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Author: Ernest Wilson Clement

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF

MODERN JAPAN ***
 A HANDBOOK
OF MODERN JAPAN

Uniform with this Work

JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS: A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN. By
RICHARD HILDRETH. In two volumes. A reprint edited and revised,
with notes and additions, by Ernest W. Clement and an
Introduction by William Elliot Griffis. With maps and 100
illustrations. 12mo, in slip Case. $3.00 net.
A. C. MCCLURG & CO.
Chicago
THE LATE EMPEROR MEIJI TENNO
New Revised Edition
 A HANDBOOK

OF

MODERN JAPAN
 BY

ERNEST W. CLEMENT
WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

NINTH EDITION

THOROUGHLY REVISED AND BROUGHT DOWN TO DATE

WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS ON

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

AND

GREATER JAPAN

CHICAGO
A. C. McCLURG & CO.
1913

COPYRIGHT
A. C. MCCLURG & CO.
 1903; 1905; 1913

Copyrighted in Great Britain

UNIVERSITY PRESS · JOHN WILSON
AND SON · CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.

TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER

AND MY MOTHER
 INTRODUCTION
THIS book, as its title indicates, is intended to portray Japan as it is rather than
as it was. It is not by any means the purpose, however, to ignore the past, upon
which the present is built, because such a course would be both foolish and
futile. Moreover, while there are probably no portions of Japan, and very few of
her people, entirely unaffected by the new civilization, yet there are still some
sections which are comparatively unchanged by the new ideas and ideals. And,
although those who have been least affected by the changes are much more
numerous than those who have been most influenced, yet the latter are much
more active and powerful than the former.
In Japan reforms generally work from the top downward, or rather from the
government to the people. As another1 has expressed it, “the government is the
moulder of public opinion”; and, to a large extent, at least, this is true. We must,
therefore, estimate Japan’s condition and public opinion, not according to the
great mass of her people, but according to the “ruling class,” if we may transfer
to Modern Japan a term of Feudal Japan. For, as suffrage in Japan is limited by
the amount of taxes paid, “the masses” do not yet possess the franchise, and may
be said to be practically unconcerned about the government. They will even
endure heavy taxation and some injustice before they will bother themselves
about politics. These real conservatives are, therefore, a comparatively
insignificant factor in the equation of New Japan. The people are conservative,
but the government is progressive.
This book endeavors to portray Japan in all its features as a modern world
power. It cannot be expected to cover in great detail all the ground outlined,
because it is not intended to be an exhaustive encyclopædia of “things
Japanese.” It is expected to satisfy the specialist, not by furnishing all materials,
but by referring for particulars to works where abundant materials may be found.
It is expected to satisfy the average general reader, by giving a kind of bird’s-eye
view of Modern Japan. It is planned to be a compendium of condensed
information, with careful references to the best sources of more complete
knowledge.
Therefore, a special and very important feature of the volume is its
bibliography of reference books at the end of each chapter. These lists have been
prepared with great care, and include practically all the best works on Japan in
the English language. In general, however, no attempt has been made to cover
magazine articles, which are included in only very particular instances.
There are two very important works not included in any of the lists, because
they belong to almost all; they are omitted merely to avoid monotonous
repetition. These two books of general reference are indispensable to the
thorough student of Japan and the Japanese. Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese”2
is the most convenient for general reference, and is a small encyclopædia. “The
Mikado’s Empire,”3 by Dr. Griffis, is a thesaurus of information about Japan and
the Japanese.
After these, one may add to his Japanese library according to his special taste,
although we think that Murray’s “Story of Japan,” also, should be in every one’s
hands. Then, if one can afford to get Rein’s two exhaustive and thorough
treatises, he is well equipped. And the “Transactions of the Asiatic Society of
Japan” will make him quite a savant on Japanese subjects. It should be added,
that those who have access to Captain Brinkley’s monumental work of eight
volumes on Japan will be richly rewarded with a mine of most valuable
information by one of the best authorities. “Fifty Years of New Japan” is
valuable and unique, because it is written by Japanese, each an authority in his
department.4 For the latest statistics, “The Japan Year Book” is invaluable.
We had intended, but finally abandoned the attempt, to follow strictly one
system of transliteration. Such a course would require the correction of
quotations, and seemed scarcely necessary. Indeed, the doctors still disagree, and
have not yet positively settled upon a uniform method of transliteration. After
all, there is no great difference between Tōkiō and Tōkyō; kaisha and kwaisha;
Iyeyasu and Ieyasu; Kyūshiu, Kiūshiu, Kyūshū, and Kiūshū. There is more
divergency between Ryūkyū, Riūkiū, Liukiu, Luchu, and Loo Choo; but all are
in such general use that it would be unwise, in a book like this, to try to settle a
question belonging to specialists. The fittest will, in time, survive. We have,
however, drawn the line on “Yeddo,” “Jeddo,” and similar archaisms and
barbarisms, for which there is neither jot nor tittle of reason. But it is hoped that
the varieties of transliteration in this book are too few to confuse.
The author is under special obligations to Professor J. H. Wigmore, formerly a
teacher in Tōkyō, and now Dean of the Northwestern Law School, Chicago, for
kind criticisms and suggestions; to Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, the art critic, of
Chicago, for similar assistance, and for the chapter on “Æsthetic Japan,” which
is entirely his composition; and also under general obligations for the varied
assistance of many friends, too numerous to mention, in Japan and America. He
has endeavored to be accurate, but doubts not that he has made mistakes. He
only asks that the book be judged merely for what it claims to be,—a Handbook
of Modern Japan.
ERNEST WILSON CLEMENT.
 NOTE TO NEW REVISED EDITION
THE eight years which have elapsed since this book was revised have been so
crowded with great events that another revision seems advisable in order to
make the book yet more timely and as valuable as possible. Whenever it was
practicable, the statements and statistics in both the body and the appendix of the
book have been brought up to date. In some cases, but only a very few, it was
impossible to alter the text without breaking up the paging; therefore the original
text was allowed to stand, and the corrections have been indicated in notes or
some other way. A new chapter, moreover, has been added, with new
illustrations, and presents as concisely and yet as comprehensively as possible
the facts which warrant its caption, “Greater Japan.”
TŌKYŌ, January, 1913.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I.PHYSIOGRAPHY 1
II.INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 16
III. TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 29
IV.PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 44
V. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 60
VI. JAPANESE TRAITS 76
VII.HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 90
VIII.HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 102
IX. CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 118
X.LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 133
XI. JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 146
XII.LEGAL JAPAN 159
XIII.THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 175
XIV.LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 191
XV. EDUCATION 209
XVI.ÆSTHETIC JAPAN 222
XVII.DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTŌ 237
XVIII. CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDŌ, BUDDHISM 250
XIX.JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM 262
XX.TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN 277
XXI.THE MISSION OF JAPAN 289
305
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

GREATER JAPAN 329

343
APPENDIX
INDEX 415
 ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
The Late Emperor Meiji Tenno Frontispiece
Nagasaki Harbor 10
Lighthouse Inland Sea 10
Cotton Mills, Ōsaka 20
First Bank, Tōkyō 38
Baron Shibusawa 42
Group of Country People 46
New Year’s Greeting 64
Garden at Ōji 78
Ōsaka Castle 92
Perry Monument, near Uraga 106
Statesmen of New Japan: Prince Sanjō and Count Katsu 116
Departments of State: Navy, Agriculture and Commerce, Justice,
Foreign Affairs 126
Naval Leaders of Japan: Admiral Enomoto, Admiral Kabayama 136
Distinguished Land Commanders: General Baron Kuroki, General
Baron Oku, General Baron Nodzu 146
Military Leaders of New Japan: Field-Marshal Ōyama and Field-
Marshal Yamagata 150
Statesmen of New Japan: Count Ōkuma, Marquis Inouye, Count
Itagaki, Marquis Matsukata 156
Court Buildings, Tōkyō 164
The Mint, Ōsaka 164
Statesmen of New Japan: Ōkubo, Saigō, Kido, and Prince Iwakura 172
H. I. M. the Empress 188
H. I. M. the Crown Prince 196
Imperial University Buildings, Tōkyō 210
Educators and Scientists of Japan: Baron Ishiguro, Viscount Mori,
Mr. Fukuzawa, Dr. Kitasato 216
Painting by Ho-Itsu: View of Fuji-San 224
Painting by Yasunobu: Heron and Lotus 230
Group of Pilgrims 252
Buddhist Priests 252
Gospel Ship, “Fukuin Maru” 268
Y. M. C. A. Summer School, Dōshisha, Kyōto 268
Four Gates: Palace, Tōkyō; Palace, Kyōto; Sakurada, Tōkyō; Nijō
Castle, Kyōto 282
The Naval Hero of the War, Admiral Togo 306
Distinguished Naval Commanders: Admiral Uriu, Admiral
Kamimura, Commander Hirose 310
Distinguished Land Commanders: General Baron Kodama, General
Count Nogi, Admiral Prince Itō 316
The Japanese Peace Envoys: Count Komura, Minister Takahira 318
H. I. M. the Emperor 330
Marquis Saionji 332
Statesmen of New Japan: Marquis Katsura and Prince Itō 336
Viscount Sone 338
General Viscount Terauchi 344
Military Review, Himeji 360
“Shikishima” in Naval Review, Kōbe 384
Map of Japan 342
 JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION
a like a in father
e „ e „ men
i „ i „ pin
o „ o „ pony
u „ oo „ book
ai as in aisle
ei „ weigh
au as o in bone
ō „ „ „ „
ū as oo in moon
i in the middle of a word and u in the middle or at the end of a word are
sometimes almost inaudible.
The consonants are all sounded, as in English: g, however, has only the hard
sound, as in give, although the nasal ng is often heard; ch and s are always soft,
as in check and sin; and z before u has the sound of dz. In the case of double
consonants, each one must be given its full sound.
There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically no accent; but care
must be taken to distinguish between o and ō, u and ū, of which the second is
more prolonged than the first.
Be sure to avoid the flat sound of a, which is always pronounced ah.

A HANDBOOK
OF
MODERN JAPAN
 CHAPTER I

PHYSIOGRAPHY
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Situation of country; relation to the United States; lines of communication; “Key of
Asia.”—Area of empire.—Divisions: highways, provinces, prefectures, principal cities and ports.—Dense
population; natives and foreigners; Japanese abroad.—Mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, earthquakes.—
Lakes, rivers, bays, harbors, floods, tidal waves.—Epidemics, pests.—Climate: temperature, winds
(typhoons), moisture, ocean currents.—Flora and fauna.—Peculiar position: Japan and the United States.—
Bibliography.

THE Japanese may appropriately be called “our antipodal neighbors.” They do

not live, it is true, at a point exactly opposite to us on this globe; but they belong
to the obverse, or Eastern, hemisphere, and are an Oriental people of another
race. They are separated from us by from 4,000 to 5,000 miles of the so-called,
but misnamed, Pacific Ocean; but they are connected with us by many lines of
freight and passenger vessels. In fact, in their case, as in many other instances,
the “disuniting ocean” (Oceanus dissociabilis) of the Romans has really
disappeared, and even a broad expanse of waters has become a connecting link
between the countries on the opposite shores. It may be, in a certain measure,
correct to say, as pupils in geography are taught to express it, that the Pacific
Ocean separates the United States from Japan; but it is, in a broader and higher
sense, just as accurate to state that this ocean binds us with our Asiatic neighbors
and friends in the closest ties. Japan was “opened” by the United States; has
been assisted materially, politically, socially, educationally, and morally by
American influences in her wonderful career of progress; and she appreciates the
kindliness and friendship of our people. We, in turn, ought to know more about
our rapidly developing protégé, and no doubt desire to learn all we can
concerning Japan and the Japanese.
The development of trade and commerce has been assisted by the power of
steam to bring Japan and the United States into close and intimate relations.
There are steamship lines from San Francisco, Vancouver, Tacoma, Seattle,
Portland, and San Diego to Yokohama or Koōbe; and there are also a great many
sailing vessels plying between Japan and America. The routes from San
Francisco and San Diego direct to Japan are several hundred miles farther than
the routes from the more northerly ports mentioned above. The time occupied by
the voyage across the Pacific Ocean varies according to the vessel, the winds and
currents, etc.; but it may be put down in a general way at about 14 days. The fast
royal mail steamers of the Canadian Pacific line often make the trip in much less
time, and thus bring Chicago, for instance, within only a little more than two
weeks’ communication with Yokohama. It must, therefore, be evident that Japan
is no longer a remote country, but is as near to the Pacific coast of America, in
time of passage, as the Atlantic coast of America was twenty years ago to
Europe.
It is true that the steamers of the San Francisco and San Diego lines,
especially those carrying mails and passengers, go and come via Honolulu, so
that the voyage to Japan thus requires a few more days than the direct trip would
take. But, as Hawaii is now part of the United States, our country has thus
become only about 10 days distant from Japan. Moreover, as the Philippine
Islands are also a portion of our country, and Formosa has been for several years
a part, of Japan, the territories of the two nations are brought almost within a
stone’s throw, and the people almost within speaking distance, of each other.
This proximity of the two nations to each other should be an incentive to draw
even more closely together the ties, not only historical, commercial, and
material, but also political, social, educational, intellectual, moral, and religious,
that bind them to each other, and, so far as possible, to make “Japan and America
all the same heart.”
But Japan is also an Asiatic country, and thus holds a peculiar relation to the
countries on the eastern coast of the mainland of Asia. The islands of Japan
stretch along that shore in close proximity to Siberia, Korea, and China, and are
not far distant from Siam. With all of those countries she enters, therefore, into
most intimate relationship of many kinds. With Russia the relation is one of
rivalry, of more or less hostility, at present passive, but likely to be aroused into
activity by some unusually exasperating event. In any case, Japan is the only
Far-Eastern power that can be relied upon to check the aggressions of Russia;
and this fact the wise statesmen of Great Britain have clearly recognized by
entering into the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Toward Korea, China, and Siam,
Japan sustains a natural position of leadership, because she is far in advance of
all those nations in civilization. Ties geographical, racial, social, political,
intellectual, and religious, bind them more or less closely together, so that Japan
can more sympathetically and thus more easily lead them out into the path of
progress. The natural and common routes of trade and travel from the United
States to those countries run via Japan, which thus becomes, in more senses than
one, “the key of Asia”; and for that very reason she is also the logical mediator
between the East and the West.
 The Japanese call their country Dai Nihon, or Dai Nippon (Great Japan), and
have always had a patriotic faith in the reality of its greatness. But this delightful
delusion is rudely dispelled when the fact is expressed statistically, in cold
figures, that the area of the Empire of Japan is about 175,000 square miles,5 or
only a little more than that of California. It has, however, a comparatively long
coast line of more than 18,000 miles. The name Nihon, or Nippon (a corruption
of the Chinese Jih-pên, from which was derived “Japan”), means “sun-source,”
and was given because the country lay to the east from China. It is for this
reason that Japan is often called “The Sunrise Kingdom,” and that the Imperial
flag contains the simple design of a bright sun on a plain white background.6
Japan proper comprises only the four large islands, called Hondo, Shikoku,
Kyūshiu, and Yezo (Hokkaidō); but the Empire includes also Korea, Formosa,
the Pescadores, and about 4,000 small islands, of which the Ryūkyū (Loo Choo)
and the Kurile groups are the most important. Japan proper lies mainly between
the same parallels of latitude7 as the States of the Mississippi valley, and
presents even more various and extreme climates than may be found from
Minnesota to Louisiana.
The extreme northern point of the Empire of Japan is 50° 56´ N., and the
extreme southern point is 21° 45´ N. The extreme eastern point is 156° 32´ E.,
and the extreme western point 119° 18´ E. These extremes furnish even greater
varieties of climate than those just mentioned. The Kurile Islands at the extreme
north are frigid, and have practically no animal or vegetable life; while the
beautiful island of Formosa at the extreme south is half in the tropics, with a
corresponding climate, and abounds in most valuable products. Marcus Island,
farther out in the Pacific, has guano deposits worth working.
Japan proper is divided geographically into nine “circuits,” called Gokinai,
Tōkaidō, Tōsandō, Hokurikudō, Sanindō, Sanyōdō, Nankaidō, Saikaidō,
Hokkaidō. The word dō, which appears in all the names except the first, means
“road” or “highway.” Some of these appellations are not much used at present;
but others are retained in various connections, especially in the names of
railways, banks, companies, or schools. A common official division of the
largest island (Hondo) is into Central, Northern, and Western. Japan proper was
also subdivided into 85 Kuni (Province), the names of which are still retained in
general use to some extent. But, for purposes of administration, the empire is
divided into 3 Fu (Municipality) and 43 Ken (Prefecture), besides Yezo (or
Hokkaidō) and Formosa, each of which is administered as a “territory” or
“colony.” The distinction between Fu and Ken is practically one in name only.
These large divisions are again divided: the former into Ku (Urban District) and
Gun (Rural District); and the latter into Gun. There are also more than 50
incorporated Cities (Shi) within the Fu and Ken.8 Moreover, the Gun is
subdivided into Chō (Town) and Son (Village).
But, while the prefix “great” does not apply to Japan with reference to its
extent, it is certainly appropriate to the contents of that country. Within the
Empire of Japan are great mountains with grand scenery, great and magnificent
temples, great cities, and a great many people. For, while the area of Japan is
only one-twentieth of that of the United States, the population is about one-half
as numerous. Even in the country districts the villages are almost continuous, so
that it is an infrequent experience to ride a mile without seeing a habitation; and
in the large cities the people are huddled very closely together. The latest official
statistics, those of 1909, give the total population of Japan as 53,500,000, of
whom the males exceed the females by about 600,000; and as of late years the
annual increase has amounted to about 700,000, the present population (1912)
may fairly be estimated at more than 55,000,000.9
The number of foreigners resident in Japan in 1909 exceeded 17,000, of
whom more than half were Chinese, and less than a quarter were British and
American. The number of Japanese in 1909 living abroad was 301,000, of whom
100,000 were in the United States (chiefly in Hawaii), 97,000 in China, and only
a few in British territory.
Japan is a mountainous country. The level ground, including artificial terraces,
is barely 12 per cent of the area of the whole empire. A long range of high
mountains runs like a backbone through the main island. The highest peak is the
famous Fuji, which rises 12,365 feet above the sea-level, and is a “dormant
volcano,” whose last eruption occurred in 1708. Its summit is covered with snow
about ten months in the year.10 There are several other peaks of more than 8,000
feet elevation, such as Mitake, Akashi, Shirane, Komagatake, Aso, Asama,
Bandai, some of which are active volcanoes. Eruptions happen not infrequently;
and earthquakes, more or less severe, registered by the seismometer, are of daily
occurrence, although most of the shocks are not ordinarily perceptible. There are
also several excellent hot springs, of sulphuric or other mineral quality, as at
Ikao, Kusatsu, Atami, Hakone, Arima, Onsen. The mountainous character of
Japan has also its pleasant features, because it furnishes means of escape from
the depressing heat of summer. Karuizawa, Nikkō, Miyanoshita, Hakone, Arima,
Chūzenji are the most popular summer resorts.
There are not many, or large, lakes in Japan. Lake Biwa, 50 miles long and 20
miles wide at its widest point, is the largest and most famous. Hakone Lake, the
“Asiatic Loch Lomond,” is beautiful, and especially noted for the reflection of
Mount Fuji in its water by moonlight. Lake Chūzenji, in the Nikkō mountains, is
regarded by many as “unrivalled for beauty” and “hardly surpassed in any land.”
There are many beautiful waterfalls, such as Kegon, Urami, and others in the
Nikkō district, Nunobiki at Kōbe, Nachi in Kii, etc.
There are numerous rivers, short and swift; and it is these streams, which,
after a rainy season, swelling and rushing impetuously down from the
mountains, overflow their sandy banks and cause annually a terrible destruction
of life and property. The most important rivers are the Tone, the Shinano, the
Kiso, the Kitakami, the Tenryū, in the main island, and the Ishikari in Yezo. The
last is the longest (about 400 miles); the next is the Shinano (almost 250 miles);
but no other river comes up even to 200 miles in length. The Tenryū-gawa11 is
famous for its rapids. Some of these rivers are navigable by small steamers.
Japan, with its long and irregular coast line, is particularly rich in bays and
harbors, both natural and artificial, which furnish shelter for the shipping of all
kinds. The “open ports,” which formerly numbered only 6 (Nagasaki,
Yokohama, Hakodate, Ōsaka, Kōbe, Niigata), have reached the figure 36; and
the growing foreign commerce annually demands further enlargement. Of the
old ports, Niigata is of no special importance in foreign commerce; but, of the
new ports, Kuchinotsu in Kyūshiu, Muroran in Yezo (Hokkaidō), and especially
Bakan and Moji, on opposite sides of the Straits of Shimonoseki, are rapidly
growing. In this connection it is, perhaps, not inappropriate to make mention of
the far-famed “Inland Sea,” known to the Japanese as Seto-no-uchi (Between the
Straits), or Seto-uchi, which lies between the main island, Shikoku and Kyūshiu.
The long coast line of Japan is a source of danger; for tidal waves occasionally
spread devastation along the shore. These, with floods, earthquakes, eruptions,
typhoons, and conflagrations, make a combination of calamities which annually
prove very disastrous in Japan.
The country is subject to epidemics, like dysentery, smallpox, cholera, plague,
and “La Grippe,” which generally prove quite fatal. In 1890, for instance, some
50,000 Japanese were attacked by cholera, and about 30,000 died; and during
two seasons of the “Russian epidemic” large numbers of Japanese were carried
away. In both cases the foreigners living in Japan enjoyed comparative
immunity. And now, on account of the advance in medical science, more
stringent quarantine, and better sanitary measures, the mortality among Japanese
has been considerably diminished: This fortunate result is largely due to the
efforts of such men as Dr. Kitasato, whose fame as a bacteriologist is world-
wide. The zoölogical pests of Japan are fleas, mosquitoes, and rats, all of which
are very troublesome; but modern improvements minimize the extent of their
power.
 NAGASAKI HARBOR, AND LIGHTHOUSE INLAND SEA
But, in spite of the drawbacks just enumerated, Japan is a beautiful spot for
residence. “The aspect of nature in Japan ... comprises a variety of savage
hideousness, appalling destructiveness, and almost heavenly beauty.” The
climate, though somewhat debilitating, is fairly salubrious, and on the whole is
very delightful. The extremes of heat and cold are not so great as in Chicago, for
instance, but are rendered more intolerable and depressing by the humidity of the
atmosphere. No month is exempt from rain, which is most plentiful from June on
through September; and those two months are the schedule dates for the two
“rainy seasons.” September is also liable to bring a terrible typhoon. Except in
the northern, or in the mountainous, districts, snow is infrequent and light, and
fogs are rare. The spring is the most trying, and the autumn the most charming
season of the year.12
On account of the extent of Japan from north to south, the wide differences of
elevation and depression, and the influence of monsoons and ocean currents,
there is no uniformity in the climate. For instance, the eastern coast, along which
runs the Kuro Shio (Black Stream), with a moderating influence like that of the
Gulf Stream, is much warmer than the western coast, which is swept by Siberian
breezes and Arctic currents. The excessive humidity is due to the insular position
and heavy rainfall. Almost all portions of the country are subject more or less to
sudden changes of weather. It is also said that there is in the air a great lack of
ozone (only about one-third as much as in most Western lands); and for this
reason Occidentals at least are unable to carry on as vigorous physical and
mental labor as in the home lands. Foreign children, however, seem to thrive
well in Japan.
“Roughly speaking, the Japanese summer is hot and occasionally wet;
September and the first half of October much wetter; the late autumn and early
winter cool, comparatively dry, and delightful; February and March
disagreeable, with occasional snow and dirty weather, which is all the more
keenly felt in Japanese inns devoid of fireplaces; the late spring rainy and windy,
with beautiful days interspersed. But different years vary greatly from each
other.”13
In Japan “a rich soil, a genial climate, and a sufficient rainfall produce
luxuriant vegetation” of the many varieties of the three zones over which the
country stretches. In Formosa, Kyūshiu, Shikoku, and the Ryūkyū Islands, “the
general aspect is tropical”; on the main island the general appearance is
temperate; while Yezo and the Kurile Islands begin to be quite frigid. The
commonest trees are the pine, cedar, maple, oak, lacquer, camphor, camellia,
plum, peach, and cherry; but the last three are grown for their flowers rather than
for their fruit or wood. The bamboo, which grows abundantly, is one of the most
useful plants, and is extensively employed also in ornamentation.
In the fauna of Japan we do not find such great variety. Fish and other marine
life are very abundant; fresh-water fish are also numerous; and all these furnish
both livelihood and living to millions of people. Birds are also quite numerous;
and some of them, like the so-called “nightingale” (uguisu), are sweet singers.
The badger, bear, boar, deer, fox, hare, and monkey are found; cats, chickens,
dogs, horses, oxen, rats, and weasels are numerous; but sheep and goats are rare.
Snakes and lizards are many; but really dangerous animals are comparatively
few, except the foxes and badgers, which are said to have the power to bewitch
people!
In conclusion, attention should be called once more to the physiographical
advantages of Japan, and it may be of interest to set them forth from the point of
view of a Japanese who has indulged in some prognostications of the future of
his nation. From the insular position of Japan, he assumes an adaptability to
commerce and navigation; from the situation of Japan, “on the periphery of the
land hemisphere,” and thus at a safe distance from “the centre of national
animosities,” he deems her comparatively secure from “the depredations of the
world’s most conquering nations”; from the direction of her chief mountain
system (her backbone), and “the variegated configurations of her surface,” he
thinks that “national unity with local independence” may easily be developed.
Likewise, because more indentations are found on the eastern than on the
western sides of the Japanese islands, except in the southwestern island of
Kyushiu, where the opposite is true; because the ports of California, Oregon,
Washington, and British Columbia are open toward Japan; because the Hoang-
Ho, the Yangtze Kiang, and the Canton rivers all flow and empty toward Japan;
because the latter thus “turns her back on Siberia, but extends one arm toward
America and the other toward China and India”; because “winds and currents
seem to imply the same thing [by] making a call at Yokohama almost a necessity
to a vessel that plies between the two continents,”—he conceives of his native
country as a nakōdo (middleman, or arbiter) “between the democratic West and
the Imperial East, between the Christian America and the Buddhist Asia.”
But since these comparisons were made, the geography of Eastern Asia and
the Pacific Ocean has been altered. Japan has acquired Formosa and Korea; the
United States has assumed the responsibility of the Philippines; and China is
threatened with partition through “spheres of influence.” Japan, therefore, seems
now to be lying off the eastern coast of Asia, with her back turned on Russia
with Siberian breezes and Arctic currents, her face turned toward America, with
one hand stretched out toward the Aleutian Islands and Alaska and the other
toward the Philippines, for the hearty grasp of friendship.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For more detailed information concerning the topics treated in this chapter, the reader is referred to “The
Story of Japan” (Murray), in the “Story of the Nations” series; “The Gist of Japan” (Peery); and “Advance
Japan” (Morris).
For pleasant descriptions of various portions of Japan, “Jinrikisha Days in Japan” (Miss Scidmore);
“Lotos-Time in Japan” (Finck); “Japan and her People” (Miss Hartshorne); “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan”
(Miss Bird, now Mrs. Bishop); “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd); and “Japan To-Day” (Scherer) are
recommended.
The most complete popular work on the country is the “Hand-Book for Japan” (Chamberlain and
Mason), 8th edition; and the most thorough scientific treatment is to be found in Rein’s “Japan.”
Students of seismology should consult Prof. John Milne’s works.
 CHAPTER II

