effect to that of the ionization of
Capillary Number which represents the ratio between viscous and basic compounds in acid environments. As a result, the IFT will depend
capillary forces (Sheng, 2010). Nevertheless, there is no straightforward on which of these phenomena overcomes.
relationship between CO2 mole fraction and oil-brine interfacial tension, Another work by the same group (Lashkarbolooki and Ayatollahi,
since this physical property depends on complex intermolecular forces 2018) analyzed the IFT between oils with different total acid numbers
including electrostatic, acid-base and other interactions. (TAN) and asphaltene and resin contents and brines with different sa
Several studies presented the effect of CO2 dissolution on the inter linities and pH values. Their experiments showed that the TAN alone is
facial tension between oil and water phases. For systems with low not enough to define the interfacial activity of different crude oils. The
concentration of surface-active components (i.e. decane and water), the distribution of functional groups (such as those containing Sulfur, Ni
increment in CO2 mole fraction results in lower IFT values (Georgiadis trogen and Oxygen) in the oil and the pH of the aqueous phase proved to
et al., 2011). Another work (Sun and Chen, 2005) obtained the same be determinant in the resulting IFT. Moreover, both seawater and
trend for live oil and brine (salinity of 2969 ppm) obtaining a decrease of deionized water showed the same trends for the variation of IFT with
30% from the initial IFT for a CO2 mole fraction of 65% in the oil phase. pH.
Compounds containing polar functional groups in the oil such as The cited bibliography evidences that the effect of CO2 dissolution on
alcohols (Moradi et al., 2014) and carboxylic acids (Hoeiland et al., IFT involves the contribution of complex phenomena and is dependent
2001; Sayed et al., 2019) have effect on the IFT. Most of the components on the specific composition of the aqueous and oil phase. Given the
with interfacial activity concentrate in the asphaltene and resin fractions characteristic of the Pre-salt scenario, the investigation of the effect of
of the oil (Buckley et al., 1998). The capability of asphaltene and resins CO2 on IFT is of great relevance to study fluid-fluid interactions in these
in crude oil to decrease interfacial tension with the aqueous phase was reservoirs either for reservoir characterization or EOR research pur
thoroughly discussed elsewhere (Lashkarbolooki et al., 2016; Lashkar poses. This work proposes an experimental investigation of the effect of
bolooki and Ayatollahi, 2016; Schorling et al., 1999). The composition CO2 dissolution on the dynamic and equilibrium interfacial tension
of the asphaltenes has a greater effect on their surface activity than their between a crude oil and brine characteristics of Pre-salt reservoirs. Its
overall concentration (Yang et al., 2014). In addition, the efficiency of main objective is to understand the variation of IFT as CO2 is introduced
these polar compounds as surfactants is affected by the other compo in the system, in correlation with the properties of the fluids in this
nents in the oil phase, such as the composition and concentration of challenging reservoir environment.
paraffin fractions and the presence of light fractions such as dissolved
gas (Doryani et al., 2015). Also, properties of the aqueous phase such as 2. Materials and methods
ionic composition (Buckley and Fan, 2007; Kakati and Sangwai, 2017;
Lashkarbolooki et al., 2016; Mahmoudvand et al., 2019; Tichelkamp Formation brine was reproduced in laboratory following the
et al., 2015) and pH (Ashrafizadeh et al., 2012; Hutin et al., 2016; Hyde composition of the formation water from a Brazilian Pre-salt field re
et al., 2018; Ramakrishnan and Wasan, 1983) are of paramount ported by Shell Brasil (Table 1). The operator also provided a sample of
importance to determine the activity of these amphiphilic compounds crude oil (Oil B) from the same field. In addition, a synthetic oil (Oil M,
and, thus, the IFT between oil and brine. Buckley and Fan (2007) 71.1 wt% n-C16 and 28.9 wt% toluene) was prepared matching the ratio
identified the concentration of asphaltenes, total acid number (TAN), between asphaltenes and saturates from the Pre-Salt oil sample. The
total basic number (TBN) and oil viscosity as the most relevant param reagents were acquired from Sigma-Aldrich with a purity of 99.9%.
eters to influence oil-brine IFT. The contribution of each one of them Fluids were characterized using the following procedures. Formation
depends on the pH of the aqueous phase. Particularly, while TAN has an
effect at basic conditions, TBN is significant in acid environments.