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Agriculture; petty farming; small capital and income; character of farmer; decrease of
farmers; principal products; rice; tea; tobacco; silk; cotton; camphor; bamboo; marine products and
industries.—Mining.—Engineering.—Shipbuilding.—Miscellaneous industries.—Mechanical industries.—
Shopping in Japan.—Wages and incomes.—Guilds, labor unions, strikes, etc.—Mr. Katayama.—Socialism.
—Bibliography.

THE chief occupation of the Japanese is agriculture, in which the great mass of
the people are employed. On account of the volcanic nature and the mountainous
condition of the country, there are large portions not tillable;14 and for the same
reason, perhaps, the soil in general is not naturally very fertile. It must be, and
can be, made so by artificial means; but as yet not half of what is fairly fertile
soil is under cultivation. Large portions of arable land, particularly in Yezo and
Formosa, can be made to return rich harvests, and are gradually being brought
under man’s dominion. But it can be readily understood that if for any reason the
crops fail, severe suffering will ensue, and perhaps become widespread. The
prosperity of the country depends largely upon the prosperity of its farmers.
Farming, like almost everything in that land of miniatures, is on a limited
scale, as each man has only a very small holding. “There is no farm in Japan;
there are only gardens” (Uchimura). Even a “petty farmer” of our Northwest
would ridicule the extremely insignificant farms of the Japanese, who, in turn,
would be astounded at the prodigious domains of a Dalrymple. A careful
investigator, Dr. Karl Rathgen, has summed up the situation as follows: “In
Japan are to be found only small holdings. A farm of five chō15 (twelve acres) is
considered very large. As a rule the Japanese farmer is without hired labor and
without cattle. The family alone cultivates the farm, which, however, is so small
that a large share of the available labor can be devoted to other purposes besides
farming, such as the production of silk, indigo, tobacco. The average holding for
the whole of Japan (excluding the Hokkaidō) for each agricultural family is 8.3
tan15 (about two acres), varying from a maximum of 17.6 tan in the prefecture of
Aomori to a minimum of 5.3 tan in the prefecture of Wakayama.” “There are no
large landed proprietors in Japan.”
A Japanese farm is so insignificant, partly because a Japanese farmer has only
a very small capital, and needs only a slight income to support life. It has been
estimated that a man so fortunate as to own a farm of five chō15 obtains
therefrom an annual income of 100 or 120 yen.15 And yet the Japanese farmers
are very careful and thoroughly understand their business. “In spade-husbandry,”
says Dr. Griffis, “they have little to learn”; but “in stock-raising, fruit-growing,
and the raising of hardier grains than rice, they need much instruction.”16
A Japanese farmer is hard-working, industrious, stolid, conservative, and yet,
by reason of his fatalistic and stoical notions, in a way happy and contented.
“Left to the soil to till it, to live and die upon it, the Japanese farmer has
remained the same, ... with his horizon bounded by his rice-fields, his water-
courses, or the timbered hills, his intellect laid away for safe-keeping in the
priest’s hands, ... caring little who rules him, unless he is taxed beyond the power
of flesh and blood to bear.” He is, however, more than ordinarily interested in
taxation, for the land-tax of three and one-third per cent of the assessed value of
the land amounts to about half the national revenue, and is no inconsiderable part
of the state, county, town, and village taxes. It would have reverted to the
original rate of two and one-half per cent; but it has been still further increased
on account of the Russo-Japanese War.17
The principal products of the Japanese farms are rice, barley, wheat, millet,
maize, beans, peas, potatoes (Irish and sweet), turnips, carrots, melons,
eggplants, buckwheat, onions, beets, and a large white bitter radish (daikon). A
very good average yield is fifty bushels to an acre. The entire annual production
of rice varies each year, but averages about 46,000,000 koku;18 and the annual
exportation of rice runs from about 8,000,000 yen to over 10,000,000 yen. The
list of fruits19 and nuts grown in Japan includes pears, peaches, oranges, figs,
persimmons, grapes, plums, loquats, apricots, strawberries, bananas, apples,
peanuts, chestnuts, etc.
Among other important Japanese productions must be mentioned, of course,
tea, tobacco, and mulberry trees. Of these the last is, perhaps, indigenous; but the
other two are importations in their origin. The culture of tea is most extensively
carried on in the middle and southern districts. The annual production is now
about 7,000,000 kwan;20 the annual export trade is valued at over 10,000,000
yen. The price of tea runs from five cents to six dollars per pound, of which the
last is raised at Uji, near Kyōto. The Japanese are a tea-drinking people; they use
that beverage at meals and between meals, at all times and in all places. It is true
that they drink it from a very small cup, which holds about two tablespoonfuls,
but they drink, as we are told to pray, “without ceasing.” Hot water is kept ever
ready for making tea, which is sipped every few minutes, and is always served,
with cake or confectionery, to visitors.21
Tobacco was introduced into Japan by the Portuguese, but its use was at first
strictly prohibited. The practice of smoking, however, rapidly spread until it
became well-nigh a universal custom, not even restricted to the male sex. The
Lilliputian pipe would seem to indicate that only a limited amount of the weed is
used; but smoking, like tea-drinking, is practised “early and often.” The Japanese
tobacco is said to be “remarkable for its mildness and dryness.”
The silk industry is the most important in relation to Japan’s foreign trade, and
is on the increase. Silk is sent away to American and European markets chiefly
in its raw state, but is also manufactured into handkerchiefs, etc. The exports of
silk for the year 1910 amounted to about $90,000,000, or about two-fifths of the
entire export trade. It would, of course, be beyond the limits of this chapter to
enter into the description of the details of sericulture; it may be sufficient here to
state that only the stolid patience of Orientals can well endure the slow, tedious,
and painstaking process of feeding the silkworms.22

COTTON MILLS, ŌSAKA

Cotton-spinning is a comparatively new industry in Japan, but is growing
rapidly. Cotton is, of course, the principal material for the clothing of the
common people, who cannot afford silk robes. But Japan, though raising a great
deal of cotton, cannot supply the demand, and imports large quantities from
India and America. It is only within a short time that cotton-spinning by
machinery has become a Japanese industry; formerly all the yarn was spun by
hand; but in 1907 there were 136 cotton-mills in Japan. Some are very small
concerns; but in Osaka, Nagoya, and Tōkyō there are comparatively large and
flourishing mills. Ordinary workmen receive from 12 to 20 sen a day; skilled
laborers make from 30 to 40 sen; girls earn from 10 to 20 sen, and children only
a few sen per day; but the stockholders receive dividends of from 10 to 20 per
cent per annum.
Since Japan acquired Formosa from China, she has had added to her resources
another very important and valuable product, in which she possesses practically
a monopoly of the world’s market and a supply supposed to be sufficient for the
demands of the whole world for this entire century. It has been estimated, for
instance, that the area of interior districts in which the camphor tree is found will
reach over 1,500 miles. The camphor business of Japan in Formosa is in the
hands of a British firm, to whom, as highest bidder, the government let out its
monopoly for a fixed term of years.23
Perhaps the most generally useful product of Japan is the bamboo,24 which
“finds a use in every size, at all ages, and for manifold purposes,” or, as Huish
expresses it, “is used for everything.” Rein and Chamberlain each takes up a
page or more for an incomplete list of articles made from bamboo; so that
Piggott is surely right when he states that it is “an easier task to say what is not
made of bamboo.”
Inasmuch as Japan is an insular country, with a long line of sea-coast, it is
natural that fishing should be one of the principal occupations of the people, and
that fish, seaweed, and other marine products should be common diet. From
ancient times down to the opening of Japan, the fishing industry was a simple
occupation, somewhat limited in its scope; but since the Japanese have learned
from other nations to what extent marine industries are capable of development,
fishing has become the source of many and varied lines of business. The canning
industry, for instance, is of quite recent origin, but is growing rapidly. Whaling
and sealing are very profitable occupations. Smelt-fishing by torchlight by
means of tame cormorants was largely employed in olden times, and is kept up
somewhat even to the present day. The occupation of a fisherman, though
arduous and dangerous, is not entirely prosaic, and, in Japan, contributes to art.
The return home of the fishing-smacks in the afternoon is an interesting sight;
and the aspect of the sea, dotted with white sails, appeals so strongly to the
æsthetic sense of the Japanese that it is included among the “eight views” of any
locality.
Mining is also a flourishing industry in Japan, as the country is quite rich in
mineral resources. Coal is so extensively found that it constitutes an item of
export. Copper, antimony, sulphur, and silver are found in large quantities; gold,
tin, iron, lead, salt, etc., in smaller quantities. Oil, too, has sprung up into an
important product.25
Engineering, perhaps, deserves a paragraph by itself. This department in the
Imperial University is flourishing, and sends forth annually a large number of
good engineers. In civil engineering the Japanese have become so skilful that
they have little need now of foreign experts except in the matter of general
supervision.
It is worthy of special notice that the Japanese have become quite skilful in
ship-building, so that they now construct vessels of various kinds, not only for
themselves but for other nations. The Mitsu Bishi Company, Nagasaki, has
constructed for the Oriental Steamship Company three fine passenger steamers
of 13,000 tons each. At the Uraga Dockyard large American men-of-war have
been satisfactorily repaired; and on October 15, 1902, a small United States
gunboat was launched,—“the first instance in which Japan has got an order of
shipbuilding from a Western country.”26
Among the minor miscellaneous industries which can only be mentioned are
sugar-raising, paper-making (there are a number of mills which are paying well),
dyeing, glass-blowing, lumber, horse-breeding, poultry, pisciculture, ice, brick,
fan, match, button, handkerchief, pottery, lacquer, weaving, embroidery, sake
and beer brewing, soy, etc. The extent and variety of the industries of Modern
Japan are also clearly evidenced in a short article about “The Ōsaka Exhibition”
of 1903 in the Appendix.
In what we style “the mechanical arts” the Japanese excel, and have a world-
wide reputation. With their innate æsthetic instincts they make the most
commonplace beautiful. It is a trite saying that a globe-trotter, picking up in a
native shop a very pretty little article, and admiring it for its simplicity and
exquisite taste, is likely to find it an ordinary household utensil. Japanese lacquer
work is distinctive and remarkable for its beauty and strength; lacquered utensils,
such as bowls, trays, etc., are not damaged by boiling soups, hot water, or even
cigar ashes. In porcelain and pottery, the Japanese are celebrated for the artistic
skill displayed in manufacture and ornamentation. “The bronze and inlaid metal
work of Japan is highly esteemed.” Japanese swords, too, are remarkable
weapons with “astonishing cleaving power.” To summarize this paragraph, it
may be said that the Japanese have turned what we call mechanical industries
into fine arts, which display a magnificent triumph of æstheticism even in little
things.27
This chapter would be incomplete without a paragraph concerning Japanese
shops, or retail stores, which are among the first curiosities to attract and rivet a
foreigner’s attention. The building is, perhaps, a small, low, frame structure,
crowded among its fellows on a narrow lane. The floor is raised a foot or so
above the ground, and is covered, as usual, with thick matting. Spread out on the
floor or on wooden tiers or on shelves are the goods for sale. The shopkeeper sits
on his feet on the floor, and calmly smokes his pipelet, or fans himself, or in
winter warms his hands over the hibachi (fire-bowl). He greets you with a
profound bow and most respectful words of welcome, but makes no attempt to
effect a sale, or even to show an article unless you ask to see it. He is
imperturbably indifferent whether or not you make a purchase; either way, it is
all right. He will politely display anything you want to see; and, even if, after
making him much trouble, you buy nothing or only an insignificant and cheap
article, he sends you away with as profound a bow and as polite expressions as if
you had bought out the shop. Whether you buy little or much or even nothing,
you are always dismissed with “Arigatō gozaimasu” and “Mata irasshai,” which
are very respectful phrases for “Thank you” and “Come again.” Having dropped
into “a veritable shoppers’ paradise,” you will quickly “find yourself the prey of
an acute case of shopping fever before you know it!” It is, indeed, true, to quote
further from this same writer, that “to stroll down the Broadway [known as the
Ginza] of Tokio of an evening is a liberal education in every-day art.”28
From what has already been written, it is easily noticeable that wages and
incomes, like so many things in petite Japan, are insignificant. It may be added
that ordinary mechanics earn on an average over 50 sen a day, and the most
skilful seldom get more than double that amount; that carpenters earn from 70 to
100 sen a day; that street-car drivers and conductors receive 12 or 15 yen per
month, and other workmen of the common people about the same. Even an
official who receives 1,000 yen per year is considered to have a snug income. It
will be inferred from this that the cost of living is proportionately cheaper,
whether for provisions or for shelter or for clothes, and that the wants, the
absolute necessities, of the people are few and simple. Literally true it is, that a
Japanese man “wants but little here below, nor wants that little long.” With rice,
barley, sweet potatoes, other vegetables, fish, eggs, tea, and even sweetmeats in
abundance and very cheap, a Japanese can subsist on little and be contented and
happy with enough, or even less than that. But, unfortunately, the new
civilization of the West has carried into Japan the itch for gold and the desire for
more numerous and more expensive luxuries, and has increased the cost of
living without increasing proportionately the amount of income or wages.29
Industrial Japan has already become more or less modified by features of
Occidental industrialism, such as guilds, trade unions, strikes, co-operative
stores. It is true that feudal Japan also had guilds, which are, however, now run
rather on modern lines. One of the oldest, strongest, and most compact is that of
the dock coolies, who without many written rules are yet so well organized that
they have almost an absolute monopoly, with frequent strikes, which are always
successful. Others of the guilds are those of the sawyers, the plasterers, the
stonemasons, the bricklayers, the carpenters, the barbers, the coolies (who can
travel all over the empire without a penny and live on their fellows), the
wrestlers, the actors, the gamblers, the pickpockets, etc. The beggars’ guild is
now defunct. The labor unions of modern days include the iron-workers, the
ship-carpenters, the railway engineers, the railway workmen, the printers, and
the European-style cooks. The last-mentioned is one in which foreigners resident
in Japan necessarily take a practical interest! The only unions which have
become absolute masters of the situation are those of the dock coolies, the
railway laborers, and the railway engineers. As for co-operative stores, there are
a dozen or more in Tōkyō, Yokohama, and Northern Japan.
The perfect organization of these modern unions is due largely to the efforts of
a young man named Sen Katayama, who is the champion of the rights of the
laboring man in Japan. He spent ten years in America and made a special study
of social problems. He is the head of Kingsley Hall, a social settlement of varied
activity in the heart of Tōkyō, and editor of the “Labor World,” the organ of the
working classes. That the changes rapidly taking place in the industrial life of
Japan will raise up serious problems, there is no doubt; what phases they will
assume cannot be foreseen. But “socialistic” ideas are carefully repressed in
modern Japan.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“Japan and its Trade” and “Advance Japan” (Morris); “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis); “Japan in
Transition” (Ransome), chap. x.; “The Awakening of the East” (Leroy-Beaulieu), chaps. iv. and v.; “Dai
Nippon” (Dyer), chaps. viii. and xi.; and especially Rein’s “Industries of Japan,” in which the subject is
treated in great detail with German thoroughness. But to keep pace with the rapid progress along industrial
and commercial lines, one really needs current English newspapers and magazines, such as are mentioned
in the chapter on “Language and Literature.” The reports of the British and United States consular officials
are also very useful in this respect.
“The Japan Year Book,” issued annually, is a veritable cyclopedia of important facts and figures.
 CHAPTER III

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Travelling in Old Japan; vehicles of Old and New Japan; jinrikisha; railway travel;
telegraph and telephone; street-car, bicycle, and automobile; steamships.—Postal system.—Oil, gas, and
electric light.—Foreign commerce; variety of imports.—Mixed corporations.—Stock and other exchanges.
—Banking system; coinage; monetary standard.—Baron Shibusawa on business ability of Japanese,
prospects of industrial and commercial Japan, and financial situation.—Bibliography.

ONE of the most common and most important indications of a great change in
the life and civilization of Japan is to be seen in the improved modes of travel
and transportation. The ancient method, though in some sections pack-horses
and oxen were used, was essentially pedestrian. The common people travelled
on foot, and carried or dragged over the road their own baggage or freight.
Couriers, carrying the most important despatches, relied upon fleetness of foot.
The higher classes and wealthy people, even though not themselves making any
exertions in their own behalf, were carried about in vehicles by coolies, who,
with their human burdens, tramped from place to place. On water, too, travel and
transportation depended mostly upon human muscular exertion, as all boats,
small or large, had to be propelled by oars or poles, except when favored with a
breeze to swell the sails and allow the boatmen a respite from their toil. But all
this hard labor developed, of course, a strength of limb and a power of endurance
that even in recent years have enabled the Japanese soldiers to march and fight in
either the piercing cold and deep snow of Manchuria or the blistering heat of
Formosa. A life of constant outdoor exposure to wind, rain, cold, or heat has
toughened and browned the skin, and made an altogether hardy race out of the
common people; while the lack of this regular exercise and calisthenic training
has left its mark in the comparatively weak constitutions of those who travelled,
not on their own feet, but on the shoulders of others.
The common vehicles of the olden days were ordinary carts for freight and
norimono and kago for passengers. The norimono is a good-sized sedan-chair or
palanquin, in which the rider can sit in a fairly comfortable position. The kago is
a sort of basket in which the traveller takes a half-sitting, half-reclining posture,
not altogether comfortable—at least for tall foreigners. At present the norimono
is seldom if ever employed except for corpses or invalids, but the kago is still
used in mountainous regions, where nothing else is available. It must be
understood, of course, that the nobles and their retainers often rode on
horseback; but the great mass of the people walked and the few rode in kago or
norimono.
Now, however, modes of travel have changed greatly, and are changing year
by year. There are still many pedestrians; the kago is yet to be seen; boats are
propelled by stern-end oar or laboriously pushed along with poles; and pack-
horses and oxen—even in the streets of Tōkyō—are in frequent use. But there
are many other means of communication and transportation. There have come
into use the horse-car, the stage, the jinrikisha, the railroad, with the telegraph
and the telephone; the modern row-boat, the steamboat; the bicycle, the
automobile, and the electric railway, with the electric light to show the road by
night. An excellent postal system and various other modern contrivances for
facilitating the means of communication have been adopted.
The most common mode of conveyance at present, in all possible localities, is
the jin-riki-sha (man-power-carriage), or “Pull-man car,” as it has been wittily
called. This is a two-wheeled “small gig,” or large baby-carriage, pulled by one
or more men. A ride in a jinrikisha, after one has become accustomed to human
labor in that capacity, is really comfortable and delightful. The coolies who pull
these vehicles develop swiftness and endurance, but are comparatively short-
lived. There is also a two-wheeled freight cart manipulated in the same fashion.
It has been estimated that in the Empire there are almost 1,350,000 hand-carts,
about 185,000 jinrikishas, about 28,000 ox-carts, more than 66,000 other freight
carts, and almost 100,000 carriages and wagons. The business of transportation
thus furnishes occupation to thousands of people, but gives to each engaged
therein only a scanty remuneration, which is often insufficient for the support of
life, after the tax has been paid. The fee for a jinrikisha ride averages about 12 or
15 sen per ri (2½ miles), or varies from 20 to 30 sen per hour. If a coolie makes
50 sen in one day, he is fortunate, and is lucky to average 25 or 30 sen per day;
for some days he may be wearily waiting and watching from dawn to the dead of
night without receiving scarcely a copper. Hard, indeed, is their lot; and their
death rate is rather high.30
But even the jinrikisha will eventually be supplanted for long journeys
wherever a railroad goes. There are now in Japan over 6,000 miles of railway,
and in Korea and South Manchuria there are 641 and 706 miles more. There is
one continuous line of railroad from Aomori in the extreme north to
Shimonoseki in the extreme south of the main island, and then, after crossing the
Straits of Shimonoseki, there is another unbroken line from Moji to Nagasaki
and Kagoshima or Kumamoto. In the island of Yezo (Hokkaidō) is a short line
built by American engineers after American models; but all other railroads in
Japan were built and are operated according to the British methods. The rate of
fare is 1 sen per mile for third class, 2 sen for second class, and 3 sen for first
class, and the rate of speed rarely exceeds 20 or 25 miles per hour; but
fortunately the people are not in such a hurry as Americans. Recently, however,
express trains, running at the rate of 30 or more miles per hour, have been started
on several of the roads, especially between large and important places. Dining-
cars and sleeping-cars, too, may be found on some of the lines; and the
American check system is used for baggage. The government owns most of the
railways; in 1906, the Twenty-second Diet adopted a bill for buying up the
seventeen largest private lines. This may have been desirable from a strategic
point of view; but from the business standpoint it was not advisable, for the
government lines are not so well managed. The best line in the country was a
private one, the Sanyō Railway Company, operating west from Kōbe.31
Railroads have been naturally accompanied, and often preceded, by telegraph
lines, which now keep the various parts of the empire in close communication
with Tōkyō and with each other. During 1910 the telegrams numbered over
28,000,000, and are increasing rapidly in number every year. The Japanese
syllabary has lent itself easily to a code like the Morse Code.32 Telephones, too,
have been introduced and are growing in favor so rapidly that the government
cannot keep up with the petitions for installation. According to the latest reports,
there were over 100,000 telephones in all Japan. There are many public slot
telephones, which can be used for a few minutes for 5 sen.
Horse-cars are largely used in cities, but are being gradually supplanted by
electric cars. The bus in the city and the stage in the country are in common use,
but cannot be recommended for comfort. Bicycles are very popular, and are
cheaply manufactured in Japan; even Japanese women have begun to ride, while
young men are very skilful as trick riders and rapid as “scorchers.” Automobiles
also are coming into a limited use.
In a country where formerly no ships large enough to make long voyages were
allowed to be made, steamship companies are now flourishing. The Ōsaka
Shōsen Kwaisha (Osaka Merchant Marine Company) is a very large and
prosperous corporation, whose business is chiefly coasting trade, but which also
runs to Formosa, the Ryūkyū Islands, the Bonin Islands, Korea, China, and
America. The largest steamship company in Japan, and one of the largest in the
world, is the Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company). It has a
fleet of 88 vessels with 300,000 tons; and maintains not only a frequent coasting
service, but also several foreign lines, to Siberia, Korea, China, India, Australia,
Europe, and America. This is the line which runs fortnightly from Seattle to
Hongkong with excellent passenger accommodations. The Tōyō Kisen Kwaisha
(Oriental Steamship Company) is a Japanese organization with three fine vessels
running about once a month from San Francisco to Hawaii, Japan, China, and
Manila. The word Maru33 in such combinations as “America Maru” or “Kaga
Maru” is a special suffix always attached to the name of a ship.
In Old Japan there was no official postal system, and letters were despatched
by private messengers and relays of couriers. When Japan was opened to the
world, some of the foreign nations represented there maintained special post-
offices of their own, but these were gradually abandoned. It was in 1872 that the
modern postal system of Japan was organized on American models; and it was
only five years later when Japan was admitted to the International Postal Union.
The twenty-fifth anniversary of this event was celebrated with great éclat in
Tōkyō in 1902. The Japanese postal system has been gradually improved during
its quarter-century of existence, so that in some respects it excels its model, the
United States postal system, and is really one of the most efficient in the world.
It includes registration, money orders, parcel post, reply postal cards, postal
savings,34 and universal free delivery. Letter postage is 3 sen within the empire
and 10 sen to all countries of the International Postal Union; postal cards are 1½
and 4 sen respectively. We also beg leave to remind Americans that letter
postage to Japan is not 2 cents, but 5 cents, per ounce.
Oil is most extensively used for lighting purposes; but gas and electricity are
also employed, and bring good dividends to companies furnishing such
illumination. A very large amount of oil has been annually imported from the
United States and Russia; but as rich fields have been found in Northern Japan,35
the Standard Oil Company is also interested in a Japanese corporation, the
International Oil Company, organized to work Japanese fields. Foreign capital
has also been invested in the Ōsaka Gas Company, and is sought by the Tōkyō
Gas Company, as well as by several electric and steam railway companies. The
first buildings erected for the Imperial Diet were supplied with electric lights,
but caught fire in some way, and were totally destroyed. This calamity was laid
at the door of a flaw in the electric lighting apparatus, and so frightened the
Emperor that he decided not to use the electric lights in the palace; but if my
memory serves me rightly, after one or two nights of imperfect and
unsatisfactory lighting, he resorted once more to electricity.
The foreign trade of Japan had increased from $13,123,272 in 1868 to
$265,017,161 in 1902,—twenty-fold in a third of a century.36 Of recent years the
imports have been larger than the exports; in 1898 they were more than
$55,000,000 in excess; in 1900, almost $41,500,000 in excess; but in 1901 the
difference was only about $1,750,000. The chief articles of export are silk (either
raw, or partly or wholly manufactured), cotton yarn and goods, matches, coal,
high-grade rice, copper, camphor, tea, matting, straw braid, and porcelain. The
principal imports are raw cotton, shirting and printed cotton, mousseline, wool,
cotton velvet, satin, cheap rice, flour, sugar, petroleum, oil cake, peas and beans,
machinery, iron and steel (including nails and rails), steamers, locomotives, and
railway carriages. The exports are sent chiefly to the United States, Great Britain
and colonies (especially Hongkong), China, and France; while the imports come
mostly from Great Britain and colonies (especially England, India, and
Hongkong), the United States, Germany, France and colonies, and China.
The variety in the geographical distribution of the imports of Japan may be
faintly illustrated by the following partial list of supplies taken by an American
family from Tōkyō to the summer resort of Hakone: soap from England and
America, cocoa from England, butter from California, cornstarch from Buffalo,
N. Y., Swiss milk, Holland candles, pickles from England, Scotch oatmeal,
American rolled oats and cracked wheat, flour from Spokane Falls, Washington,
canned goods from San Francisco, Kansas City, Chicago, and Omaha, and
evaporated cream from Illinois.
The first mixed corporation, composed of Japanese and foreigners, to be
licensed under the new Commercial Codes after the new treaties went into effect
in 1899, was the Nippon Electric Company, in which a large electric company of
Chicago is specially interested.
Japan has several stock exchanges and chambers of commerce in various
localities, and these are all under the strictest supervision and close restrictions.
It was in 1872 that National Bank Regulations were first issued, and a few
banks were established; but in 1876 it was found necessary to make radical
amendments in those regulations in the way of affording greater facilities for the
organization of banks. The result was that by 1879 there were 153 national banks
in the country; and in 1886 the further organization of national banks was
stopped. In the mean time the Yokohama Specie Bank had been organized (in
1880) for the support of the foreign trade; and (in 1882) the Bank of Japan
(Nippon Ginkō) had been organized to “secure proper regulations of the
currency.” In 1897 the Industrial Bank, and later provincial agricultural-
industrial banks were organized to give special banking facilities to local
agricultural and industrial circles. The Bank of Formosa, the Colonial Bank of
Hokkaidō, and a Credit Mobilier complete the list of official institutions. By
1899 all the national banks had either been changed into private banks or had
gone out of existence. Private banks number almost 1,700, of which the Mitsui,
the Mitsubishi, the Hundredth, the Sumitomo, the Fifteenth (Nobles’), the First,
and the Yasuda are the strongest. Savings-banks are also quite numerous (652),
and are helping to develop habits of thrift and economy among the common
people.37

FIRST BANK, TŌKYŌ

The first Japanese mint was established at Ōsaka in 1871, and has been
actively at work ever since; and there is an institution in Tōkyō for the
manufacture of paper money. The coins now chiefly used the copper, nickel,
silver, and gold; but in the country districts it is still possible to find brass coins
of less than mill values. The copper pieces are ½ sen (5 rin), 1 sen, and 2 sen; the
5 sen piece is the only nickel coin; the silver pieces are 5 sen, 10 sen, 20 sen, and
50 sen; and the gold coins are 5 yen, 10 yen, and 20 yen. There are also paper
notes of 1 yen and upward: these are issued only by the Bank of Japan, and
amounted in 1910 to over 400,000,000 yen.
In 1897 Japan adopted the gold standard, so that exchange fluctuations with
the Occident are slight, and the Japanese currency has a fixed value, at the rate
of about 50 cents for the yen.38
Concerning the prospects of industrial and commercial Japan, it may be well
to note the views39 of Baron Shibusawa, one of the foremost of Japanese
merchants and financiers. In referring to the capacity of the Japanese for
business, the Baron says:—
“There are, however, four peculiarities in the Japanese character which make it hard for the people to
achieve business success. These are: Firstly, impulsiveness, which causes them to be enthusiastic during
successful business and progressive even to rashness when filled with enthusiasm; secondly, lack of
patience, which causes easy discouragement when business is not so successful; thirdly, disinclination for
union; and fourthly, they do not honor credit as they should, which is so important a factor in financial
success. These four peculiarities are to be met with in Japanese business men in a more or less marked
degree.
“Although Japan, as a country, is old, yet her commercial and industrial career being new, there are
necessarily many points of incompleteness. For example, although we have many railways, yet there is no
close connection made between the railway station and the harbor. Again, although we have railways, yet
we have no appropriate cars, etc. To complete such work and to open up the resources of the country, and to
allow Japan to benefit from them, we need more capital. The capital we have in the country is not enough.
So what is now wanted in Japan is foreign capital. A great proportion of the Japanese people, however, are
opposed to the idea of sharing any profits equally with any other nation. Their exclusiveness in this respect
is a distinct relic of the old era. They ignore altogether the fact that, with the assistance of foreign capital,
the profits would be quadrupled. The very idea of sharing with an outside power is distasteful to them. For
instance, I have been endeavoring for many years by word and deed to obtain a revision of the laws relative
to the ownership of land in Japan by foreigners. I may say that Marquis Itō and other public men are of my
opinion in the matter. Because, however, of this exclusive element in Japan, it has still been found
impossible to allow foreigners to own Japanese land. Until this change is made, foreign investors will
naturally feel that there is little safety for their investments.
“I am also anxious to introduce the idea of a system of trusteeship in order to encourage foreign nations
to invest their money in Japanese enterprises. There are very many uncompleted works in Japan, which
need outside money to finish them and which would return good profits. I feel assured that it would be
possible for prominent Japanese bankers and capitalists to make themselves personally responsible for the
money of the foreign investor. By such a system the security of the investment would be much increased,
and the foreign investor would have the assurance that his money was safe, even if the business in which it
had been invested may have ceased to exist. The entire loss caused by the failure of Japanese business
enterprises would thus be borne by the Japanese.
“The day will come when Japan will compete with the powers already in the field on all lines of
manufactured goods, but this time must necessarily be far distant. The trouble at present is that, while the
Japanese can imitate everything, they cannot, at the same time, invent superior things. But the trade of the
Oriental countries will come to be regarded as Japan’s natural share, and she is already well capable of
supplying it.
“The resources of Japan are very varied and very fair in quantity at present. Raw silk and tea are
abundant, while coal is plentiful, as also copper and silver; gold is not so much so. I hope to see our
plentiful water supply turned into good account and harnessed to produce electric energy. This would be a
great saving of expense and would cheapen the cost of production very much. Oil has been found in several
districts and will take the place of coal to a large extent, and it is possible that if fully developed its export
trade may be made to the neighboring countries. In Hokkaidō we have rich coal and silver mines and oil
wells, while in Formosa we have rich gold mines. The iron we use in our iron works in Kiūshiu comes
partly from several mines of Japan and partly from China.
“My hope for the future is that foreign capital may be brought into the country and that the economic
position of the country may be made so secure as to leave no doubt possible in the mind of the world as to
the stability of the Japanese Empire.”

We also take pleasure in quoting the same high authority upon the subject of
the present financial situation in Japan, as follows:40—
“The present financial difficulty in Japan is only the natural sequence of the over-expansion of business
of some years ago. In every country there are waves of prosperity followed by periods of depression. I have
known, in the economic history of Japan since the Restoration, five or six such waves. They do not
necessarily injure the real financial standing of the country. The peculiarities of the Japanese business
character have much to answer for in the way of increasing the appearance of financial insecurity during the
times of depression. After the prosperous times of 1893 came the war with China and the subsequent
indemnity. Much of the money paid by China was spent in Japan, and the Japanese people came to the
conclusion that this increased circulation of money would be permanent. They acted impulsively in many
enterprises, and rushed into all kinds of business because the government had over-expanded its enterprises
after the war. The depression reached its height in 1900 and 1901, and businesses were abandoned or
reduced because it was not such easy work as formerly. By proper management our national income can be
made still greater than our expenditure.”
 BARON SHIBUSAWA
The national debt of Japan January, 1913, was more than 2,500,000,000 yen
($1,250,000,000), of which almost 1,500,000,000 yen ($750,000,000) was in
foreign loans.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For interesting accounts of travel when and where modern conveniences were not available, read
“Unbeaten Tracks in Japan” (Bird); “The Mikado’s Empire” (Griffis); “Noto, an Unexplored Corner of
Japan” (Lowell); “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan” (Hearn); and papers in the Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan. For similarly interesting accounts of travel with modern conveniences read “Jinrikisha
Days in Japan” (Scidmore); “Japan and her People” (Hartshorne); “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis);
“Japan To-day” (Scherer); “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd).
On the industrial and commercial phases of these topics, consult books, papers, magazines, and
pamphlets mentioned in the bibliography of the preceding chapter; especially, for the latest statistics, “The
Japan Year Book.”
 CHAPTER IV

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Ainu; ethnology; two types; comparative stature and weight; intellectual and moral
qualities.—Classes in society of old and new régimes; social principle.—Family and empire.—Houses;
public buildings; rooms; foreign architecture.—Gardens.—Food; meals; table manners; foreign cooking.—
Undress and dress; European costume.—Bathing.—Bibliography.

WHO were the aborigines of Japan is yet a disputed question. Remains have
been found of a race of dwarfs who dwelt in caves and pits, but who these
people were is not positively known. They may have been contemporary with
the Ainu, whom many call “the aborigines of Japan.” It is certain, however, that
the Ainu were once a very numerous nation, “the members of which formerly
extended all over Japan, and were in Japan long before the present race of
Japanese.” But the latter gradually forced the former northward, until a final
refuge was found in Yezo and the Kurile Islands. There the Ainu are now living,
but are slowly dying out as a race; there are at present only about 17,000
remaining. They are said to be “the hairiest race in the whole world,” “of sturdy
build,” filthy in their habits (bathing is unknown), addicted to drunkenness, and
yet “of a mild and amiable disposition.” Their religion is nature-worship.41
It is well known that the Japanese are classed under the Mongolian (or
Yellow) Race. They themselves boastfully assert that they belong to the “golden
race,” and are superior to Caucasians, who belong to the “silver race”! As
Mongolians, they are marked, not only by a yellowish hue, of many shades from
the darkest to the lightest, but also by straight black hair (rather coarse), scanty
beard, rather broad and prominent cheek-bones, and eyes more or less oblique.
Some think that the Japanese people show strong evidences of Malay origin,42
and claim that the present Emperor, for instance, is of a striking Malay type. It is
not impossible, nor even improbable, that Malays were borne on the “Japan
Current” northward from their tropical abodes to the Japanese islands; but there
is no historical record of such a movement. Therefore the best authorities, like
Rein and Baelz, do not acknowledge more than slight traces of Malay influence.
A more recent theory concerning the origin of the real Japanese—or Yamato
men, as they called themselves—is that they are descendants of the Hittites,
whose capital was Hamath, or Yamath, or Yamato!
There are two distinct types of Japanese: the oval-faced, narrow-eyed, small
aristocratic class; and the pudding-faced, full-eyed, flat-nosed, stout common
people. Of these, the latter is the one claimed to be Malay. The plebeians, having
always been accustomed to hard labor by the sweat of the brow, are
comparatively strong; the others, having been developed by centuries of an
inactive life, have inherited weak constitutions. Indeed, the people, as a whole,
are subject to early maturity and early decay. There is a Japanese proverb to this
effect: “At ten, a god-like child; at twenty, a clever man; from twenty-five on, an
ordinary man.” And, in spite of the fact that there have been remarkable
exceptions to this rule, careful investigation by Japanese supports the truth of the
proverb. And yet there seems to be no doubt that modern education and
conditions of life show a gradual improvement in this respect.