Table 1
Ultra-low IFT was achieved for oils with TAN over 0.1 at pH values
Pre-Salt formation brine composition.
greater than 10 indicating the increased surface activity of acid com
pounds in basic environments. Ions Concentration [ppm]
CO2 dissolution in the brine phase decreases the pH due to the Naþ
57580
equilibrium of carbonic acid (Bhatt et al., 2019). For oils with acidic or Ca2þ 24250
basic surface-active compounds, this shift of pH has a strong influence Mg2þ 2120
Kþ 1200
on the ability of these compounds to reduce IFT (Lashkarbolooki and Ba2þ 24
Ayatollahi, 2018). Asphaltenes and resins forming acids (i.e. sulphonic Sr2þ 1260
or carboxylic acids) will be ionized in basic environments showing SO2-
4 54
greater interfacial activity at high pH. On the other hand, compounds Cl 139900
TDS 226388
with basic groups (i.e. amines) are more active at low pH solutions
2
S. Drexler et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 190 (2020) 107095
brine conductivity and pH were measured using a Mettler Toledo Sev the system, and finally nitrogen was used to dry it.
enExcellence meter. SARA analysis was performed by IP 143 n-heptane Density and viscosity of dead and recombined fluids were calculated
precipitation method (asphaltenes) and medium pressure liquid chro with commercial software. For oil phases, PVTSim Nova 3.3, (Calsep)
matography (saturates, resins and aromatics). In addition, total acid with the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state (EOS) and the Peneloux
number (TAN) and total base number (TBN) were calculated using the volume correction was used. Brine properties were calculated with OLI
ASTM D664 procedures, and gas chromatography (GC) was performed studio 9.6 (OLI Systems Inc.) with the Mixed Solvent Electrolytes þ
in an Agilent HP7890B with a DB-Petro column. Finally, the API gravity Soave-Redlich-Kwong EOS.
was measured in a Mettler Toledo DM40 density meter, and dead oil IFT measurements are time-dependent, mostly due to the diffusion
viscosity was measured in an Anton Paar SVM 3000. process of surface-active species to the interface (Georgiadis et al.,
The asphaltene fraction of the crude oil was separated using n-hep 2011). This dynamic behavior introduces uncertainties when analyzing
tane following the procedure by Franco et al. (2013). The character the data because the equilibration process can take several hours. A
ization was made by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) logarithmic function was used to model the data set for each experiment.
with a Nicolet 6700 spectrometer (Thermo Scientific) using a DTGS KBr Since this function is not asymptotic, a threshold value of 0.01
detector and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with a Bruker AV400 mNm 1h 1 was taken as the stabilization limit derivative. Using this
using 16 scans. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur contents were threshold value to calculate the stabilization time for each data set made
obtained for both crude oil and asphaltenes by elemental analysis using it possible to calculate the equilibrium IFT with the fitting logarithmic
the procedures in ASTM D5291 performing triplicate analysis of all function.
samples with a maximum standard deviation of 0.81 wt%. The numerical procedures involved in the calculation of the IFT
IFT measurements were made at 60 � C and 1000 psi using a high- value from the drop profile were already discussed in the literature
pressure high-temperature (HPHT) Drop Shape Analyzer (DSA) appa (Anastasiadis et al., 1987; Song and Springer, 1996). Finally, all exper
ratus designed by Kruss and Eurotechnica. Fig. 1 shows the scheme for iments were repeated 3 times, and the results shown in this work are the
the experimental setup used for the tests. Different tests were made to mean values, with the error bars representing the standard error of the
analyze the effect of both the CO2 dissolution in the fluids and the pH of mean.
the aqueous phase.
For experiments with dead fluids (no CO2), the DSA chamber was 3. Results and discussions
first filled with brine and then all lines were bled. The pressure and
temperature were raised to reach stabilized experiment conditions. 3.1. Fluid characterization
Then, the drop of oil was injected into the chamber using a u-shaped line
giving start to the experimental run. Measurements were taken every 30 The gas chromatography (GC) analysis of crude Oil B is shown in
s. Table 2, and the SARA composition, total acid and basic numbers (TAN
Recombination of dead oils and brines with CO2 was carried out and TBN) are presented in Table 3. It can be observed that although the
following the procedures detailed elsewhere (Drexler et al., 2019). In the TAN/TBN ratio is lower than one indicating a more basic behavior; both
experiments containing CO2-saturated fluids, degassed brine was first TAN and TBN have non-negligible values, indicating the presence of
pumped into the chamber, all lines were bled, and test conditions were both acid and basic groups in Oil B. In addition, the resin and asphaltene
set. Then, the CO2-saturated brine was pumped towards the chamber, contents suggest that Oil B has a considerable concentration of
pushing the degassed brine back to a piston cell. After injecting at least interfacial-active components.
three times the total volume of the system, the drop of oil saturated in Elemental analysis characterization of Oil B and its asphaltene
CO2 was formed and the experiment began. After all experiments, the fraction is reported in Table 4. The relative strength of each of these
cleaning routine consisted of flowing toluene and pure water through contributions is yet to be assessed. As expected, the asphaltenes have a
the oil and brine lines, respectively. Then, methanol was used to flush lower H/C ratio than the crude oil due to their higher degree of
3
S. Drexler et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 190 (2020) 107095
4
S. Drexler et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 190 (2020) 107095
They reported that, although oils with high TAN tend to have higher IFT
in acid environments in which acid compounds show lower surface ac
tivity, the IFT behavior with pH does not depend only on the absolute
TAN. The functional groups on acid and basic compounds in the crude
oil will be more important in determining their surface activities at
different pH values. In oils with basic compounds that show high
interfacial activity when ionized, CO2 injection reduces the interfacial
tension due to the reduced pH of the carbonated brine (Lashkarbolooki
et al., 2018).