GROUP OF COUNTRY PEOPLE

The average Japanese, compared with the average European or American, has
a lower stature43 with a long body and short legs. A good authority states that
“the average stature of Japanese men is about the same as the average stature of
European women”; and that “the [Japanese] women are proportionately smaller.”
Some one has wittily called the Japanese “the diamond edition of humanity.”
The Japanese also weigh much less than Europeans. The average weight of
young men of twenty years of age in Europe is about 144 pounds, while the
average weight of the strongest young men of the suburban districts of Tōkyō
was only about 121 pounds; which gives the European an advantage of 23
pounds.
The Japanese are very quick to learn. Their minds are strong in observation,
perception, and memory, and weak in logic and abstraction. As born lovers of
nature, they have well-trained powers of observation and perception, so that their
minds turn readily to scientific pursuits. And as the ancient Japanese system of
education followed Chinese models, the power of memorizing by rote has been
strongly developed, so that the Japanese mind has little difficulty in becoming a
storehouse of historical and other facts. But, as the powers of reasoning and
abstraction have not been well trained, the Japanese do not take so readily to
mathematical problems and metaphysical theorems.
The typical Japanese is loyal, filial, respectful, obedient, faithful, kind, gentle,
courteous, unselfish, generous.44 His besetting sins are deception, intemperance,
debauchery,—and these are common sins of humanity. In respect to these evils,
he is unmoral rather than immoral; and in his case these sins should not be
considered so heinous as in the case of one who has been taught and knows
better.45 And it is with reference to these very evils that Shintō, Buddhism, and
Confucianism have been a complete failure in Japan, and that Christianity is
making its impress upon the nation.
There never were distinct and rigid castes in Japan, as in Egypt and India, but
formerly there were four classes in society. These were, in order, the official and
military class; the agricultural class, or the farmers; the laboring class, or the
artisans; and the mercantile class, or merchants. Above all these were the
Emperor and the Imperial family; below all these were the tanners, grave-
diggers, beggars, etc., who were the Japanese pariah, or outcasts. The first class
included the court nobility, the feudal lords, and their knights; they alone were
permitted to carry two swords, were exempt from taxation, and were also the
special educated and literary class, because they had the most leisure for study.
The other three classes together constituted the common people, who were kept
in rigid subjection and bled profusely by taxes.
Under the present régime there are three general classes of the entire
population of Japan: the nobility, the gentry, and the common people. The
nobility, created in 1884, comprises five orders: prince, marquis, count, viscount,
and baron; the gentry are the descendants of the knights (samurai) of the old first
class; the common people include all the rest of the population. By the census of
1903 the nobility numbered 5,055; the gentry, 2,168,058; and the common
people, 44,559,015. (These figures are exclusive of Formosa.) Even now the
burden of taxation falls upon the mass of the common people, especially upon
the farming class, for the land tax is the most important source of revenue in
Japan.
The fundamental principle of Japanese society was, and still is, reverent
obedience to superiors. This polite and humble deference is exhibited in their
language and in their manners and customs, and has become so thoroughly
incorporated into their natures that it even yet resists the levelling tendency of
the present age. The language is full of honorifics to be applied to or concerning
another, and of humilifics to be applied concerning self. I and mine are thus
always ignorant, stupid, dirty, homely, insignificant, etc., while you and yours
are ever intelligent, wise, clean, beautiful, noble etc. Perhaps there is nothing
that causes the student of the vernacular deeper chagrin than to find that he has
made so serious an error as to transpose the humble and the honorific words or
phrases! The ordinary salutation is really an obeisance, as it consists of a
profound bow,—on the street with body bent half forward, in the house with
forehead touching the floor. This deep and universal feeling of reverence for
superiors and elders early developed into worship, both of the family and of the
national ancestors. This is the fundamental and central idea of Shintō, the native
cult, of which more will be written in a subsequent chapter.
The Japanese family46 was, in its constitution, an empire, with absolute
authority in the hands of one man. The husband was, theoretically and
practically, the great authority to whom wife and children were subject. He was a
veritable autocrat and despot; and he received superciliously the homage of all
the family, who literally bowed down before him. The family, and not the
individual, was the unit of society; but by the new codes now in operation the
individual has acquired greater rights. There is much hope, therefore, that
gradually the tyranny of the family will be eliminated.
One writer on Japan has well said: “The Empire is one great family; the
family is a little empire.”47 In truth, the empire is founded and maintained on the
family idea of one line “in unbroken succession” from Jimmu Tennō.
A house alone does not make a “home,” but merely gives it local habitation;
and as Japanese houses48 are unique, they deserve some consideration. Although
brick and stone are coming into use among the wealthy classes, wood is the chief
material employed in building. A typical Japanese house is a slight and flimsy
frame structure with straw-thatched, or shingled, or tiled roof. It has no
foundation in the ground, but rests on stones laid on the ground, and stands
wholly above the surface. This and other peculiar features of construction and
ornamentation are the outcome of attempts to lessen the dangers from the
frequent and severe earthquakes. The outer doors and windows of Japanese
houses are called amado (rain-doors), and are solid wood. They slide in grooves
above and below; in stormy weather and at night they are closed and fastened,
not so tightly, however, as to prevent them from rattling; at other times they are
open. The inner doors, the windows, and sometimes the partitions between the
different rooms are lattice frames, covered with a translucent, but not
transparent, white paper, and running in grooves. These, too, as well as the
opaque paper screens used between the rooms, can be taken out; so that all the
rooms may be turned into one, or the entire house be thrown open to the air of
heaven. The floors are covered with tatami—thick, soft mats of straw, each
usually six by three feet in size. Thus the accommodations of rooms are
indicated by the terms, “six-mat room,” “eight-mat room,” etc. Inasmuch as on
these mats the Japanese walk, sit, eat, work, sleep, it is necessary to keep them
very clean. They are carpet, chair, sofa, bed, table, all in one, and must not be
soiled by dirty sandals, clogs, shoes, or boots, all of which are, therefore, to be
removed before entering a house. It may readily be seen that this is quite an
inconvenient custom for foreigners!
Schools, churches, offices, stores, and other places for large and frequent
public gatherings are being constructed in Occidental style, with doors on
hinges, glass windows, chairs, benches, tables, stoves, grates, and other “modern
conveniences.”
A room in a Japanese house seems to an American to be comparatively bare
and plain, as it is devoid of furniture and bric-à-brac. There is no stove, for only
a small box or brazier, containing a few pieces of charcoal in a bed of ashes, is
used for heating purposes. There are no chairs or sofas, for the Japanese sit on
their feet on the floor. There are no huge bed sets, for they sleep on thick padded
quilts spread on the floor at night, and kept in a closet when not needed. There is
no large dining-table, for each person eats sitting before a small, low lacquer
tray, or table, about a foot high. There is no dazzling array of pictures and other
ornaments on the wall—only a kakemono (wall banner) or two; and there are no
miscellaneous ornaments set around here and there—only a vase of flowers.
But more and more are the Japanese coming to build at least parts of the house
in Occidental style, so that it is now quite common to find, in houses of well-to-
do people, a foreign room with carpet, table, chairs, pictures, etc. Stoves and
grates, too, for either wood or coal, are being largely used. Mattresses, springs,
and bedsteads are also coming into use, because sleeping on the floor, where one
is subject to draughts, has been found to be unhealthy. In the case of foreign
rooms, moreover, it is generally unnecessary to take off the shoes; and thus
another frequent cause of colds is removed. A prevailing style of architecture at
present is the hybrid!
The best rooms of a Japanese house are not in the front, but in the rear, and
have an outlook upon the garden, which likewise, from its plainness and
simplicity, is unique. “Its artistic purpose is to copy faithfully the attractions of a
veritable landscape, and to carry the real impressions that a real landscape
communicates. It is, therefore, at once a picture and a poem; perhaps even more
a poem than a picture.” It is in Japan, moreover, that it is possible to have a
“garden” without flowers or grass—with, perhaps, only “rocks and pebbles and
sand.” For the Japanese truly and literally find “sermons in stones,” and give
them not only “character” but also “tones and values.” More than all that, “they
held it possible to express moral lessons in the design of a garden, and abstract
ideas, such as charity, faith, piety, content, calm, and connubial bliss.” In Japan,
therefore, landscape-gardening is and always has been a fine art.49
The Japanese may be called vegetarians, for it is only within a recent period
that meat has come to play any part in their diet. Fish, flesh, and fowl were once
strictly forbidden as articles of food by the tenets of Buddhism, but gradually,
one after another, came to be allowed as eatables. Even now meat, though
becoming more and more popular as an article of diet, is not used in large
quantities at one meal. Chicken, game, beef, ham, and pork may be found on
sale in most large towns and cities. But beef is cut up into mouthfuls, and sold to
Japanese by the ounce; chickens are carefully and minutely dissected, and sold
by parts, as the wing, the leg, or an ounce or two of the breast. It was a matter of
great amazement to the Japanese of Mito that the foreigners living there bought a
whole chicken or two, or five or six pounds of beef, at one time, and devoured
them all in two or three meals!
Rice is, of course, the staple article of diet, “the staff of life” of the Japanese;
and yet, in poverty-stricken country districts, this may be a luxury, with barley or
millet as the ordinary food. Various vegetables, particularly beans, are much
used, fresh or pickled; seaweed, fish, eggs, and nuts are largely eaten; and a
sauce, made of beans and wheat, and sold in America as “soy,” is “the universal
condiment.” Thin vegetable soups are an important part of their meals, and, as
no spoons are used, are drunk with a loud sucking noise, which is a fixed habit in
drinking. The principal beverages, even more common than water, are tea and
sake. The latter, an alcoholic liquor brewed from rice, is taken hot; the former,
without milk or sugar, is also taken hot, and is served, not only at meals, but just
about all the time. A kettle of hot water is always kept ready at hand, in house or
inn, so that tea may be steeped in a moment and procured to drink at any time. It
is always set before a guest as soon as he arrives, and is absolutely indispensable
in every household.
At meal time each person sits on the floor before a small, low table on which
his food is placed. They use no knife, fork, or spoon, only chop-sticks; and do
not consider it in bad form to eat and drink with loud smacking and sucking
sounds. Their food, when served, seems to foreigners more beautiful than
palatable; it is “unsatisfying and mawkish.” One who has probably had
innumerable experiences during a long residence in Japan says: “After a
Japanese dinner you have simultaneously a feeling of fulness and a feeling of
having eaten nothing that will do you any good.”50 Yet, in time foreigners learn
to like many parts of a Japanese bill of fare; and when travelling about the
country, by carrying with them bread, butter, jam, and canned meats, can get
along with rice, eggs, vegetables, and chicken or fish to complete the daily fare.
In the summer resorts frequented by foreigners there are always hotels and
restaurants where only European cooking is served. With the introduction of
Western civilization came wine, ale, beer, etc., which are extensively used by the
Japanese.
Indeed, we must not fail to take notice of the change that is taking place in the
diet of the Japanese. Bread and meat, which were long ago introduced into the
diet of the army and the navy, are pretty generally popular; and many other
articles of “foreign food” are largely used. It is quite a common custom in well-
to-do families to have at least one “foreign meal” per day; and “foreign
restaurants,” especially in the large cities, are well patronized. It is said, indeed,
that first-class “foreign cooking” is cheaper than first-class “Japanese cooking.”
The standard of living has been considerably raised within the past decade.
It is important to touch briefly on the subject of costume, though it will not be
possible or profitable to describe minutely every garment. It may not be
improper to begin with the topic of undress; for the Japanese, perhaps because
great lovers of nature, think it nothing immodest to be seen, even in public, in
the garb of nature. Of course, in the open ports and large cities, foreign ideas of
modesty are more strongly enforced; but in the interior the primitive innocence
of the Garden of Eden prevails to a greater or less extent. In hot weather children
go stark-naked, and men wear only a loin-cloth: “Honi soit qui mal y
pense”—“Evil to him who evil thinks.”
The ordinary Japanese costume may be said to consist of a shirt, a loose silk
gown fastened at the waist with a silk sash, short socks with separate places for
the big toes, and either straw sandals or wooden clogs. For ceremonial
occasions, “a divided skirt,” and a silk coat, adorned with the family crest, are
used; these are called, respectively, hakama and haori. In winter two or three
padded gowns are added; and in all seasons many persons go bare-footed, bare-
legged, and bare-headed. The female garb51 does not differ greatly from the male
costume, except that the sash is larger and richer and the gown is made of lighter
fabrics. The women powder and paint, oil their hair, and adorn their heads with
pretty combs and hairpins.
The Japanese costume is certainly very beautiful and becoming, and is
pronounced by medical authorities to be highly sanitary. For persons, however,
in active business, and for those who work in the fields, it is not so convenient as
the European costume; but it is altogether too charming to be entirely discarded,
and, with some modification, might well be adopted in other lands. At court, the
European costume is generally used; the frock coat and evening dress have
become common ceremonial garbs; and silk hats, gloves, and canes also have
become fashionable. The efforts of the Japanese to adopt Western customs and to
conform to the usages of the Occident in matters of dress are sometimes quite
amusing to those who witness them.52
Chamberlain affirms that “cleanliness is one of the few original items of
Japanese civilization.” Surely their practice of frequent bathing ought to have
brought them to that stage which is considered “next to godliness.” A bathroom
is commonly an important part of the house; but if a room is not available for
that purpose, a bathtub outdoors will do, or the public bath-houses afford every
facility at a very small charge. Necessary exposure of the person in connection
with bathing is not considered immodest; but, in large cities at least, the two
sexes are no longer permitted to bathe together promiscuously. The hot baths,
with water at about 110° F., are generally unendurable by foreigners. The latter,
however, after some experience, may become accustomed to such heat and find
it quite healthy. “Sea-bathing was not formerly much practised; but since 1885
the upper classes have taken greatly to it, in imitation of European usage, and the
coast is now dotted with bathing establishments.”53 The Japanese also resort “to
an almost incredible extreme” to the hot mineral springs, which are so numerous
in Japan and generally possess excellent medicinal qualities.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Rein’s “Japan” is valuable on these topics; “Advance Japan” has a good chapter on “Diet, Dress, and
Manners” (iv.); “A Japanese Interior,” by Miss Alice M. Bacon, gives most interesting glimpses of the inner
life of the people; Murray’s “Story of Japan,” chap. ii.; Knapp’s “Feudal and Modern Japan,” vol. i. chap. v.
and vol. ii. chap. iv.; and “Japan in History, Folklore, and Art” (Griffis), are useful; Finck in his “Lotos-
Time in Japan,” also gives interesting glimpses of these topics; and Miss Bacon’s “Japanese Girls and
Women” (revised and illustrated edition) is invaluable concerning family life. Miss Hartshorne’s “Japan and
her People” is well worth reading on these subjects. “Japanese Life in Town and Country” (Knox), “Dai
Nippon” (Dyer), and “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd) are also valuable.
 CHAPTER V

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Birth and birthdays; marriage; death and funeral; mourning.—Holidays (national,
local, class, and religions); the “five festivals”; New Year’s holidays; the other four festivals; floral
festivals; religious festivals.—Games; wrestling.—Theatre; scenery and wardrobes; chorus and pantomime;
the Nō.—Music; dancing-girls.—Occidentalization.—Folk-lore; superstitions about lucky and unlucky
days, hours, ages, years, etc.—Bibliography.

THE three great events in the career of a Japanese are, of course, birth,
marriage, and death, each of which is, therefore celebrated with much formality.
When a child is born, he or she is the recipient of many presents, which,
however, create an obligation that must eventually be cleared off. A very
common but honorable present on such an occasion consists of eggs in small or
large quantities, according to circumstances. When the first American baby was
born in Mito, she was favored with a total of 456 eggs, besides dried fish, toys,
Japanese robes, and other articles of clothing, etc., and her parents were favored
with universal congratulations, diluted with condolences because the new baby
was a girl instead of a boy! Japanese babyhood is blithesome.54
The birthday of an individual, however, is not especially observed upon its
recurring anniversary; for New Year’s Day is a kind of national, or universal,
birthday, from which age is reckoned. And this loss of an individual birthday is
also made up to the boys and girls by the two special festivals, hereafter
described, of Dolls and of Flags.
The wedding ceremony55 is quite simple but very formal. The principal
feature thereof is the san-san-ku-do (three-three-nine-times); that is, both the
bride and the bridegroom drink three times out of each of three cups of different
sizes. This ceremony, however, does not affect at all the validity of the marriage;
it is purely a social affair, of practically no more importance than the wedding
reception in America or England. In Christian circles this convivial ceremony is
omitted, and a rite performed by a Christian minister is substituted. As marriage
is only a civil contract, its legality rests upon the official registration of the
couple as husband and wife; and this formality is often neglected, so that divorce
is easy and frequent. And as “matches” are generally made by parents,
guardians, relatives, or friends, the mariage de convenance prevails in Japan.
But the new Civil Code throws safeguards around the institution of wedlock; and
the teachings of Christianity have already caused considerable improvement in
the way of elevating marriage from its low standard to a holy rite.
To the fatalistic Japanese death has no terrors, especially as they are a people
who seem to take about as much care of the dead as of the living. Funeral
ceremonies56 are very elaborate, expensive, solemn, and yet somewhat
boisterous affairs. The Shintō rites are much plainer than Buddhist ceremonies.
In the former, the coffin is long and low, as in the West, but in the latter it is
small and square, so that the corpse “is fitted into it in a squatting posture with
the head bent to the knees.” There are other distinguishing features of the two
funerals: the bare shaven heads of Buddhist priests in contrast with the non-
shaven heads of Shintō priests; the dark blue coats of the Buddhist pall-bearers
in contrast with the plain white garb of the Shintō pall-bearers.
The mourning code of Japan is rather strict, and contains two features: the
wearing of mourning garments (which are white), and the abstinence from
animal food. The regular dates for visits to the grave are the seventh, fourteenth,
twenty-first, thirty-fifth, forty-ninth, and one-hundredth days, and the first, third,
seventh, thirteenth, twenty-third, twenty-seventh, thirty-third, thirty-seventh,
fiftieth, and one-hundredth years.
As is shown in another chapter (“Japanese Traits”), the Japanese are a merry,
vivacious, pleasure-loving people, who are satisfied with a simple life. They give
and take frequent holidays, which they enjoy to the fullest extent. The national
holidays are numerous, and come as follows every year:—
Four Sides’ Worship, January 1.
First Beginning Festival, January 3.
Emperor Kōmei’s Festival, January 30.
Kigen-setsu, February 11.
Spring Festival, March 22 (about).
Jimmu Tennō Festival, April 3.
Autumn Festival, September 24 (about).
Kanname Festival, October 17.
Emperor’s Birthday, November 3.
Niiname Festival, November 23.
Some of the national holidays need a few words of explanation. Kigen-setsu,
for instance, was originally a festival in honor of the ascension of Jimmu, the
first Emperor, to the throne, and was thus the anniversary of the establishment of
the Old Empire; but it is now observed also as the celebration of the
promulgation of the constitution (Feb. 11, 1889), and is thus the anniversary of
the establishment of the New Empire. The Jimmu Tennō Festival of April 3 is
the so-called anniversary of the death of that Emperor. The Kanname Festival in
October celebrates the offering of first-fruits to the ancestral deities, and the
Niiname Festival in November celebrates the tasting of those first-fruits by the
Emperor. The Spring and Autumn Festivals in March and September are
adaptations of the Buddhist equinoctial festivals of the dead, and are especially
observed for the worship of the Imperial ancestors. The Emperor Kōmei was the
father of the present Emperor, and reigned from 1847 to 1867. “Four Sides’
Worship” naturally suggests worship from the four principal directions. This and
the “First Beginning Festival” make the special New Year’s holidays.
Besides these, there are a great many local, class, and religious holidays,
including Sunday, so that comparatively few persons in Japan are kept under
high pressure, but almost every one has frequent opportunities to relax from the
tension of his occupation or profession. Even the poorest, who have to be
content with a hand-to-mouth existence, take their occasional holidays.
The five great festivals of the year fall on the first day of the first month (New
Year’s Day), the third day of the third month (Dolls’ Festival), the fifth day of
the fifth month (Feast of the Flags), the seventh day of the seventh month
(Festival of the Star Vega), and the ninth day of the ninth month
(Chrysanthemum Festival). These are now officially observed according to the
Gregorian calendar, but may also be popularly celebrated according to the old
lunar calendar, and would then fall from three to seven weeks later. And there
are not a few people who are perfectly willing to observe both calendars and thus
double their number of holidays!
The greatest of these is the New Year’s holiday or season, which is often
prolonged to three, five, seven, or even fifteen days. The practice of making calls
and presents still prevails, and, though quite burdensome, illustrates the
thoughtfulness, good cheer, and generosity of the people.57
 NEW YEAR’S GREETING
The Dolls’ Festival is the one especially devoted to the girls; and the Feast of
Flags is set apart for the boys. The Festival of the Star Vega commemorates a
tradition concerning two starry lovers on opposite sides of the Milky Way, or
River of Heaven. The Chrysanthemum Festival seems to have been
overshadowed by the Emperor’s Birthday.
There are also many “flower festivals,” such as those of viewing the plum,
cherry, wistaria, iris, morning-glory, lotus, maple, etc.58
One of the most important of the Buddhist festivals is that in honor of the
spirits of the dead; it is called Bon-matsuri and comes in the middle of July.
Buddha’s birthday in April is also observed. There is a Japanese Memorial Day,
celebrated twice a year in May and November, when immense crowds flock to
the shrines called Shōkonsha, and pay their homage to the spirits of those who
have died for their country. Moreover, space would fail to tell of the numerous
local shrines and temples, Shintō and Buddhist, where the people flock annually
or semi-annually, to “worship” a few minutes and enjoy a picnic for the
remainder of the day. And, in Christian circles, Christmas, Easter, and Sunday-
school picnics are important and interesting occasions.
 The common games are chess, go (a very complicated game slightly
resembling checkers), parchesi, and cards. Flower-cards and poetical quotations
are old-style, but still popular; while Occidental cards, under the name of
torompu (“trump”) are coming into general use. Children find great amusement
also with kites, tops, battledore and shuttlecock, snow-men, dolls, cards, etc.59
The chief sports of young men are wrestling, rowing, tennis, and baseball. In the
great American game they have become so proficient that they frequently win
against the Americans and British who make up the baseball club of the
Yokohama Athletic Association!
Professional wrestling-matches60 continue to draw large crowds to see the
huge masses of flesh measure their strength and skill. Jūjutsu is a kind of
wrestling in which skill and dexterity are more important than mere physical
strength.61 Sleight-of-hand performers and acrobats are quite popular.
The theatre60 is a very important feature in the Japanese world of amusements,
and still remains about the only place where Old Japan can be well studied.
Theatrical performances in Japan are, of course, quite different from those in the
Occident, and seem very tedious to Westerners, partly because they are so long
and partly because they are unintelligible. When the writer attended the theatre
in Mito, the play began, thirty minutes late, at 3:30 P. M., and continued, without
interruption, until almost midnight. Then, according to custom, a short
supplementary play of almost an hour’s duration followed, so that it was about
one o’clock when he finally reached home. The Japanese, however, are
accustomed to this “sweetness long drawn out,” and either bring their lunches or
slip out between acts to get something to eat and drink, or buy tea and cake in
the theatre.
The wardrobes and the scenery are elaborate and magnificent. The former are
often almost priceless heirlooms handed down from one generation to another.
Changes of wardrobe are often made in the presence of the audience; an actor,
by dropping off one robe (which is immediately carried away by a small boy),
entirely metamorphoses his appearance. One convenient arrangement of the
scenery is that of the revolving stage, so that, as an old scene gradually
disappears, the new one is coming into view. The supernumeraries, moreover,
though theoretically invisible, are distinctly present, but seem to distract neither
players nor audience. The female parts are usually taken by men dressed as
women; and animals are represented by either men or wooden models.
The orchestra plays an exceedingly important part in a Japanese drama. It
consists of the samisen (a guitar of three strings), the fue (flute), and the taiko
(drum). It plays, not between the acts to entertain the spectators, but, like the
Greek chorus, during the scene, to direct and explain the drama. Pantomime is an
important element in the play and exceedingly expressive. The pantomimic
actions are guided by the orchestra and the singers of the chants that furnish
necessary explanations. Japanese plays are mostly historical, though some depict
life and manners. It is quite interesting to note that in 1903 an adapted translation
of “Othello” was put on the Japanese stage with marked success.
The Nō “dances,” as they are sometimes called, were at first “purely religious
performances, intended to propitiate the chief deities of the Shintō religion, and
were acted exclusively in connection with their shrines.” But they were
afterwards secularized and popularized, as lyric dramas. They are comparatively
brief, and occupy only about an hour in performing. They are now given chiefly
as special entertainments in high society or court circles to extraordinary
guests.62
Music, especially in connection with dancing, furnishes another common
means of amusement. The chief instruments of the old style are the koto, a kind
of lyre; the samisen, already described; the kokyū, a sort of fiddle; lutes, flutes,
fifes, drums, etc.; while the violin, organ, and piano are coming into general use.
These instruments, moreover, are now being manufactured by the Japanese.
Individuals, bands, and orchestras, trained under foreign supervision, furnish
music, both instrumental and vocal, for private and public entertainments; and
concerts in European style are becoming very popular.
It used to be that no evening entertainment was considered complete without
the dancing-girls (geisha),63 whose presence is never conducive to morality. But
a strong effort is now being made, even in non-Christian circles, to banish these
evil features of social entertainments. The Occidental mixed dances have not yet
met with great favor, except that in the court circle, which is cosmopolitan,
quadrilles, waltzes, etc., are encouraged.
The manners and customs, especially in the large cities, are undergoing
considerable Occidentalizing, which results at first in an amusing mixture, or a
queer hybrid. This is particularly true of social functions in official or high life.
It is, of course, true that the great mass of the people, the “lower classes,” are not
yet to any great extent affected by the social changes in the world above their
reach and ken, and still conduct their social intercourse more Japonico, that is, in
the approved methods of their ancestors; but in the life of the middle and upper
classes, and especially in official functions, the influence of Occidental manners
and customs is quite marked.
 Japanese literature is immensely rich in stories of adventure, most interesting
historical and biographical incidents, folk-lore, and fairy tales. All of these are
quite familiar to the Japanese child, whether boy or girl, whose mind feasts
upon, and delights in, the heroic and the marvellous. The youth and the adults,
also, are not at all averse to such mental pabulum, and flock, for instance, to the
hall of the professional story-teller, who regales them with fact and fiction
ingeniously blended. Yoshitsune, Benkei, Momotarō, Kintarō, and others are
common heroes of folk-lore and fiction; while “The Tongue-Cut Sparrow,” “The
Matsuyama Mirror,” “The Man who Made Trees Bloom,” are examples of
hundreds of popular fairy tales. Japanese folk-lore is an instructive and most
interesting subject, which must, however, be now dismissed with references.64
To an audience of Athenians on Mars Hill, Paul said: “Ye men of Athens, I
perceive that in all things ye are altogether superstitious.” One might likewise
stand before an audience of Japanese and say: “Ye men of Nippon, I perceive
that in all things ye are altogether superstitious.” For most faithfully and
devoutly do the mass of the people still worship their innumerable deities,
estimated with the indefinite expression “eight hundred myriads”; and most
firmly do they continue to believe in the efficacy of charms and amulets and to
hold to inherited superstitious ideas. It is only where the common school and
Christianity have had full sway that these “foolish notions” disappear. And while
we have not space for a methodical study of Japanese superstitions, we ought at
least to present, even in a desultory manner, some illustrations, culled at random
from various sources.65
The days of each month were named, not only in numerical order, but also
according to the animals of the Chinese zodiac. And the latter names were
perhaps more important than the numerical ones, because, according to these
special names, a day was judged to be either lucky or unlucky for particular
events. “Every day has its degree of luck for removal [from one place to
another], and, indeed, according to another system, for actions of any kind; for a
day is presided over in succession by one of six stars which may make it lucky
throughout or only at night, or in the forenoon or the afternoon, or exactly at
noon, or absolutely unlucky. There are also special days on which marriages
should take place, prayers are granted by the gods, stores should be opened, and
signboards put up.” Dr. Griffis informs us in “The Mikado’s Empire,” that
“many people of the lower classes would not wash their heads or hair on ‘the
day of the horse,’ lest their hair become red.” On the other hand, this “horse day”
is sacred to Inari Sama, the rice-god, who employs foxes as his messengers; and
“the day of the rat” is sacred to Daikoku, the god of wealth, who, in pictures, is
always accompanied by that rodent. As for wedding days, Rev. N. Tamura says:
“We think it is very unfortunate to be married on the 16th of January, 20th of
February, 4th of March, 18th of April, 6th of May, 7th of June, 10th of July, 11th
of August, 9th of September, 3d of October, 25th of November, or 30th of
December, also on the grandfather’s or grandmother’s death day.” These dates
are probably applicable to only the old calendar. “Seeds will not germinate if
planted on certain days” (Griffis).
The hours were named, not only according to the numerical plan, but also
according to the heavenly menagerie in the following way:—
1.Hour of the Rat 11 P. M.-1 A. M.
2.Hour of the Ox 1-3 A. M.
3.Hour of the Tiger 3-5 A. M.
4.Hour of the Hare 5-7 A. M.
6.Hour of the Dragon 7-9 A. M.
6.Hour of the Serpent 9-11 A. M.
7.Hour of the Horse 11 A. M.-1 P. M.
8.Hour of the Goat 1-3 P. M.
9.Hour of the Monkey 3-5 P. M.
10.Hour of the Cock 5-7 P. M.
11. Hour of the Dog 7-9 P. M.
12.Hour of the Boar 9-11 P. M.
The “hour of the ox,” by the way, being the time of sound sleep, was sacred to
women crossed in love for taking vengeance upon a straw image of the recreant
lover at the shrine of Fudō.
“After 5 P. M. many people will not put on new clothes or sandals” (Griffis).
From “Superstitious Japan”: “If one swallows seven grains of red beans (azuki)
and one go of sake before the hour of the ox on the first day of the year, he will
be free from sickness and calamity throughout the year; if he drinks toso (spiced
sake) at the hour of the tiger of the same day, he will be untouched by malaria
through the year. On the seventh day of the first month if a male swallows seven,
and a female fourteen, red beans, they will be free from sickness all their lives; if
one bathes at the hour of the dog on the tenth day [of the same month], his teeth
will become hard.”
There are also superstitions about ages. Some persons, for instance, “are
averse to a marriage between those whose ages differ by three or nine years. A
man’s nativity also influences the direction in which he should remove; and his
age may permit his removal one year and absolutely forbid it the next.” There
are also critical years in a person’s life, such as the seventh, twenty-fifth, forty-
second, and sixty-first66 years for a man, and the seventh, eighth, thirty-third,
forty-second, and sixty-first66 years for a woman. There is a similar story to the
effect that a child born (or begotten?) in the father’s forty-third year is supposed
to be possessed of a devil. When such a child is about one month old, it is,
therefore, exposed for about three hours in some sacred place. Some member or
friend of the family then goes to get it, and bringing it to the parents, says: “This
is a child whom I have found and whom you had better take and bring up.” Thus
having fooled the devil, the parents receive their own child back.
From Inouye’s “Sketches of Tōkyō Life” we learn that aged persons provide
against failing memory by passing through seven different shrine gates on the
spring or autumn equinox. An incantation against noxious insects, written with
the infusion of India ink in liquorice water on the eighth day of the fourth moon,
Buddha’s birthday, will prevent the entrance of the insects at every doorway or
window where it is posted. January 16 and July 16 were and are special holidays
for servants and apprentices, and considered sacred to Emma, the god of Hades.
At the time of the winter solstice doctors would worship the Chinese Esculapius.
“The foot-wear left outside on the night of the winter equinox should be thrown
away; he who wears them will shorten his own life. If you cut a bamboo on a
moonlight night, you will find a snake in the hollow of it between the third and
fourth joints.” “During an eclipse of the sun or moon, people carefully cover, the
wells, as they suppose that poison falls from the sky during the period of the
obscuration.” “If on the night of the second day of the first moon, one dreams of
the takara-bune (treasure-ship), he shall become a rich man.” The first “dog
day” and the third “dog day” in July are days for eating special cakes. “The third
dog day is considered by the peasantry a turning-point in the life of the crops.
Eels are eaten on any day of the bull [ox] that may occur during this period of
greatest heat.” The author was once warned by a Japanese woman that he must
not take medicine or consult a doctor on New Year’s Day, because such acts
would portend a year of illness.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
There are many good books which portray the manners and customs of the Japanese people; and as for
magazine and newspaper articles on the subject their name is legion. The works of Griffis, Chamberlain,
Rein, Hearn, Lowell, Miss Bacon, Miss Scidmore, Miss Hartshorne, Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop, and
Mitford’s “Tales of Old Japan” may be recommended. Good novels, like “Mito Yashiki” (Maclay), “Honda
the Samurai” (Griffis), “In the Mikado’s Service” (Griffis), etc., give an insight into Japanese life. This may
suffice, as more particular references have been given in connection with many of the topics of the chapter.
“A Japanese Boy” (Shigemi), “When I was a Boy in Japan” (Shioya), “Japanese Girls and Women” (Miss
Bacon), and “The Wee Ones of Japan” (Mrs. Bramhall) give good pictures of child-life; and Dr. Griffis has
edited an edition of Mrs. Chaplin-Ayrton’s valuable “Child-Life in Japan.” “Japanese Life in Town and
Country” (Knox), and “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd) also contain good material in this connection.
 CHAPTER VI

JAPANESE TRAITS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : First impressions: minuteness; politeness and courtesy; etiquette; simplicity; vivacity;
equanimity; union of Stoicism and Epicureanism; generosity; unpracticality; procrastination; humility and
conceit; lack of originality; fickleness; æstheticism; loyalty; filial piety; sentimental temperament;
susceptibility to impulse; land and people.—Bibliography.

FIRST impressions are, of course, often deceitful, as they are likely to be

formed from merely superficial views; but they are quite certain to emphasize
the peculiar characteristics of a person or a people. The points of difference are
very evident at first, but gradually become less observable or prominent, and in
time may scarcely be noticed. It is, of course, undeniable that first impressions
must be more or less modified, but it is also true that some remain practically
unchanged, or are verified and strengthened by long experience.
In the case of the Japanese, for instance, a first and lasting impression is that
of minuteness. This characteristic of “things Japanese” pertains less to quality
than to quantity, is not a mental or a moral, so much as a physical or
dimensional, feature. The empire, though called Dai Nippon (Great Japan) is
small; the people are short; the lanes are narrow; the houses are low and small;
farms are insignificant;67 teacups, other dishes, pipes, etc., are like our toys; and
innumerable other objects are Lilliputian. Pierre Loti, the French writer, in his
description of Japanese life, draws extensively on the diminutives of his native
tongue. In business matters, moreover, the Japanese seem incapable of managing
big enterprises, and do everything on a small scale with a small capital. The
saying that they are “great in little things and little in great things” contains some
truth. But it must, in fairness, be acknowledged that, of recent years, the
Japanese have begun to display a remarkable facility and success in the
management of great enterprises. They are outgrowing this characteristic of
smallness, and are even now reckoned among the “great world-powers.”
The Japanese are famous the world over for their politeness and courtesy; they
are a nation of good manners, and, for this and other qualities, have been styled
“the French of the Orient.” From morning to night, from the cradle to the grave,
the entire life is characterized by unvarying gentleness and politeness in word
and act. Many of the expressions and actions are mere formalities, it is true; but
they have, by centuries of hereditary influence, been so far incorporated into the
individual and national life as to be a second nature. This trait is one which most
deeply impresses all visitors and residents, and concerning which Sir Edwin
Arnold has written the following:—
“Where else in the world does there exist such a conspiracy to be agreeable; such a widespread compact
to render the difficult affairs of life as smooth and graceful as circumstances admit; such fair decrees of fine
behavior fixed and accomplished for all; such universal restraint of the coarser impulses of speech and act;
such pretty picturesqueness of daily existence; such lovely love of nature as the embellisher of that
existence; such sincere delight in beautiful, artistic things; such frank enjoyment of the enjoyable; such
tenderness to little children; such reverence for parents and old persons; such widespread refinement of taste
and habits; such courtesy to strangers; and such willingness to please and to be pleased?”

As stated above, the innate courtesy of the Japanese manifests itself in every
possible way in word and deed. Thus has been developed an almost perfect code
of etiquette, of polite speech and conduct for every possible occasion; and while
these formalities are sometimes apparently unnecessary, often even a cloak for
insincerity, and also a waste of time in this practical age, we cannot but lament
the decadence of Japanese manners.

GARDEN AT ŌJI
Another prominent and prevailing element of Japanese civilization is
simplicity. The people have the simplicity of nature to such an extent that the
garb of nature is not considered immodest. They find delight in the simplest
forms of natural beauties, and they plant their standard of beauty on a simple
base. A rough and gnarled tree, or even a mere trunk or stump; a bare twig or
branch without leaves or blossoms; an old stone; all kinds of flowers and grasses
have in themselves a real natural beauty. A Japanese admires the beauties of
nature just as they are; he loves a flower as a flower. The Japanese truly worship
Nature in all her varied forms and hold communion with all her aspects. They
enjoy the simplest amusements with the simplest toys which, cheap and frail,
may last only an hour, but easily yield their money’s worth and more of real
pleasure. They find the greatest happiness in such simple recreations as going to
see the plum blossoms or cherry flowers, and gazing at the full moon. They are,
in comparison with Americans, childish in their simplicity; but they succeed in
extracting more solid enjoyment out of life than any other people on the globe.
Americans sacrifice life to get a living: Japanese, by simply living, enjoy life.
And this leads to another impression and characterization of the Japanese
people as merry, lighthearted, and vivacious. Careless, even to an extreme; free
from worry and anxiety, because easily satisfied with little, and because inclined
to be excessively fatalistic,—they not only are faithful disciples of the Epicurean
philosophy, that happiness or pleasure is the summum bonum of life, but they
succeed in being happy without much exertion. They believe that men “by
perpetual toil, bustle, and worry render themselves unfit to enjoy the pleasures
which nature places within their reach”; and that the Occidental, and especially
the American, life of high pressure, with too much work and too little play, is
actually making Jack a dull boy. It is certainly to be hoped, but perhaps in vain,
that the increasing complexity of modern life in Japan will not entirely obliterate
the simplicity and vivacity of the Japanese; for they seem to “have verily solved
the great problem—how to be happy though poor.”
The Japanese are, however, extremely stoical in belief and behavior, and can
refrain as rigidly from manifestations of joy or sorrow as could a Spartan or a
Roman.68 Many a Japanese Leonidas, Brutus, or Cato stands forth as a typical
hero in their annals. Without the least sign of suffering they can experience the
severest torture, such as disembowelling themselves; and without a word of
complaint they receive adversity or affliction. Shikata ga nai (“There is no
help”) is the stereotyped phrase of consolation from the least to the greatest loss,
injury, or affliction. For a broken dish, a bruise, a broken limb, a business failure,
a death, weeping is silly, sympathy is useless; alike for all, shikata ga nai.
It is possibly this combination or union of Stoicism and Epicureanism that
makes the real and complete enjoyment of life. The following paragraph pictures
graphically the contrasting characteristics of Japanese and American women: “It
is said that the habitual serenity of Japanese women is due to their freedom from
small worries. The fashion of their dress never varies, so they are saved much
anxiety of mind on that subject. Housekeeping is simplified by the absence of
draperies and a crowd of ornaments to gather dust, and the custom of leaving
footwear at the entrance keeps out much mud and dirt. With all our boasted
civilization, we may well learn from the Orientals how to prevent the little foxes
of petty anxieties from spoiling the vines of our domestic comfort. If American
housekeepers could eliminate from their lives some of the unnecessary care of
things, it would probably smooth their brows and tone down the sharpened
expression of their features.”
The Japanese are, by instinct, a very unselfish and generous people. These two
seemingly synonymous adjectives are purposely used; for the Japanese possess,
not only the negative and passive virtue of unselfishness, but also its positive and
active expression in generosity; they are not merely careless and thoughtless of
self, but they are careful and thoughtful of others. In fact, their philanthropic
instincts are so strong that neither excessive wealth nor extreme pauperism is
prevalent. These two traits had their origin, probably, in a contempt for mere
money-making and the lack of a strong desire for wealth. The merchant, engaged
in trade,—that is, in money-making pursuits,—was ranked below the soldier, the
farmer, and the artisan. The typical Japanese believed that “the love of money is
the root of all evil,” and was not actuated by “the accursed greed for gold” (auri
sacra fames). No sordid views of life on a cash basis were held by the Japanese,
and not even the materialism of modern life has yet destroyed their generous and
philanthropic instincts. They are as truly altruistic as Occidentals are egoistic.
The modern characteristic expressed by the term “practical” does not belong
to the Japanese, who are rather visionary in disposition. This trait is undoubtedly
an effect of the old distaste for money-making pursuits, and renders the Japanese
people, on the whole, incapable of attending strictly and carefully to the minutiæ
of business. They do not, indeed, appear to possess the mental and moral
qualities which go to make a successful merchant or business man.69 This is the
testimony both of those who have studied their psychological natures and of
those who have had actual business experience with them. The former say that
unpracticality and a distaste for money-making are natural elements of the
Japanese character, as is evidenced by the fact that, in ancient society, the
merchant was assigned to the fourth class—below the soldier, the farmer, the
artisan. “The temperament, the training, and the necessary materials are, for the
most part, lacking”; and these cannot, in spite of the impressionableness of the
Japanese nature, be readily acquired and developed. Business men, moreover,
who have had actual dealings with the Japanese, complain of dishonesty,70
“pettiness, constant shilly-shallying,” and unbusiness-like habits; and call them
“good-natured, artistic, and all that, but muddle-pated folks when it comes to
matters of business.”
One illustration of their natural incapacity for business life is found in the fact
that they had no idea of time. They did not understand the value, according to
our standards, of the minutes, and were much given to what we call a “waste of
time.” They were not accustomed to reckon time minute-ly, or to take into notice
any period less than an hour, and considered it nine o’clock until it was ten
o’clock. Moreover, the hour of the old “time-table” was 120 minutes long.71
Besides, the Japanese are too dignified to be in a hurry; so that, if they miss one
train, they do not fume and fret because they have to wait even several hours for
the next train, but take it all calmly and patiently. And as clocks and watches are
still somewhat of a luxury to the common people, we must not expect them to
come up at once to our ideas of strict punctuality. But in school and office and
business they are learning habits of promptness and coming to realize that “time
is money”; so that recent years have shown a marked improvement.
In the character of the Japanese are blended the two inharmonious elements of
humility and conceit. Their language, customs, and manners are permeated with
the idea of self-abasement, “in honor preferring one another”; but their minds are
filled with excessive vanity, individual and national. They call their own country
“Great Japan,” and have always had a strong faith in the reality of its greatness.
The precocity and conceit of Japanese youth are very noticeable. A schoolboy of
fourteen is always ready to express with confidence and positiveness his
criticisms on Occidental and Oriental politics, philosophy, and religion. Young
Japan, whether individually or collectively, is now in the Sophomore class of the
World’s University. Japan is self-assertive, self-confident, and independent. But
the marvellous achievements in the transformation of Japan during the past half-
century are some excuse for the development of vanity; and the future, with its
responsibilities, surely demands a measure of self-confidence.
The Japanese are commonly criticised as being imitative rather than initiative
or inventive; and it must be acknowledged that a study of their history bears out
this criticism. The old civilization was very largely borrowed from the Chinese,
perhaps through the Koreans; and in modern times we have witnessed a similar
adoption and imitation of Occidental civilization. But it must also be borne in
mind that in few cases was there servile imitation; for, in almost every instance,
there was an adaptation to the peculiar needs of Japan. And yet even this
assimilation might show that the Japanese have “great talent, but little genius”
(Munzinger), or “little creative power” (Rein). However, there have been
indications of late years that the Japanese mind is developing inventive power.
Originality is making itself known in many really remarkable inventions,
especially along mechanical lines. Rifles, repeating pistols, smokeless
gunpowder, guncotton, and bicycle boats are a few illustrations of Japanese
inventions. Moreover, many of the Japanese inventors have secured letters patent
in England, Germany, France, Austria, and the United States. In scientific
discoveries, too, the Japanese are coming forward.
The Japanese have also been frequently accused of fickleness, and during the
past fifty years have certainly furnished numerous reasons for such a charge.
They have seemed to shift about with “every wind of doctrine,” and, like the
Athenians in Paul’s day, have been often attracted by new things. But Dening’s
defence against this accusation is worthy of notice, and seems quite reasonable.
He claims that “this peculiarity is accidental, not inherent”; that there was “no
lack of permanence in their laws, institutions, and pursuits in the days of their
isolation”; that in recent times “their attention has been attracted by such a
multitude of [new] things ... that they have found great difficulty in making a
judicious selection”; and the rapid changes “have not been usually dictated by
mere fickleness, but have resulted from the wish to prove all things.”
Chamberlain, likewise, refers to so-called “characteristic traits” that are
“characteristic merely of the stage through which the nation is now passing.”
And certainly a growing steadfastness of purpose and action is perceptible in
many phases of Japanese life.
The Japanese are pre-eminently an æsthetic people. In all sections, among all
classes, art reigns supreme. It permeates everything, great or small. “Whatever
these people fashion, from the toy of an hour to the triumphs of all time, is
touched by a taste unknown elsewhere.”72
The national spirit is excessively strong in Japan, and has been made powerful
by centuries of development. Every Japanese is born, lives, and dies for his
country. Loyalty is the highest virtue; and Yamato-damashii (Japan spirit) is a
synonym too often of narrow and inordinate patriotism. But the vision of the
Japanese is broadening, and they are learning that cosmopolitanism is not
necessarily antagonistic to patriotism. They used to harp on “The Japan of the
Japanese”; later they began to talk about “The Japan of Asia”; but now they wax
eloquent over “The Japan of the World.”
Filial piety is the second virtue in the Japanese ethics, and is often carried to a
silly extreme. The old custom of inkyō made it possible for parents, even while
they were still able-bodied, to retire from active work and become an incubus on
the eldest son, perhaps just starting out in his life career. But now there is a law
that no one can become inkyō before he is sixty years of age. And yet filial piety
can easily nullify the law!
Professor George T. Ladd, who has made a special study of the Japanese from
the psychological point of view, sums up their “character” as of the “sentimental
temperament.”73 The following are suggestive passages:—
“This distinctive Japanese temperament is that which Lotze has so happily called the ‘sentimental
temperament.’ It is the temperament characteristic of youth, predominatingly, in all races. It is, as a
temperament, characteristic of all ages, of both sexes, and of all classes of population, among the Japanese.
But, of course, in Japan as everywhere, the different ages, sexes, and classes of society, differ in respect to
the purity of this temperamental distinction. Many important individual exceptions, or examples of other
temperaments, also occur.
“The distinguishing mark of the sentimental temperament is great susceptibility to variety of influences—
especially on the side of feeling, and independent of clear logical analysis or fixed and well-comprehended
principles—with a tendency to a will that is impulsive and liable to collapse. Such susceptibility is likely to
be accompanied by unusual difficulty in giving due weight to those practical considerations, which lead to
compromises in politics, to steadiness in labor, to patience in developing the details of science and
philosophy, and to the establishment of a firm connection between the higher life of thought and feeling and
the details of daily conduct. On the other hand, it is the artistic temperament, the temperament which makes
one ‘interesting,’ the ‘clever’ mind, the temperament which has a suggestion of genius at its command....
“Japan is the land of much natural scenery that is pre-eminently interesting and picturesque. It is the land
of beautiful green mountains and of luxurious and highly variegated flora. It is the land that lends itself to
art, to sentiment, to reverie and brooding over the mysteries of nature and of life. But it is also the land of
volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, and typhoons; the land under whose thin fair crust, or weird and grotesque
superficial beauty, and in whose air and surrounding waters, the mightiest destructive forces of nature
slumber and mutter, and betimes break forth with amazing destructive effect. As is the land, so—in many
striking respects—are the people that dwell in it. The superficial observer, especially if he himself be a
victim of the unmixed sentimental temperament, may find everything interesting, æsthetically pleasing,
promising continued kindness of feeling, and unwearied delightful politeness of address. But the more
profound student will take note of the clear indications, that beneath this thin, fair crust, there are
smouldering fires of national sentiment, uncontrolled by solid moral principle, and unguided by sound,
practical judgment. As yet, however, we are confident in the larger hope for the future of this most
‘interesting’ of Oriental races.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Rein’s “Japan,” “The Gist of Japan” (Peery), “Japan and its Regeneration” (Cary), “The Soul of the Far
East” (Lowell), “Feudal and Modern Japan” (Knapp), “Lotos-Time in Japan” (Finck), and Hearn’s works
discuss the subject of Japanese characteristics with intelligence from various points of view. The most
interesting and instructive Japanese writer on the subject is Nitobe in his “Bushidō, the Soul of Japan.”
Dening’s paper in vol. xix. Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan is very valuable. “The Evolution of the
Japanese” (Gulick) should also be carefully studied, especially as he differs from Lowell and others, who
contend that Orientals in general, and Japanese in particular, have no “soul,” or distinct personality.
Hearn’s best work, entitled “Japan, An Interpretation,” is interesting and instructive in this connection.
“Japanese Life in Town and Country” (Knox), “Dai Nippon” (Dyer), chap. iii., and “Every Day Japan”
(Lloyd) also throw light on this topic.
 CHAPTER VII

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Outline of mythology and history; sources of material; earlier periods; Japanese and
Græco-Roman mythology; prehistoric period; continental influences; capitals; Imperialism; Fujiwara
Epoch; Taira and Minamoto; Hōjō tyranny; Ashikaga Period; Nobunaga and Hideyoshi; Iyeyasu; Tokugawa
Dynasty.—Bibliography.

THE mythology and history of Japan may be outlined in the following manner:
—
A. Sources of material.
1. Oral tradition.
2. Kojiki [711 A. D.].
3. Nihongi [720 A. D.].
B. Chronology.
I. Old Japan.
1. “Divine Ages.” Creation of world; Izanagi and Izanami; Sun-goddess and brother; Ninigi; Princes Fire-
Shine and Fire-Fade; Jimmu.
2. Prehistoric Period [660 B.C.-400 (?) A. D.]. Jimmu Tennō; “Sūjin, the Civilizer”; Yamato-Dake; Empress
Jingu; Invasion of Korea; Ōjin, deified as Hachiman, the Japanese Mars; Take-no-uchi. Native elements
of civilization. Chinese literature.
3. Imperialistic Period [400 (?)-888 A. D.]. Continental influences (on language and literature, learning,
government, manners and customs, and religion); Buddhism; Shōtoku Taishi; practice of abdication;
Nara Epoch; capital settled at Kyōto; Sugawara; Fujiwara family established in regency (888 A. D.).
4. Civil Strife [888-1603 A. D.]. Fujiwara bureaucracy; Taira supremacy (1156-1185); wars of red and white
flags; Yoritomo and Yoshitsune; Minamoto supremacy (1185-1199); first Shōgunate; Hōjō tyranny
(1199-1333); Tartar armada; Kusunoki and Nitta; Ashikaga supremacy (1333-1573); “War of the
Chrysanthemums”; tribute to China; fine arts and architecture; cha-no-yu; Portuguese; Francis Xavier;
spread of Christianity; Nobunaga, persecutor of Buddhists (1573-1582); Hideyoshi, “Napoleon of Japan”
(1585-1598); persecution of Christianity; invasion of Korea; Iyeyasu; battle of Sekigahara (1600 A. D.).
5. Tokugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 A. D.]. Iyeyasu Shōgun (1603); capital Yedo, girdled by friendly fiefs;
perfection of feudalism; Dutch; Will Adams; English; extermination of Christianity; seclusion and
crystallization (1638-1853); Confucian influences.
II. New Japan.
5 (continued). Perry’s Expedition; treaties with foreign nations; internal strife; Richardson affair;
Shimonoseki affair; resignation of Shōgun; abolition of Shōgunate; Revolutionary War; New
Imperialism; Imperial capital Yedo, renamed Tōkyō; Meiji Era.
6. New Empire [1868- ]. Opening of ports and cities; “Charter Oath”; telegraphs, light-houses, postal
system, mint, dockyard, etc.; outcasts acknowledged as human beings; abolition of feudalism; first
railway, newspaper, and church; Imperial University; Yokohama Missionary Conference; Gregorian
calendar; anti-Christian edicts removed; Saga rebellion; Formosan Expedition; assembly of governors;
Senate; treaty with Korea; Satsuma rebellion; bi-metallism; Loo Choo annexed; new codes; prefectural
 assemblies; Bank of Japan; Ōsaka Missionary Conference; new nobility; Japan Mail Steamship
Company; Privy Council; Prince Haru made Crown Prince; anti-foreign reaction; promulgation of
Constitution; first Diet; Gifu earthquake; war with China; Formosa; tariff revision; gold standard;
freedom of press and public meetings; opening of Japan by new treaties; war with China; Tōkyō
Missionary Conference; Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

The student of Japanese history is confronted, at the outset, with a serious

difficulty. In ancient times the Japanese had no literary script, so that all events
had to be handed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. The art
of writing was introduced into Japan, from China probably, in the latter part of
the third century A. D.; but it was not used for recording events until the
beginning of the fifth century. All these early records, moreover, were destroyed
by fire; so that the only “reliance for information about ... antiquity” has to be
placed in the Kojiki,74 or “Records of Ancient Matters,” and the Nihongi,75 or
“Chronicles of Japan.” The former, completed in 712 A. D., is written in a purer
Japanese style; the latter, finished in 720 A. D., is “much more tinctured with
Chinese philosophy”; though differing in some details, they are practically
concordant, and supply the data upon which the Japanese have constructed their
“history.” It is thus evident that the accounts of the period before Christ must be
largely mythological, and the records of the first four centuries of the Christian
era must be a thorough mixture of fact and fiction, which it is difficult carefully
to separate.
 ŌSAKA CASTLE
According to Japanese chronology, the Empire of Japan was founded by
Jimmu Tennō in 660 B. C. This was when Assyria, under Sardanapalus, was at
the height of its power; not long after the ten tribes of Israel had been carried
into captivity, and soon after the reign of the good Hezekiah in Judah; before
Media had risen into prominence; a century later than Lycurgus, and a few
decades before Draco; and during the period of the Roman kingdom. But
according to a foreign scholar who has sifted the material at hand, the first
absolutely authentic date in Japanese history is 461 A. D.,76—just the time when
the Saxons were settling in England. If, therefore, the Japanese are given the
benefit of more than a century, there yet remains a millennium which falls under
the sacrificial knife of the historical critic. But while we cannot accept
unchallenged the details of about a thousand years, and cannot withhold surprise
that even the Constitution of New Japan maintains the “exploded religious
fiction” of the foundation of the empire, we must acknowledge that the Imperial
family of Japan has formed the oldest continuous dynasty in the world, and can
probably boast an “unbroken line” of eighteen or twenty centuries.