In the previous section, Oil B was evidenced to have a distribution of
acid and basic compounds. Following the discussion of the last para
graph, CO2 injection reduced the pH of the aqueous phase from 5.4 to
2.4. Therefore, the increase of IFT with pH found for Oil B indicates that,
even though its TAN/TBN ratio is lower than 1, basic compounds are not
Fig. 2. Viscosity (top) and density (bottom) of dead and CO2-saturated oils B
the main surface-active agents in this oil. The relatively low IFT value
and M at 60 � C and 1000 psi.
obtained for dead Oil B may be the results of amphiphilic compounds
that are more active at slightly acid or even neutral or basic environ
ments, such as those containing acid groups. This set of results supports
the idea that measurement of acid and basic numbers is not sufficient to
predict the effect of pH on the IFT between crude oil and brine. For this
Pre-Salt crude with high TBN, acid compounds showed to be more
efficient in decreasing IFT than their basic counterparts.
To further investigate the effect of pH on IFT between oil B and the
formation brine, 0.1 M NaOH and HCl solutions were used to adjust the
aqueous phase pH in a range between 3 and 9.5. IFT between Pre-salt oil
and each of these aqueous solutions was measured at 60 � C and atmo
spheric pressure, and the results were represented as a function of pH in
Fig. 5. In agreement with the previous discussion, the results show that
the acidic pH (3) corresponds to the minimum activity of the surface-
active compounds leading to a greater IFT. For the slightly acidic con
ditions that correspond to the range of the degassed Pre-salt formation
brine, a decrease in IFT was observed. However, with further increase in
pH to neutral and basic conditions the IFT plateaus. Thus, for this oil
Fig. 3. Dynamic behavior of interfacial tension for oils M and B in the presence
and absence of CO2 at 60 � C and 1000 psi. The diamonds indicate the stabili
zation time. The full lines represent oil with no CO2 and the dashed lines
represent CO2- saturated oil. Orange lines stand for Oil M and blue lines for Oil
B. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the Web version of this article.)
5
S. Drexler et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 190 (2020) 107095
with non-negligible TAN and TBN, there is no increase in surface activity Declaration of competing interest
of the polar compounds at basic pH.
Previous investigations of the effect of pH on IFT for different types The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
of crudes evidenced that, given the complex composition of both phases, interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
there is no general trend based on a single property of the oil. Al-Rossies the work reported in this paper.
et al. (2010) obtained a maximum IFT for the neutral pH range for three
different crudes, but there was no quantification of the acidity of their CRediT authorship contribution statement
polar compounds. Lashkarbolooki and Ayatollahi (2018) found a
decrease of IFT with pH for a heavy oil with TAN greater than 1, and a Santiago Drexler: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
maximum IFT at neutral pH for the lighter oils with TAN lower than 1. In Writing - original draft, Supervision, Project administration. Elton L.
their article, the TBN was not reported and the salinity is over five times Correia: Investigation, Validation, Writing - review & editing. Ana
lower than the one used in our experiments. They concluded that the Carolina Jerdy: Software, Writing - review & editing. Leandro A.
sole measurement of the TAN is not sufficient to predict the effect of pH Cavadas: Investigation. Paulo Couto: Project administration, Funding
on IFT, and the different polar functional groups in the oil must be acquisition.
considered.
The scenario presented in this work consists of a high salinity Acknowledgements
aqueous phase and an oil with a TAN/TBN ratio lower than 0.1. Evi
dence of acid functional groups was found in the characterization of the This research was carried out in association with the ongoing R&D
oil and the asphaltene fractions. The results in Fig. 5 indicate a very low project registered as ANP nº 20163-2, “An� alise Experimental da Recu
activity of strong polar basic compounds, and a greater interaction of peraç~ao de Petro�leo para os Carbonatos do Pr�e-sal do Brasil atrav�es de
neutral and acid components. However, given the plateau of the curve at Injeç~
ao Alternada de CO2 e Agua"
� (UFRJ/Shell Brasil/ANP), sponsored
high pH values, the surface activity of this crude oil is not governed by by Shell Brasil under the ANP R&D levy as “Compromisso de Inves
components with strong acid behavior. A combination of compounds timentos com Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento”. This study was financed in
with different ranges of acidity and basicity, whose activity was only part by the Coordenaç~ ao de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Su
hindered at strongly acidic pH, may be responsible for the low IFT values perior- Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.
found for this oil. These results support recent research (Drexler et al.,
2019) that evidenced the low activity of basic components of the same References
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