1. “Divine Ages.”
2. Prehistoric Period [660 B. C.—400 (?) A. D.].
Dr. Murray, in “The Story of Japan,” following the illustrious example of
Arnold in Roman history, treats these more or less mythological periods in a
reasonable way. He says: “Yet the events of the earlier period[s] ... are capable,
with due care and inspection, of furnishing important lessons and disclosing
many facts in regard to the lives and characteristics of the primitive Japanese.”
These facts concerning the native elements of civilization pertain to the mode of
government, which was feudal; to food, clothing, houses, arms, and implements;
to plants and domestic and wild animals; to modes of travel; to reading and
writing, as being unknown; to various manners and customs; to superstitions;
and to “religious notions,” which found expression in Shintō, itself not strictly a
“religion,” but only a cult without a moral code. “Morals were invented by the
Chinese because they were an immoral people; but in Japan there was no
necessity for any system of morals, as every Japanese acted rightly if he only
consulted his own heart”! So asserts a Shintō apologist. And from the fact that so
many myths cluster around Izumo, it is a natural inference that one migration of
the ancestors of the Japanese from Korea landed in that province, while the
legends relating to Izanagi and Izanami, the first male and female deities, since
they find local habitation in Kyūshiu, seem to indicate another migration
(Korean or Malay?) to that locality. These different migrations are also supposed
to account for the two distinct types of Japanese.
The story of the creation of the world bears considerable resemblance to that
related in Ovid’s Metamorphoses; and this is only one of many points of
remarkable similarity between the mythology of Japan and the Græco-Roman
mythology.77 And one famous incident in the career of the Sun-Goddess is
evidently a myth of a solar eclipse.
Although the Emperor Jimmu cannot be accepted as a truly historical
personage, neither can he be entirely ignored, for he is still an important
“character” in Japanese “history” and continues to claim in his honor two
national holidays (February 11 and April 3). And, just as Jimmu may be
considered the Cyrus, or founder, of the Japanese Empire, so Sūjin, “the
Civilizer,” may be called its Darius, or organizer. The Prince Yamato-Dake is a
popular hero, whose wonderful exploits are still sung in prose and poetry. As for
the Empress Jingu, or Jingō, although she is not included in the official list78 of
the rulers of the empire, she is considered a great heroine, and is especially
famous for her successful invasion of Korea, assigned to about 200 A. d. And it
is her son, Ōjin, who, deified as Hachiman, is still “worshipped” as god of war;
while Take-no-uchi is renowned for having served as Prime Minister to five
Emperors and one Empress (Jingu). It was during this period that the Chinese
language and literature, together with the art of writing, were introduced into
Japan through Korea.

3. Imperialistic Period [400(?)-888 A. D.].

The continental influences form an important factor in the equation of
Japanese civilization. The Japanese “have been from the beginning of their
history a receptive people,” and are indebted to Korea and China for the
beginnings of language, literature, education, art, mental and moral philosophy
(Confucianism), religion (Buddhism), and many social ideas. The conversion of
the nation to Buddhism took place in the sixth and seventh centuries, and was
largely due to the powerful influence of the Prime Minister of the Empress
Suiko. He is best known by his posthumous title of Shōtoku Taishi, and is also
famous for having compiled “the first written law[s] in Japan.”
For a long period, on account of superstitions, the capital was frequently
removed, so that Japan is said to have had “no less than sixty capitals.” But
during most of the eighth century the court was located at Nara, which gave its
name to that epoch; and in 794 A. D. the capital was permanently established at
Kyōto.
At first the government of Japan was an absolute monarchy, not only in name,
but also in fact; for the authority of the Emperor was recognized and maintained,
comparatively unimpaired, throughout the realm. But the decay of the Imperial
power began quite early in “the Middle Ages of Japan,” as Dr. Murray calls the
period from about 700 to 1184 A. D. The Emperors themselves, wearied with the
restrained and dignified life which, as “descendants of the gods,” they were
obliged by etiquette to endure, preferred to abdicate; and in retirement “often
wielded a greater influence and exerted a more active part in the administration
of affairs.” This practice of abdication frequently brought a youth, or even an
infant, to the throne, and naturally transferred the real power to the subordinate
administrative officers. This was the way in which gradatim the “duarchy,” as it
is sometimes called, was developed, and in which seriatim families and even
individuals became prominent.

4. Civil Strife [888-1603 A. D.].

Although actual warfare did not begin for a long period, the date of the
appointment of a Fujiwara as Regent practically ended Imperialism and was the
beginning of jealousy and strife. And yet the Fujiwara Epoch was the
“Elizabethan Age” of classical literature. But after that family had for about 400
years “monopolized nearly all the important offices in the government,” and
from 888 had held the regency in hereditary tenure, it was finally deposed by the
so-called “military families.”
The first of these was the Taira, who, after only a short period of power (1156-
1185) through Kiyomori, were utterly overthrown in the “wars of the red and
white flags,” and practically annihilated in the great naval battle of Dan-no-ura.
Next came the Minamoto, represented by Yoritomo,79 whose authority was
further enhanced when the Emperor bestowed on him the highest military title,
Sei-i-Tai-Shōgun. And from this time (1192) till 1868 the emperors were
practical nonentities, and subordinates actually governed the empire. The
Japanese Merovingians, however, were never deprived of their titular honor by
their “Mayors of the Palace.”
But the successors of Yoritomo in the office of Shōgun were young and
sensual, and gladly relinquished the executive duties to their guardians of the
Hōjō family, who, as regents, ruled “with resistless authority” and “unexampled
cruelty and rapacity,” but yet deserve credit for defeating (in 1281) an invading
force of Tartars sent by Kublai Khan. The great patriots, Kusunoki and Nitta,
with the aid of Ashikaga, finally overthrew the Hōjō domination in 1333; but the
Ashikaga rule succeeded and continued till 1573.
During the fourteenth century occurred the Japanese “War of the Roses,” or
the “War of the Chrysanthemums,” which was a conflict between two rival
branches of the Imperial family. It resulted in the defeat of the “Southern Court”
by the “Northern Court,” and the reunion of the Imperial authority in the person
of the Emperor Komatsu II. It was an Ashikaga Shōgun who encouraged the
quaint tea-ceremonial, called cha-no-yu; it was the same family who fostered
fine arts, especially painting and architecture; it was an Ashikaga who paid
tribute to China; it was “in almost the worst period of the Ashikaga anarchy”
that, in 1542, “the Portuguese made their first appearance in Japan”; and it was
only seven years later when Francis Xavier arrived there to begin his missionary
labors, from which Christianity spread rapidly, until the converts were numbered
by the millions.80
The next few decades of Japanese history are crowded with civil strife, and
include the three great men, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Iyeyasu, each of whom
in turn seized the supreme power. The first-named persecuted Buddhism and was
favorable to Christianity; the other two interdicted the latter. Hideyoshi, who
“rose from obscurity solely by his own talents,” has been called “the Napoleon
of Japan.” He is generally known by his title of Taikō; and he extended his name
abroad by an invasion of Korea, which was not, however, a complete success.
He is regarded by many as “the greatest soldier, if not the greatest man, whom
Japan has produced.” If this statement can be successfully challenged, the palm
will certainly be awarded to Iyeyasu, who, by the victory of Sekigahara in 1600,
became the virtual ruler of the empire.

5. Tokugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 A. D.].

Iyeyasu founded a dynasty (Tokugawa) of Shōguns, who, for more than 260
years, ruled at Yedo, surrounded by faithful vassals, and who at least gave the
empire a long period of peace. He brought Japanese feudalism to its perfection
of organization. His successors destroyed Christianity by means of a fearful
persecution; prohibited commercial intercourse, except with the Chinese and the
Dutch,81 and allowed it with these only to a limited extent, and thus crystallized
Japanese civilization and institutions. It may be true that “Japan reached the
acme of her ancient greatness during the Tokugawa Dynasty”; but it is also true
that by this policy of insulation and seclusion she was put back two and a half
centuries in the matter of progress in civilization.
The long years of peace under the Tokugawas were also years of literary
development. Chinese history, literature, and philosophy were ardently studied;
Confucianism wielded a mighty influence; but Japanese history and literature
were not neglected. The Mito clan especially was the centre of intellectual
industry, and produced, among a large number of works, the Dai Nihon Shi
(History of Great Japan), which is even to-day the standard. The study of
Japanese history revealed the fact that the governmental authority had been
originally centred in the Emperor, and not divided with any subordinate; and the
study of Confucian political science led to the same idea of an absolute
monarchy. Thus the spirit of Imperialism grew, encouraged, perhaps, by clan
jealousies and fostered by anti-foreign opinions, until “the last of the Shōguns”
resigned his position, and the Emperor was restored to his original sole authority.
Then the leaders of the Restoration abandoned their anti-foreign slogan, which
had been only a pretext, and by a complete but wise volte-face, began to turn
their country into the path of modern civilization, to make up for the lost
centuries. But the story of this wonderful transformation belongs to the next
chapter.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Griffis, in his “Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” gives interesting glimpses of Japanese history; and
many other works on Japan present a brief treatment of this subject. Clement’s Hildreth’s “Japan as it Was
and Is” is especially valuable for the period of seclusion. Knapp’s “Feudal and Modern Japan” is instructive
in its contrasts. The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan abound in valuable material. For a single
volume on this subject, Murray’s “Japan” in the series of “The Stories of the Nations” or Longford’s “Story
of Old Japan” is the best. Murdoch’s “History of Japan” in three volumes, of which two have been
published, is the most authoritative.
 CHAPTER VIII

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Birth of New Japan.—Nineteenth Century Japan; calendars; six periods: (I) Period of
Seclusion, chronology and description; (II) Period of Treaty-making, chronology and description; (III)
Period of Civil Commotions, chronology and description; (IV) Period of Reconstruction, chronology and
description, especially the “Charter Oath”; (V) Period of Internal Development, chronology and description;
(VI) Period of Constitutional Government, chronology and description; summary of general progress.—
Bibliography.

JULY 14, 1853, was the birthday of New Japan. It was the day when
Commodore Perry and his suite first landed on the shore of Yedo Bay at
Kurihama, near Uraga, and when Japanese authorities received, in contravention
of their own laws, an official communication from Millard Fillmore, President of
the United States.
It may be true that, even if Perry had not come, Japan would have been
eventually opened, because internal public opinion was shaping itself against the
policy of seclusion; but we care little for what “might have been.” It is, of
course, true that Perry did not fully carry out the purpose of his expedition until
the following year, when he negotiated a treaty of friendship; but the reception of
the President’s letter was the crucial point; it was the beginning of the end of old
Japan. The rest followed in due course of time. When Japanese authorities broke
their own laws, the downfall of the old system was inevitable. Mark those words
in the receipt—“in opposition to the Japanese law.” That was a clear confession
that the old policy of seclusion and its prohibitions could no longer be strictly
maintained. A precedent was thus established, of which other nations were not at
all slow to avail themselves.
But although New Japan was not born until the second half of the nineteenth
century, it suits the purpose of this book a little better, even at the expense of
possible repetition, to take a survey in this chapter of that entire century, in order
that the real progress of Japan may thereby be more clearly revealed in all its
marvellous strides.
Of course, the employment of the Gregorian calendar in Japan is of
comparatively recent occurrence, so that it would be quite proper to divide up
the century according to the old Japanese custom of periods, or eras,82 of varying
length. This system was introduced from China and has prevailed since 645 A. D.
A new era was always chosen “whenever it was deemed necessary to
commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event.” It is interesting, by the
way, to notice that, immediately after Commodore Perry’s arrival (1853), the
name of the period was changed for a good omen! Hereafter these eras will
correspond with the reigns of the emperors.
But it is really more intelligible to divide the history of the century into six
periods of well-determined duration. Each one of these periods, moreover, may
be accurately named in accord with the distinguishing characteristic of that
period. It must, however, be clearly understood that these distinctions are not all
absolute, but rather relative. It is also possible, without an undue stretch of the
imagination, to trace, in the order of the periods, the general progress that has
marked the history of New Japan. These periods are as follows:—
I.Seclusion (1801-1853).
II.Treaty-making (1854-1858).
III. Civil Commotions (1858-1868).
IV.Reconstruction (1868-1878).
V. Internal Development (1879-1889).
VI. Constitutional Government (1889-1900).83
It is of special interest for Americans to notice that the third and fourth periods
are almost contemporaneous with the periods of Civil War and Reconstruction in
the United States.
We now take up each period in detail.
 I. Period of Seclusion (1801-1853).

CHRONOLOGY.

1804.Resanoff, Russian Embassy.

1807.The “Eclipse” of Boston at Nagasaki.
1808.The British frigate “Phaethon” at Nagasaki.
1811-1813. Golownin’s captivity in Yezo.
1818.Captain Gordon (British) in Yedo Bay.
1825-1829.Dr. Von Siebold (Dutch) in Yedo.
1827.Beechey (British) in “Blossom” at Loo Choo Islands.
1837.The “Morrison” Expedition in Yedo Bay.
1844. Letter84 from King William II. of Holland.
1845.American whaler “Mercator” in Yedo Bay.
British frigate “Saramang” at Nagasaki.
1846.Dr. Bettelheim in Loo Choo Islands.
Wreck of American whaler “Lawrence” on Kurile Islands.
(United States) Commodore Biddle’s Expedition in Yedo Bay.
1848.Wreck of American whaler “Ladoga” off Matsumai, Yezo.
Ronald McDonald landed in Japan.
1849.United States “Preble” in Nagasaki harbor.
British “Mariner” in Yedo Bay.
1853.Shōgun Iyeyoshi died.
Commodore Perry in Yedo Bay.
It needs only a few words to summarize this period which includes the final
days of the two-edged policy of exclusion and inclusion, which forbade not only
foreigners to enter, but also Japanese to leave, the country. It would not even
allow Japanese ship-wrecked on other shores to be brought back to their native
land, as several futile attempts mentioned above attest. Nagasaki was the only
place where foreign trade was allowed, and there only in a slight degree with
Chinese and Dutch. The events of this period are almost all vain attempts to
open Japan. Two important events concern the Loo Choo Islands, then
independent, and later visited also by Commodore Perry on his way from China
to Japan. Ronald McDonald was an Oregon boy, who, “voluntarily left adrift, got
into Yezo, and thence to Nagasaki.” He is reported to have puzzled the Japanese
authorities by stating that in America “the people are king and the source of
authority”! This period of seclusion came to an end on July 14, 1853, when the
Japanese, contrary to their own laws, received from Commodore Perry the letter
from President Fillmore to the Emperor of Japan.85
 II. Period of Treaty-Making (1854-1858).

CHRONOLOGY.

1854. Perry’s treaty of peace and amity.

British treaty of peace and amity.
1855. Russian treaty of peace and amity.
Terrible earthquake.
1856. Fire in Yedo; 100,000 lives lost.
Dutch treaty of peace and amity.
Townsend Harris, United States Consul, arrived.
1857. Harris in audience with the Shōgun.
1858. Harris treaty of trade and commerce.
Elgin treaty of trade and commerce.
PERRY MONUMENT, NEAR URAGA
 This is the era which was opened by Commodore Perry, and was almost
entirely devoted to the persevering attempts of Perry, Harris, Curtius, Lord Elgin,
and others to negotiate treaties, first of friendship and amity, and afterwards of
trade and commerce, with Japan. It is rather interesting that the only events
chronicled above, besides treaty-making, are terrible catastrophes, which the
superstitious conservatives believed to have been visited upon their country as a
punishment for treating with the barbarians! It is again a matter of peculiar pride
to Americans that the first treaty of friendship and amity was negotiated by
Perry; that the first foreign flag raised officially in Japan was the Stars and
Stripes, hoisted at Shimoda by Harris on September 4, 1856; that Harris was the
first accredited diplomatic agent from a foreign country to Japan; that he also
had the honor of the first audience of a foreign representative with the Shōgun,
then supposed to be the Emperor; and that he negotiated the first treaty of trade
and commerce.
 III. Period of Civil Commotions (1858-1868).

CHRONOLOGY.

1859.Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate opened.

First Christian missionaries.
1860.Assassination of Ii, Prime Minister of the Shōgun.
1861.Frequent attacks on foreigners.
1862.First foreign embassy. Richardson affair.
1863.Bombardment of Kagoshima.
1864.Bombardment of Shimonoseki.
1865.Imperial sanction of treaties. Tariff convention.
1866.Shōgun Iyemochi died; succeeded by Keiki.
1867.Emperor Kōmei died; succeeded by Mutsuhito.
Keiki resigned. Reorganization of the Government.
1868.Restoration, or Revolution.
This era has been so named because it was marked by commotions, not
merely between different factions among the Japanese, but also between
Japanese and foreigners. The anti-foreign spirit that manifested itself in
numerous assaults and conspiracies was so involved with internal dissensions
that it is quite difficult to distinguish them. The assassination of Ii, the Shōgun’s
Prime Minister, who had the courage and the foresight to sign the treaties, was
the natural sequence of the opening of three ports to foreign commerce. The
conservative spirit, moreover, was still so strong that the Shōgun had to send an
embassy, the first one ever sent abroad officially by Japan, to petition the treaty-
powers to permit the postponement of the opening of other ports. The murder of
Richardson, an Englishman who rudely interrupted the progress of the retinue of
the Prince of Satsuma, was the pretext for the bombardment of Kagoshima; and
the firing on an American vessel that was passing through the Straits of
Shimonoseki was the excuse for the bombardment of Shimonoseki. About the
middle of this period the Imperial sanction of the treaties was obtained, and a
tariff convention was negotiated.
The civil dissensions, however, continued; the great clan of Chōshiu became
engaged in actual warfare against the Shōgun’s troops in Kyōto and were
proclaimed “rebels,” against whom an Imperial army was despatched; the young
Shōgun, Iyemochi, died and was succeeded by Keiki; and the Emperor Kōmei
also died and was succeeded by his young son, Mutsuhito, the present Emperor.
Finally, the new Shōgun, observing the drift of political affairs and the need of
the times for a more centralized and unified administration, resigned his
position; and the system of government was re-formed with the Emperor in
direct control. The new Emperor declared in a manifesto: “Henceforward we
shall exercise supreme authority, both in the internal and [the] external affairs of
the country. Consequently the title of Emperor should be substituted for that of
Tycoon [Shōgun], which has hitherto been employed in the treaties.” Of this
manifesto, one writer says: “Appended were the seal of Dai Nippon, and the
signature, Mutsuhito, this being the first occasion in Japanese history on which
the name of an Emperor had appeared during his lifetime.”86
But the effect of the reorganization of the government seemed to the adherents
of the former Shōgun to work so much injustice to them that they rose in arms
against the Sat-Chō [Satsuma-Chōshiu] combination which was then influential
at court. This led, in 1867, to a civil war, which, after a severe struggle,
culminated in 1868 in the complete triumph of the Imperialists. This event is
what is called by some “the Restoration,” and by others “the Revolution.” This
was, in fact, the climax of all the civil commotions of the period; the anti-foreign
spirit and policy were only secondary to the prime purpose of overthrowing the
usurpation of the Tokugawa Shōgunate and restoring the one legal Emperor to
his lawful authority. And thus fell, not only the Tokugawa Dynasty, as had fallen
other dynasties, of Shōguns, but also the whole system of a Shōgunate; and thus
the Emperor of Japan became, not ruler in name and fame only, but sovereign in
act and fact. From 1868 to the middle of 1912 Mutsuhito was Emperor both de
jure and de facto.
 IV. Period of Reconstruction (1868-1878).

CHRONOLOGY.

1868.Opening of Hyōgo (Kōbe) and Ōsaka.

Emperor’s audience of foreign ministers.
Yedo named Tōkyō and made capital.
1869.Opening of Yedo and Niigata.
The “Charter Oath” of Japan.
1870.Light-houses, telegraphs.
1871.Postal system, mint, and dock.
Feudalism abolished.
Eta and hinin (outcasts) admitted to citizenship.
Colonization in Yezo [Hokkaidō].
1872.First railway, newspaper, church, and Missionary Conference.
Imperial University in Tōkyō.
Iwakura Embassy to America and Europe.
1873.Adoption of Gregorian calendar.
Removal of anti-Christian edicts. Empress gave audience to foreign ladies.
1874.Saga Rebellion. Formosan Expedition.
1875.Assembly of Governors. Senate.
Sakhalin traded off for Kurile Islands.
1876.Treaty with Korea.
1877.Satsuma Rebellion.
First National Exhibition in Tōkyō.
1878.Bimetallism.
Promise to establish Prefectural Assemblies.
This period was one of laying the foundations of a New Japan, to be
constructed out of the old, and was one of such kaleidoscopic changes and
marvellous transformations in society, business, and administration that it is
almost blinding to the eye to attempt to watch the work of reconstruction. There
were abortive but costly attempts, like the Saga and the Satsuma rebellions, to
check the progressive policy. It was the great period of “firsts,” of beginnings:
the first audiences of foreign ministers by the Emperor and of foreign ladies by
the Empress; the first telegraph, mint, dock, railroad, postal system, newspaper,
exhibition, church, etc.; an assembly of provincial governors to confer together
upon general policy, and a Senate.
The “Charter Oath” of Japan was not obtained by coercion, but voluntarily
taken: it is such an important document that at least a summary may be given:87
—
“1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be decided by public opinion.
“2. The principles of social and political economics should be diligently studied by both the superior and
[the] inferior classes of our people.
“3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in carrying out his will for all good
purposes.
“4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be disregarded, and the impartiality and justice
displayed in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis of action.
“5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the world for the purpose of firmly
establishing the foundations of the empire.”

Two years later feudalism was abolished by the following laconic decree:
“The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in their places.” In the
same year the outcast eta and hi-nin (not-human) were recognized as common
people. Then followed the despatch of the Iwakura Embassy to America and
Europe, where, although they failed in their prime purpose of securing a revision
of the treaties on more nearly equal terms, they learned most valuable lessons.
Two immediate results thereof were seen in the removal of the anti-Christian
edicts and the adoption of the Gregorian, or Christian, calendar. And finally
came the promise to establish prefectural assemblies as training schools in local
self-government.
 V. Period of Internal Development (1879-1889).

CHRONOLOGY.

1879.Annexation of the Loo Choo Islands.

Visit of General U. S. Grant.
1880.Promulgation of Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure.
Establishment of prefectural assemblies.
1881.Announcement of Constitutional Government.
1882.Organization of political parties.
Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginkō).
1883.Missionary Conference, Ōsaka.
1884.New orders of nobility in European fashion.
English introduced into school curricula.
1885.Japan Mail Steamship Company (Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha).
Cabinet reconstruction, known as “The Great Earthquake” (political).
1886.Dissatisfaction of Radicals.
1887.“Peace Preservation Act.”
1888.Establishment of Privy Council.
Eruption of Mount Bandai.
1889.Promulgation of the Constitution (February 11).
Establishment of local self-government.
Prince Haru proclaimed Crown Prince.
This period is not marked, perhaps, by so many unusual events as the
preceding one; but it was a period of rapid, though somewhat quiet, internal
development. We note in financial affairs the organization of the Bank of Japan,
which has ever since been a most important agent in maintaining an economic
equilibrium; in business circles the organization of the Japan Mail Steamship
Company, which has been instrumental in expanding Japanese trade and
commerce; in society the reorganization of the nobility; and in legal matters the
promulgation of new codes. Several political events are noted in the chronology;
but they were mostly preparatory to the next period. The promise to establish
prefectural assemblies was fulfilled, and these became preparatory schools in
political science; and another promise, that of a constitution, was made. The
Cabinet was reconstructed, and political parties were organized. The Radicals,
however, became dissatisfied with the slowness of political progress, and made
such an agitation that, in 1887, many were expelled from Tōkyō by the so-called
“Peace Preservation Act,” and those who refused to obey were imprisoned. But
finally, in 1889, as the climax of the internal development and political
preparations, came the establishment of local self-government and the
promulgation of the Constitution, which ushered in the next period.
 VI. Period of Constitutional Government (1889-1900).

CHRONOLOGY.

1889. Anti-foreign reaction.

1890. First National Election. First Imperial Diet.
Promulgation of Civil and Commercial Codes.
1891. Attack on the Czarowitz, now Emperor of Russia.
Gifu earthquake.
1892. Dispute between the two Houses of Diet.
1893. Dispute between the Diet and the Government.
1894. War with China.
1895. War with China. Acquisition of Formosa.
1896. Alliance between the Government and Liberals.
Tidal wave on northeastern coast of main island.
1897. Revised tariff. Gold standard.
Freedom of press and public meeting.
1898. Revised Civil Code. First “Party Cabinet.”
1899. New treaties on terms of equality—Japan wide open.
1900. Wedding of Crown Prince Haru.
Extension of electoral franchise.
War with China—Japan allied with Christendom.
General Missionary Conference, Tōkyō.
This period included wars and other calamities, but also some very fortunate
events. It opened, strange to say, with the “anti-foreign reaction” at its height.
This reaction was the natural result of the rapid Occidentalizing that had been
going on, and was strengthened by the refusal of Western nations to revise the
treaties which kept Japan in thraldom. But the period closed with “treaty
revision” accomplished, and Japan admitted, on terms of equality, to alliance
with Western nations.88 And in quelling the “Boxer” disturbances in China and
particularly in raising the Siege of Peking, Japan played a most important part.
This period was chiefly occupied with the experimental stage in constitutional
government, when the relations between the two Houses of the Diet, between the
Diet and the Cabinet, between the Cabinet and political parties, were being
defined. This was also the period during which new civil, commercial, and
criminal codes were put into operation; the gold standard was adopted; the
restrictions on the freedom of the press and of public meeting were almost
entirely removed; the tariff was revised in the interests of Japan; and the
electoral franchise in elections for members of the House of Representatives was
largely extended.
It has already been suggested that the very order of these periods indicates in
general the progress of Japan during those hundred years. The century dawns,
nay, even the second half of the century opens, with Japan in seclusion. But
Commodore Perry breaks down that isolation; and Japan enters, first merely into
amity, but afterwards into commercial intercourse, with foreign nations. The
break up of the old foreign policy accelerates the break up of the old national
policy of government, and civil commotions culminate in the restoration of the
Emperor to his lawful authority. Japan is then reconstructed on new lines; and a
tremendous internal development prepares the Japanese to be admitted by their
generous Emperor into a share of his inherited prerogatives. And the century sets
with Japan among the great nations of Christendom, and with the Japanese
enjoying a constitutional government, representative institutions, local self-
government, freedom of the press and of public meeting, and religious liberty. If
this is the record of Nineteenth Century Japan, what of Twentieth Century
Japan?
 STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
PRINCE SANJŌ AND COUNT KATSU
It certainly has a good start, in formal alliance with Great Britain to maintain
peace and justice in the Far East.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The same as the preceding chapter, with the addition of “The Intercourse between the United States and
Japan” (Nitobe); “Matthew Calbraith Perry,” “Townsend Harris,” and “Verbeck of Japan” (all by Griffis);
“Advance Japan” (Morris); and Perry’s Expedition (official report).
On the early history of New Japan there are many valuable works by Alcock, Black, Dickson, Dixon (W.
G.), House, Lanman, Mounsey, Mossman, and others. See also Satow’s translation of “Kinse Shiriaku.” On
the war with China (1894, 1895), see “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada); and on the lessons and results
of that war, see “The New Far East” (Diosy). “The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura), “The White Peril in the
Far East” (Gulick), and “Young Japan” (Scherer) trace thoughtfully the development of New Japan. “Dai
Nippon” (Dyer), chaps, ii. and iv., may be read with profit. “The Progress of Japan, 1853-1871” (Gubbins),
covers thoroughly part of this period.
 CHAPTER IX

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : The “Charter Oath” of Japan; popular agitation; promise of a national assembly; a
red-letter year; the “Magna Charta” of Japan; Imperial prerogatives; personality of Emperor and Empress;
Crown Prince and Princess; Imperial grandchildren; Privy Council; Imperial Cabinet; Departments of State;
sundry comments; House of Peers; House of Commons; some “firsts”; rights and duties of subjects;
criticisms of Japanese politics; popular rights; personnel of two Houses; cabinet responsibility; political
parties; persons and principles; constitutional system satisfactory.—Bibliography.

WHEN the Revolution, or Restoration, of 1868 ended the usurpation, and

overthrew the despotism of the Shōgun, the young Emperor, Mutsuhito, restored
to his ancestral rights as the actual sole ruler of the empire, took solemn oath that
“a deliberative assembly should be formed; all measures be decided by public
opinion; the uncivilized customs of former times should be broken through; the
impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis
of action; and that intellect and learning should be sought for throughout the
world, in order to establish the foundations of the empire.” In that same year an
assembly of representatives of the clans was called to meet in the capital, and
was given the title of Shūgi-in (House of Commons). It consisted of samurai
(knights) from each clan; and as they were appointed by each daimyō (prince),
the body was a purely feudal, and not at all a popular, assembly. In 1871
feudalism was abolished, and later a senate was established; but that was an
advisory body, consisting of officials appointed by the Emperor and without
legislative power. In 1875 the Emperor convoked a council of the officers of the
provincial governments with a purpose stated as follows: “We also call a council
of the officials of our provinces, so that the feelings of the people may be made
known and the public welfare attained. By these means we shall gradually confer
upon the nation a constitutional form of government. The provincial officials are
summoned as the representatives of the people in the various provinces, that they
may express their opinion on behalf of the people.”
But a body so constituted and rather conservative could not satisfy the
demands of the new age. Itagaki (now Count) insisted that the government
should “guarantee the establishment of a popular assembly,” and organized
societies, or associations, for popular agitation of the subject. Petitions and
memorials poured in upon the government, within whose circles Ōkuma (now
Count), Minister of Finance, was most active in the same direction. In the mean
time (1878) provincial assemblies, the members of which were chosen by
popular election, had been established as a preparatory measure.
It was on October 12, 1881, that the Emperor issued his memorable
proclamation that a National Assembly should be opened in 1890. That
proclamation read as follows:—
“We therefore hereby declare that we shall, in the 23rd year of Meiji, establish a Parliament, in order to
carry into full effect the determination we have announced, and we charge our faithful subjects bearing our
commissions to make, in the mean time, all necessary preparations to that end. With regard to the
limitations upon the Imperial prerogative, and the constitution of the Parliament, we shall decide hereafter,
and shall make proclamation in due time.”

From that time on there was progress, “steadily, if slowly, in the direction of
greater decentralization and broader popular prerogative.”
The year 1889 was a red-letter year in the calendar of Japan’s political
progress. On February 11 was promulgated that famous document89 which took
Japan forever out of the ranks of Oriental despotisms and placed her among
constitutional monarchies; and on April 1 the law of local self-government for
city, town, and village went into effect.
The Japanese Constitution has very appropriately been called “the Magna
Charta of Japanese liberty.” It was not, however, like the famous English
document, extorted by force from an unwilling monarch and a cruel tyrant, but
was voluntarily granted by a kind and loved ruler at the expense of his inherited
and long-established rights. The present Emperor holds the throne according to
the native tradition, perpetuated even in the language of the Constitution, by
virtue of a “lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal.” But even though rigid
criticism compels us to reject as more or less mythological the so-called
“history” of about 1,000 years; and although Yoshihito, therefore, may not be
really the 123d ruler of the line from the Japanese Romulus (Jimmu),
nevertheless he remains the representative of the oldest living dynasty in the
world. If, then, time is a factor in confirming the claims and rights of a ruler, no
king or emperor of the present day has a better title. And his father, born and
bred in the atmosphere of Oriental absolutism and despotism, “in consideration
of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs, and in parallel with
the advance of civilization,”90 voluntarily and generously admitted his people to
a share in the administration of public affairs.
That important document, which signed away such strongly acquired and
inherited prerogatives, at the outset, however, seems far from generous. The
Emperor, “sacred and inviolate,” is “the head of the empire,” combining in
himself the rights of sovereignty; but he “exercises them according to the
provisions of the Constitution.” It is only “in consequence of an urgent necessity
to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities,” that the Emperor, “when
the Imperial Diet is not sitting,” may issue “Imperial Ordinances in place of
law.” But these ordinances must be approved by the Imperial Diet at its next
session, or become “invalid for the future.” To the Emperor is reserved the
function of issuing ordinances necessary for carrying out the laws passed by the
Diet or for the maintenance of public peace and order; but “no Ordinance shall in
any way alter any of the existing laws.” The Emperor also determines the
organization of the various branches of the government, appoints and dismisses
all officials, and fixes their salaries. Moreover, he has “the supreme command of
the army and navy,” whose organization and peace standing he determines;
“declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties”; “confers titles of nobility,
rank, orders, and other marks of honor”; and “orders amnesty, pardon,
commutation of punishments and rehabilitation.”
Now it must be quite evident to the most casual reader that, in carrying out
this Constitution, patterned after that of Germany, much depends upon the
Emperor and his personality. One, like Kōmei (the father of the recent Emperor),
bigoted and intent upon resisting any infringement, to the slightest degree, upon
his “divine rights,” could create a great deal of friction in the administration of
affairs. But, fortunately for Japan and the world, Mutsuhito was not at all
inclined to be narrow-minded, selfish, and despotic, but was graciously pleased
to be the leader of his subjects in broader and better paths. And although the
Empress had no share in the administration and wisely kept “out of politics,” her
popularity enhanced the interest felt in the reign recently closed.91
It is, moreover, fortunate for Japan that the new Emperor, Yoshihito, is also a
man of most liberal ideas and progressive tendencies. He has had a broad
education, by both public and private instruction, and a careful training for the
career that lies before him; and he will undoubtedly be found ready to extend
popular privileges just so far as conditions warrant. Seated on the ancestral
throne, he is the first Japanese Emperor who has received any education in
public; for it was in the Gakushūin—or Nobles’ School, as it is called in English
—that he completed the elementary course.92 After that, on account of poor
health, he was compelled to pursue his studies under private tutors.
And that the Imperial line will, in all human probability, remain “unbroken”
for many years, is rendered likely by the fact that the Emperor and the Empress
Sada have been blessed with three healthy sons, Princes Michi, Atsu, and Teru,
who are being brought up by professional “tutors,” Count and Countess
Kawamura, away from court life, with such care as the needs of said Imperial
line demand.
But, to return from this digression to the subject of the Constitution, another
body recognized by that document is the Privy Council (Sumitsu-In), appointed
by the Emperor and consulted by him upon certain matters of State. It consists of
1 President, 1 Vice-President, 25 Councillors, and 1 Secretary, with 5 assistants;
and it is composed of “personages who have rendered signal service to the State
and who are distinguished for their experience,” such as ex-Ministers of State
and others, whose “valuable advice on matters of State” would naturally be
sought. The matters coming within the cognizance of the Privy Council are
specified as follows: Matters which come under its jurisdiction by the Law of the
Houses (of Parliament); drafts and doubtful points relating to articles of the
Constitution, and to laws and ordinances dependent to the Constitution;
proclamation of the law of siege and certain Imperial ordinances; international
treaties; and matters specially called for. The Ministers of State are, ex officio,
members of the Privy Council; but although it is “the Emperor’s highest resort of
counsel, it shall not interfere with the Executive.”
The Cabinet includes the holders of 10 portfolios: those of the Minister
President, or Premier; the Minister of Foreign Affairs; the Minister of Home
Affairs; the Minister of Finance; the Minister of the Army, or War; the Minister
of the Navy; the Minister of Justice; the Minister of Education; the Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce; and the Minister of Communications. There is one
other official who holds the title of Minister, but is not a member of the Cabinet,
that is, the Minister of the Imperial Household. When the Cabinet is fully
organized, it contains 10 members; but occasionally circumstances compel the
Premier or some other Minister to hold an extra portfolio, at least temporarily.
Each department of state has its own subordinate officials, most of whom hold
office under civil-service rules and are not removable.
The titles of the departments are mostly self-explanatory, and correspond in
general to similar departments in Occidental countries; but in some cases there
are vital differences, especially in comparison with the United States Cabinet. In
a paternal government, like that of Japan, the Minister of Home Affairs holds a
much more important position than our Secretary of the Interior, for he has the
general oversight of the police system and the prefectural governments; the
Minister of Justice holds a broader position than our Attorney-General; and the
Minister of Communications has the oversight, not of the postal system only, but
also of telegraphs, telephones, railways, and other modes of conveyance and
communication. In general, as will be observed, the Japanese Government owns
many institutions which, in our country, are entrusted to private enterprise.
The Premier receives a salary of 9,600 yen, and other ministers receive 6,000
yen, besides official residence and sundry allowances. In most cases the real
work of each department is performed by the subordinate officials, while the
frequently changing93 Ministers of State are only nominal heads of the
departments. The two portfolios of the Army and the Navy, however, have been
taken out of politics, and are not subject to change whenever a ministry goes out
of office. Ministers of State, as well as governmental delegates, specially
appointed for the purpose, “may, at any time, take seats and speak in either
House” of the Imperial Diet.
The Imperial Diet of Japan consists of two Houses, the House of Peers and the
House of Commons. The membership of the former comprises three classes,—
hereditary, elective, and appointive.94 The members of the Imperial Family and
of the orders of Princes and Marquises possess the hereditary tenure. From
among those persons who have the titles of Count, Baron, and Viscount a certain
number are chosen by election, for a term of seven years. The Emperor has the
power of appointing for life membership a limited number of persons, deserving
on account of meritorious services to the State or of erudition. Finally, in each
Fu and Ken one member is elected from and among the highest tax-payers and
appointed by the Emperor, for a term of seven years.
The members of the House of Commons are always elected by ballot in
accordance with the Election Law, by which they now number 379. Their term
of office is four years, unless they lose their seats by dissolution of the Diet, as
has often happened. “Those [persons] alone shall be eligible [as candidates], that
are male Japanese subjects, of not less than full thirty years of age, and that in
the Fu or Ken in which they desire to be elected, have been paying direct
national taxes to an amount of not less than 15 yen, for a period of not less than
one year previous to the date of making out the electoral list, and that are still
paying that amount of direct national taxes.”95 Certain officials, as well as
military and naval officers, are ineligible. A voter must be full twenty-five years
of age; must have actually resided in that Fu or Ken for one year; and must have
been paying direct national taxes of not less than 10 yen. The limits of an
electoral district include a whole Fu or Ken, except that an incorporated city
(Shi) forms one or more districts by itself. And the number of the latter kind of
districts has been increased lately, so that urban populations might have a more
adequate representation. The plan of unsigned uni-nominal ballots is employed.
The present number of eligible voters is a little over one million.
 DEPARTMENTS OF STATE: NAVY; AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE;
JUSTICE; FOREIGN AFFAIRS
The first election under the Constitution took place (whether designedly or
accidentally, I know not), by a curious coincidence, on July 4, 1890; and the first
session of the Imperial Diet opened on November 29, 1890. On December 2 the
House of Peers received the first bill ever presented to a National Assembly in
Japan; and on December 4 the first Budget (for 1891) was laid before the House
of Representatives by Count Matsukata, Minister of Finance.
Some notice must be taken of the rights and duties of subjects under the
Japanese Constitution. All such persons are eligible to civil and military offices;
amenable to service in the army and the navy, and the duty of paying taxes,
according to law; have the liberty of abode, inviolate right of property, right of
trial by law, and freedom of speech, writing, publication, public meeting,
association, and religious belief, “within the limits of law”; cannot be arrested,
detained, tried, or punished, “unless according to law,” and can claim inviolate
secrecy of correspondence. Moreover, “the house of no Japanese subject shall be
entered or searched without his consent,” except in due process of law. All
subjects may also present petitions, “by observing the proper forms of respect.”
The freedom of religious belief is granted “within limits not prejudicial to peace
and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects.” These “rights” are old
to Anglo-Saxons, but new to Japanese.
Now we often see and hear rather uncomplimentary statements about the
Imperial Diet, political parties, cabinet ministers, and Japanese political affairs in
general, and are even told that Japan is only “playing” with parliamentary and
representative institutions, that her popular assemblies are mere “toys,” her
constitutional government is all a “farce,” and her new civilization is nothing but
a “bib.” Such criticisms, however, result either from ignorance or from a wrong
point of view. It is undeniably true that, viewed from the vantage-ground
attained by popular institutions and constitutional government in many
Occidental nations, Japan is still lagging behind. It is not fair, however, to judge
her by our own standards; the only just way is to estimate carefully the exact
difference between her former and her present conditions. This the author has
tried to do elsewhere in a pamphlet96 on “Constitutional Government in Japan,”
in which he has given a sketch of the workings of the Japanese Constitution
during the first decade, or period, of its history. From that he quotes the
following conclusions:—
 The progress made during the first decade of constitutional government in
Japan was considerable. In the first place, popular rights were largely expanded
by the removal of most of the restrictions on freedom of the press and public
meeting; as much extension of the electoral franchise as seems warranted was
accomplished; and public opinion, as voiced in the newspapers and magazines,
was wielding an increased and constantly increasing influence. On this point the
“Japan Times” says: “No one who goes into the country and compares the
present degree of the people’s political education with what it was ten years ago,
can fail to be struck by the immense progress achieved during that interval.”
In the second place, the character of the two Houses of the Imperial Diet has
greatly improved. The inexperienced have given way to the experienced, the
ignorant to the intelligent; so that, after six elections, the personnel of the House
of Representatives is of a much better quality, and the House of Peers has been
quickened by the infusion of new blood. Experience, as usual, has been a good
teacher.
In the third place, the Cabinet, theoretically responsible to the Emperor
because appointed by him on his own sole authority, is practically responsible to
the Imperial Diet and must command the support of a majority of that body.
Hereafter it would seem that dissolution of the Diet is not likely to occur as often
as dissolution of the Cabinet.
The one weak point in this situation is that, although the principle of party
cabinets is thus established, its practical application is difficult of realization,
simply because there are no true political parties in Japan. There are many so-
called “parties,” which are really only factions, bound together by personal,
class, geographical, or mercantile ties, and without distinctive principles. One
“party” is actually Count Ōkuma’s following; another is Count Itagaki’s; another
is called “the business men’s party”; another is composed of politicians of the
Northeast; and another tries to maintain the old clan alliances; so in 1913 Prince
Katsura assumed leadership of a new progressive party.97
But it is, nevertheless, true that “Japan is at length passing out of the epoch of
persons and entering the era of principles,” when, of course, will speedily come
the development of parties. It is not, perhaps, strange that the personality of the
great statesmen who made New Japan possible has been felt for so long a time,
nor that the able men of the rising generation have begun to chafe a little under
the prolonged control of those older statesmen. But, as the “Japan Times” says,
“the conflict between the old and the new elements of political power, the so-
called clan statesmen and the party politicians, has been so far removed that the
time is already in sight when the country will see them working harmoniously
under the same banner and with the same platform.” Such was apparently the
case in the Seiyukwai, Marquis Itō’s new party, organized in 1900, the closing
year of the first decade of Japanese constitutionalism. And this problem of
political parties is the great one to be solved in the second period of
constitutional government in Japan.
We may, therefore, conclude that the working of the new system of
government has, on the whole, been satisfactory. We must acknowledge, with the
“Japan Mail,” that “it would be altogether extravagant to expect that Japan’s new
constitutional garments should fit her perfectly from the first. They are too large
for her. She has to grow into them, and of course the process is destined to be
more or less awkward.” We must agree with Prince Itō, the author of the
Constitution, not only that there has been the experimental period, but also that
“excellent results have thus far been obtained, when it is remembered how
sudden has been the transition from feudalism to representative institutions.” We
ought, indeed, to bear in mind, that, when the Constitution was promulgated,
Japan was only eighteen years out of feudalism and twenty-one years out of
military despotism; so that, by both the Oriental and the Occidental reckoning,
New Japan had only just come “of age” politically. She seems, therefore,
deserving of the greatest credit for the progress of the first decade of
constitutionalism.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Story of Japan” (Murray), “Advance Japan” (Morris), and “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), give
some information here and there about the government of Japan. But especially helpful are Wigmore’s
articles in the “Nation” and “Scribner’s Monthly,” Iyenaga’s “Constitutional Development of Japan,”
Knapp’s “Feudal and Modern Japan,” Count (now Marquis) Itō’s “Commentaries on the Constitution of the
Empire of Japan,” and Lay’s “History of Japanese Political Parties” (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan,
vol. xxx. part iii.). See also “The Political Ideas of Modern Japan” (Kawakami), and “Dai Nippon” (Dyer),
chaps. xiii. and xiv. Uycharu’s “Political Development of Japan (1867-1909)” is the latest and best.
 CHAPTER X

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Local government under feudalism; periods of modern local self-government;
gradual development therein; prefectural assemblies; candidates and electors; standing committee; sessions;
business; speaking; petitions; how bills become laws; powers of prefectural assemblies, theoretical and
practical; residents and citizens of cities, towns, and villages; rights and duties of citizens; administration in
city, town, and village; city council; town and village officials; city assembly; assemblymen; powers of city
assembly; town or village assembly; special provisions for towns and villages; administration of territories;
pacification of Formosa; colonial government; policy in Formosa; political progress in Japan.—
Bibliography.

WE have already noted incidentally in preceding chapters some of the steps in

the development of local self-government in Japan; and now we must treat that
subject more particularly. First it is well to observe in passing that the steps from
feudalism to local self-government were not so difficult as might be imagined;
for under the feudal system local government by clans had prevailed.98 And yet
when feudalism was abolished, the reconstruction of local government was
entered upon slowly and cautiously in order to minimize jealousies and other
obstacles.
Wigmore, in his articles99 on this subject, divides the period from 1867 to
1889 into two parts (1867-1878 and 1878-1889), and explains as follows: “The
former was occupied with testing the capacity of the people for self-government;
the latter with extending to them a larger and larger measure of power, and in
advancing towards a proper degree of decentralization.” As he wrote in 1890, he
was just at the beginning of the third period, what he himself calls “a new
period,” during which local self-government, under the new constitutional
régime, was to be still further expanded in the line of popular privileges.
After the Shōgunate fell, but before feudalism was formally abolished, that is,
from 1867 to 1871, the chiefs of the clans were allowed to continue their
administration of local affairs under the title of chi-hanji (local governor). But
when feudalism was formally abolished in 1871, these feudal lords were retired
on annuities; their fiefs (263 in number) were incorporated, regardless of former
geographical and feudal boundaries, and with regard for convenience of
administration by the central government, into 72 Ken and 3 Fu; and outsiders
were largely appointed to the position of governor in these new local
governments. The first attempts on the part of the central government to consult
local public opinion were by means of meetings of the local officials; but the
people were gradually allowed, in rather an informal and limited way, to have a
voice in certain matters. In 1878, however, as we have seen, prefectural
assemblies, the members of which should be chosen by popular election, were
established; and just ten years later a law extending local self-government to
cities, towns, and villages was enacted, to go into effect in 1889. And these two
agencies of local self-government in Japan are worthy of a little study.
The Japanese Kenkwai and Fukwai correspond, in general, with an American
State legislature, but differ in many respects, because they are part of a
centralized national administration. They are “to counsel about the budget of
expenses to be met by local taxation, and about the manner of collecting such
taxes.” The members are elected in each Ken or Fu according to the population,
at the rate of 1 member for each 20,000 people. Each electoral district may also
elect yobi-in (reserve members), twice the number of regular members. As their
name indicates, they are to take the places of regular members who may for any
reason be unable to serve. It is, therefore, unlikely that there would ever be a
vacancy to be filled by a special election; for each member has two “substitutes”
ready to step into his vacant place! The term of service covers 4 years; but half
of the members retire every 2 years. Each member receives an emolument of 1
yen per diem during the session, and travelling expenses.
A candidate for representative in a prefectural assembly must be over 25 years
of age, a permanent resident of that Ken or Fu, and be paying an annual land-tax
of more than 10 yen. Voters in such an election must be over 20 years of age,
permanent residents of that Ken or Fu, and be paying annual land-taxes of more
than 5 yen. There are about 2,000,000 voters in all.
From among the members, the assembly elects a “standing committee of from
five to seven persons,” who serve for a period of two years. They remain in the
capital throughout the year, to give advice when the Governor asks it about the
manner and order of carrying out the enactments of the assembly and about the
payment of extraordinary expense. A member of this committee receives “from
30 yen to 80 yen per month, and travelling expenses.”
The ordinary annual session of an assembly opens some time in November
and continues for not more than 30 days. But the Governor has power to call a
special session and to suspend an assembly; while the power to prorogue an
assembly rests with the Minister of State for Home Affairs.
Each session of an assembly is formally “opened” by the Governor; and the
business to come before the assembly is presented in bills originating with him
and his subordinates. At any time, when a member of the assembly wishes
explanations concerning any matter within the purview of the assembly, the
Governor or his representative must explain. In fact, such officials may speak at
any time, provided they do not interrupt the speech of a member; but they have
no vote.
 NAVAL LEADERS OF JAPAN
ADMIRAL ENOMOTO
ADMIRAL KABAYAMA
When a member wishes to address the assembly, he rises, calls out “Gichō”
(Chairman), and gives the number of his seat. When the chairman has
recognized him by repeating that number, he “has the floor.”100
If other matters, besides those included in the “original bill(s)” of the
Governor, seem to at least two members to warrant discussion, they present these
matters in the form of petitions; and if the assembly grants permission, these
petitions may be discussed, like bills.
No bill becomes a law until it has been signed by the Governor. If the latter
does not agree with a bill, he may appeal to the Department of Home Affairs,
where it will be finally decided.
If we now endeavor to measure the extent and limitations of the power of a
Japanese prefectural assembly, we may say that in theory a Kenkwai or a Fukwai
is by no means entirely independent of the central government, nor does it
possess absolute control of the matters of its own Ken or Fu. It will be noticed
that in all cases the final ratification or decision rests with the Governor or the
Department of Home Affairs. The latter also has the power in its own hands of
suspending an assembly at its discretion. It would seem, then, that theoretically a
Fukwai or a Kenkwai is pretty much under the control of the central government,
and has very little real power of its own. Its nature appears more like that of an
elective advisory board than of a legislative body.
But, in practice and in fact, a wise Governor, though he is an appointive
officer of the central government, does not often put himself in opposition to
public opinion, unless it be a case of the greatest importance; and the
Department of Home Affairs is loath to exercise authority unless it is absolutely
necessary. The central government holds the power to control these assemblies if
it should be necessary; but it also respects public opinion, and allows local self-
government as far as possible.101
The extension of local self-government to cities, towns, and villages (shi, chō,
and son) led to the introduction into the Japanese language of several special
terms, like jūmin (resident) and kōmin (citizen), and to a careful distinction
between the respective rights and duties of the two. The “residents” of a city
[town or village] include “all those who have their residence in the city [town or
village], without distinction of sex, age, color, nationality, or condition in life.” A
“citizen,” however, must be “an independent male person,” that is, one who has
completed his twenty-fifth year and has a household; he must be “a subject of
the empire and in the enjoyment of his civil rights”; and for two years he must
have been a resident of the given local division, must have contributed toward its
common burdens, and must have paid therein a “national land-tax of 2 or more
yen in other direct national taxes.” The rights of a citizen over and above his
rights as a resident are simply but comprehensively stated. They consist in the
privilege of voting in the local elections, and of eligibility to the honorary
offices. There is, however, a slight qualification of this seemingly universal
citizen suffrage. Those whose citizenship, for reasons to be given later, is
suspended, and “those who are in actual military or naval service,” are
disfranchised. Companies, however, and “other juristic persons” are entitled to
the suffrage on similar conditions with individuals.102
But when we come to consider the duties of a citizen, we find peculiar
conditions. The citizen of a Japanese city, town, or village, is under obligation to
fill any honorary office to which he may be elected or appointed; and except for
certain specified reasons he cannot decline official service without being
“subjected to suspension of citizenship for from three to six years, together with
an additional levy, during the same period, of from one-eighth to one-quarter
more than his ordinary share of contribution to the city expenditure.” Here is
compulsory “public spirit”! On the whole, citizenship seems to be regarded more
as a duty than as a privilege; and the citizens best qualified to fill official
positions of trust would find it much more difficult than in America to “keep out
of politics.”
The administration of local affairs in city, town, or village is more or less
centralized. In the cities the origination and the administration of the local laws
devolves upon a “city council”; and in the towns and the villages, upon certain
chiefs and their deputies.
A city council consists of a mayor, his deputy, and a certain number of
honorary councilmen. The mayor is appointed directly by the Emperor from
among three candidates previously selected by the city assembly, a body to be
described later. The deputy-mayor and councilmen are elected by the city
assembly. The councilmen hold office for four years, but half of them retire
every two years. In the case of a very large city it is permissible to divide the city
into Ku (wards), each with its own chief and deputy and even council and
assembly. The functions of a city council include the preparation of business for
the city assembly and the execution of the decisions of the assembly; the
administration of the city revenue, and the carrying out of the budget voted by
the assembly; and general superintendence of city affairs.
In towns or villages these duties devolve upon the mayors and deputies, who
are elected by the town or village assembly from among the local citizens.
The city assembly, already mentioned, is a popular representative body. The
number of members varies, in proportion to the population, from thirty to sixty;
and the membership is divided into three classes, elected by three classes of
voters, according to the amount of taxes paid by the electors to the city. The
object of this division, copied from the Prussian system of local government,
seems to be to give the highest tax-payers a power and a representation greater
than what they might secure by mere proportion of numbers.103
The assemblymen hold office for six years, are eligible for re-election, and,
like the councilmen, draw no salary, but receive “compensation for the actual
expenses needed for the discharge of their duties.” The assemblymen go out in
rotation every two years.
The principal matters to be decided by the city assembly, besides the election
of certain city officials by secret ballot, are as follows: the making and altering
of city by-laws and regulations; the voting of the budget and all matters
involving expense; the modes of imposing and collecting all kinds of taxes; the
incurring of a new liability or the relinquishment of an acquired right; the modes
of management of city property and establishments; etc.
The constitution of a town or village assembly is also based upon the
population, according to a fixed ratio. But in the grouping of electors according
to the amount of taxes paid, there are only two classes. The rules, powers, and
functions of a town or village assembly correspond exactly to those of the city
assembly.
There are, in the case of towns and villages, two provisions which are not
necessary in the case of cities. One provision prescribes a method by which two
or more towns or villages, by mutual agreement and with the permission of the
superintending authority, may form a union for the common administration of
affairs that are common to them. The other provision prescribes that, by a town
or village by-law, decided upon by the Gun council, “a small town or village
may substitute for the town or village assembly a general meeting of all citizens
having suffrage.” This appears to be an imitation, in theory at least, of the
Anglo-Saxon town meeting and village assembly.
 The privileges of local self-government are extended to all parts of the empire
except Hokkaidō and Formosa, which are administered as “territories” by the
central government. In Hokkaidō, moreover, a small measure of local
administration has been granted, and this will be enlarged as rapidly as possible.
But Japanese rule in Formosa is worthy of special consideration, because it is
illustrative of what Japan can do in bringing enemies under her jurisdiction into
harmony with her government. Japanese colonial government in Formosa may
be called a success.
When Formosa104 was ceded by China to Japan in 1895, it was well
understood that the Japanese had no easy task in pacifying the Chinese,
civilizing the savages, and thus bringing the beautiful isle, with its great
resources, under cultivation and proper restraint. But, by a wise combination of
military force and civil government, Japan has achieved a remarkable success.
At first, for a brief period, Formosan affairs were under a separate department
of State, that of Colonization; but when administrative economy and reform
were demanded, this department was abolished, and the Governor-General of
Formosa, appointed by the Emperor upon recommendation of the Cabinet, was
made directly responsible to the Cabinet. At first, of course, mistakes were
made, and a great deal of incapacity and corruption manifested themselves in
official circles. But, by a gradual weeding out of the incompetent and the
dishonest, the civil service has been greatly improved. Especially in dealing with
opium smoking and foot-binding among the Chinese has the Japanese
government shown remarkable tact. And it has also encouraged local
administration among the natives to the extent of employing them in subordinate
positions where they can be trained for future usefulness.
The general policy of Japan in Formosa has been stated succinctly by Count
Kabayama: “Subjugate it from one side by force of arms, and then confer on the
subjugated portion the benefits of civil government.” It is the expressed
determination to make Formosa, “body, soul, and spirit,” a part of their empire;
and reliable testimony shows that they are making a success of their labors.105
We have now noticed the chief features of local self-government as applied in
Japan to prefectures, counties, cities, towns, and villages. Although there are
many enactments against which the democratic ideas of Americans would revolt,
the system is certainly well adapted to the present needs and capabilities of
Japan. It is an interesting fact that Japan’s political institutions have been
developed, since the Restoration of 1868, from the top downward. In Japan the
people are conservative, and the government is progressive; and the people are
simply under the necessity of growing up to political privileges that are
gradually bestowed upon them. And we may feel assured that, as the people
show themselves capable of exercising power, their privileges will be gradually
extended. We should not find fault with Japan, because in only a few years she
has not leaped into the enjoyment of political privileges which the English and
American people obtained only after centuries of slow and often bloody
development; but we should congratulate Japan, because by peaceful measures
she has gradually removed herself entirely out of the pale of Oriental absolutism,
beyond even despotic Russia, and may be classed with her model, Germany.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Especially helpful are Iyenaga’s “Constitutional Development of Japan,” Wigmore’s articles in the
“Nation,” and several papers in the Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan. See also the author’s “Local Self-
Government in Japan” in the “Political Science Quarterly” for June, 1892, and “A Japanese State
Legislature” in the “Nation” for February 27, 1890. On the subject of Formosa, besides Davidson’s book
already mentioned, see chap. xiv. of Ransome’s “Japan in Transition,” pp. 167, 169, of Diosy’s “New Far
East,” and Takekoshi’s “Japanese Rule in Formosa.”
 CHAPTER XI

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Standards of world-power; conscription; draft and exemption; army; arms and
ammunition; officers of the army; navy; types of Japanese war-vessels; coal supply; “Blue-jacket Spirit”;
Japan as a sea power; growth of cosmopolitan spirit; Anglo-Japanese Alliance,—natural, guarantee of
peace, confession of England’s weakness, admission of Japan’s strength; Japan’s responsibility; meaning for
Christianity; the United States a silent partner.—Bibliography.

IT is a sad commentary on the present standards of civilization that a

consideration of Japan as a world power requires special attention to military and
naval affairs. It is rather a strange coincidence that it was not until little Japan in
1894 showed that she could easily overcome immense China that the “Great
Powers” were willing to revise their treaties with her on terms of equality and
admit her to the comity of nations. And it is another strange coincidence that it
was the Boxer troubles which gave Japan another opportunity to display the
efficiency of her military and naval organizations, and win such laurels side by
side with troops of the other “Powers,” that Great Britain, the mightiest of them
all, abandoned her time-honored policy of “splendid isolation” and sought
Japan’s assistance by means of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It is not, however,
to be imagined that Great Britain overlooked or ignored Japan’s other elements
of power; but it is quite evident that the latter’s military and naval efficiency
made a great impression on the former. Therefore it is our duty, having
considered Japan’s geographical, industrial, commercial, social, historical, and
political features, to take up now her polemic ability.
 DISTINGUISHED LAND COMMANDERS
GENERAL BARON KUROKI
GENERAL BARON OKU
GENERAL BARON NODZU
The Japanese army and navy are created and sustained, as to personnel, by a
conscription system, quite like that of Germany. Theoretically, “all males
between the full ages of 17 and 40 years, who are Japanese subjects, shall be
liable to conscription.”106 This period is, moreover, divided up as follows: (1)
Active service with the colors, for 3 years in the army and 4 years in the navy, by
those who have “attained the full age of 20 years”; so that those who are
between 17 and 20 are apparently exempt except “in time of war or other
emergency”; (2) First Reserve term, of 4 years in the army and 3 years in the
navy, “by such as have completed their service with the colors”; (3) Second
Reserve term of 5 years, “by those who have completed their service in the First
Reserves”; and (4) Service in the Territorial Army for the remaining years by
those who have completed the preceding term. But the last three services are
merely nominal, as the First and Second Reserves and the Territorial Army are
ordinarily called out only for drill once a year and are mobilized, in order, “in
time of war or of emergency.” And, by a special arrangement, the actual service
in barracks may be only 2 years.
A very thorough method of drafting carries into effect these provisions, and
would make more than 200,000 young men annually liable to service. But, as
this is a much larger number than the government could possibly care for, or
would need in times of peace, there is a “sweeping system of exemptions” that
brings the number of conscripts down within practical limits. This system takes
into account physical conditions, educational courses, individual and family
necessities, official duties, business requirements, etc. Even then the number of
those available who pass the examination is too large, so that it is reduced by lot.
Those who are finally enrolled are divided up among the various lines of service
according to physique, former occupation and attainments. “Conscripts for
active naval service shall be selected from youths belonging to the sea-coast or
insular districts.” The term of active service is computed from December 1 of
each year; so that the days just preceding or following that day are busy ones for
those who are either giving new conscripts a fine send-off or welcoming home
those whose terms have expired.
Japan is divided, for military purposes, into eighteen districts, each of which is
occupied by a division. The headquarters of these districts are located at Tōkyō,
Sendai, Nagoya, Ōsaka, Hiroshima, Kumamoto, Asahigawa, etc., etc. There is
also the Imperial Guard, with headquarters, of course, at Tōkyō: they are to be
distinguished from other soldiers by having a red instead of a yellow band
around the cap, and are “a picked corps,” who present a very fine appearance.
The war-footing of the Japanese army exceeds 500,000 men, and its peace-
footing is almost 200,000: these figures take account only of combatants. The
discipline, courage, and endurance of the Japanese army have been clearly
exhibited side by side with the troops of Occidental nations in China, and have
suffered naught by comparison. The army has been called “the most formidable
mobile land force in the Far East, indeed in the whole of Asia,” and “the best
army in the world, for its size.” And the remarkable manner in which the various
parts of the service coöperate and smoothly carry out the general plans has won
the admiration of capable critics.107
The guns for the artillery service used to be purchased abroad, but are now
chiefly manufactured in Ōsaka. There is an excellent arsenal in the Koishikawa
District of Tōkyō; it is on part of the site of the magnificent yashiki (mansion) of
the Prince of Mito, whose beautiful garden still remains a delight to all visitors.
This arsenal is where the once famous Murata rifle was formerly manufactured;
but that has been superseded by the “30th Year” (of Meiji) rifle; and both of
these are Japanese inventions. The arsenal is also turning out ammunition at the
ordinary rate of a million rounds a day.
According to the Constitution, the Emperor “has the supreme command of the
army and the navy”; and under him come the Minister of War, the actual
Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Staff, the generals and other officers and
officials in order. The Emperor is not expected to take command in person; but
often one of the Imperial Princes will act as Commander-in-Chief in the field.
There are now only two living Field-Marshals, Marquis Yamagata and Marquis
Ōyama. There are various schools for educating and training the officers of the
army and the navy.
As Japan is entirely an insular nation, the importance of her navy cannot be
over-estimated. Even before the war with China, the Japanese navy had been
rapidly growing; and it showed its marked efficiency in the battles of the Yalu
and Wei-hai-wei (1894, 1895). The post-bellum plans for expansion have,
moreover, emphasized the value to Japan of sea-power; and the programme of
naval expansion, in spite of increased burdens of taxation, has met
comparatively little opposition. For purposes of administration, the coast of
Japan is divided into five naval districts, each with one fort which is a first-class
naval station. These stations are Yokosuka, Kure, Saseho, Maizuru, and (to be
established) Muroran. The navy at present includes battleships, cruisers, ships
for coast defence, gunboats, torpedo boats, torpedo catchers, and despatch ships.
Of the first four kinds there are two or three classes in each; and of battleships
there are nine first-class ones of more than 15,000 tons each. The organization of
the navy is similar to that of the army: below the Emperor, who is nominally in
supreme command, come the Minister of the Navy, the actual Commander-in-
Chief, the Chief of Staff, the admirals, etc.
 MILITARY LEADERS OF NEW JAPAN
FIELD-MARSHAL ŌYAMA
AND
FIELD-MARSHAL YAMAGATA
Attention should be called to two or three points emphasized by Mr. Arthur
Diosy.108 The first is that “Nelson’s own plan, as valid to-day as it was in his
time,” has been carried out in the types of vessels built for the Japanese fleet.
“The main idea prevailing in their selection is the defence of the national
interests by offensive operations against the enemy’s fleets,” but “at no very
great distance from the base of operations at home.” The warships of Japan,
therefore, are not required to devote so much space to the storage of coal and
other supplies for long voyages, and can utilize more space for guns and reserve
ammunition, or can be built smaller and “handier.” It is in this way that “they are
among the swiftest of all the fighting ships afloat.”
The second point, which is related to the first, is that Japan “stands in the
foremost rank as a naval power,” not merely on account of the number and
fighting strength of her ships, the efficiency of their officers and crews, and the
perfection of the naval organization, but also on account of the well-equipped
dockyards and arsenals in convenient locations, and the abundant supply of
excellent coal in easy reach.
The third point concerns what Diosy calls the “Blue-jacket Spirit,” a “scarcely
definable something” that is hard to describe in words, but that shines forth in
every word and deed of the officer, the sailor, the marine,—the esprit de corps of
the personnel of the Japanese navy. This spirit he finds only in the British,
Japanese, and United States navies.
And we cannot refrain from quoting the same writer’s paragraph of summary
as follows:—
“Japan possesses all the elements of Sea-Power: swift, powerful ships, adapted to the work they are
intended for, numerous good harbors, excellent coal in abundance, capital facilities for the repair of her
vessels, and the necessary plant, constantly augmented and improved, for building new ones. Her naval
organization is wise and efficient, her administrative services are thorough and honest; her naval officers are
gallant, dashing, and scientifically trained, and the armament they control is of the latest and best pattern.
Strong in ships, strong in guns, Japan is stronger still in the factor without which ships and guns are useless
—‘the Man behind the Gun.’”109

Ten years ago it was improper to speak of Japan as a world power; it was then
fitting to treat of her, as Norman did in one chapter of his “Real Japan,” under
the caption of “Japan as an Eastern Power.” But, as already pointed out, it was
her overwhelming defeat of China that at least expedited her formal and nominal
recognition in the comity of nations. The new treaties which formulated this
recognition went into effect in 1899, from which date it may be eminently proper
to begin a seventh period,110 that of “Cosmopolitanism,” in the history of New
Japan. And by Japan’s successes in the second war with China arising out of the
Boxer troubles, she confirmed her claim to recognition as a world power; and
this recognition was completed through the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902.
Not many years ago the ideal was still such a narrow theme as “The Japan of the
Japanese”; then the vision widened out so as to include “The Japan of Asia”; but
now the horizon is unlimited and extends to “The Japan of the World.” Indeed,
the Japanese have outgrown “Native Japan,” and even “Asiatic Japan,” into
“Cosmopolitan Japan.” They are interested, not only in national, but also
international, problems.
It has already been pointed out that the complete recognition of Japan as a
world power was manifested in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. This is the greatest
political event of 1902,111 so far as concerns directly the future of the Orient and
indirectly the affairs of the Occident. This convention between Great Britain and
Japan caused profound surprise and widespread rejoicing, and in Japan
particularly it was the occasion for numerous feasts, even in various provincial
localities, where more or less profuse self-gratulation was the order of the day.
But it is now possible to take a calmer view of the situation and to make a more
judicial estimate of the importance of the alliance.
In the first place, it is well to remember that this formal alliance is only the
natural outcome of a community of interests in the Far East, and is the natural
result of practical coöperation for some time past. As Count Ōkuma put it, they
(Great Britain and Japan) have been allies in effect for some years; they are now
allies in name. Indeed, for several years past this alliance has existed in spirit,
and it has now merely become a public acknowledgment of sympathy and
similar aims in policy in the Far East. This alliance, then, is not artificial or
compulsory, but natural, spontaneous, and voluntary.
The second point to notice is that the Anglo-Japanese Alliance includes the
greatest power each of the Occident and of the Orient. This alliance is also the
combination of two of the greatest naval powers, as well as two great military
powers of the world. It would seem likely, therefore, as a prominent Japanese
expressed it, “that there is no power or combination of powers that could make
head against this union in the Far East; the attempt would be like spitting at a
tiger.” The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is, therefore, a guarantee, of the very first
quality, of peace in the Orient, and of just dealings with China and Korea.
Another important point in connection with this alliance is the fact that herein
Great Britain has abandoned, has broken to pieces, her traditional policy of
“splendid isolation.” For many decades she has not been in the habit of
contracting alliances with other powers in carrying out plans to advance her own
interests. The fact, therefore, that in this case she has seen fit to depart from her
usual policy is a positive indication that the situation in the Far East was one of
imminent peril and demanded unusual precaution. It is a proof that Russian
aggressions were no mere phantoms, but were terribly real and threatening.
And the fact that, when Great Britain broke her policy of grand isolation, it
was to enter into alliance with an Oriental rather than an Occidental power, is
also one of great significance. It proves more effectively than folios of verbal
argument, and speaks out more loudly than a thousand tongues could tell, the
present satisfactory status of Japan. The insignificant, “half-civilized” country of
a few years ago is now “on the same lotus-blossom” with Great Britain. That
little island-empire of the Orient is now but fifty years out of her own practically
complete isolation from the rest of the world; she is only thirty years out of
feudalism; she has been only a little more than a decade in constitutionalism and
parliamentary government, and she has been only a few years in the comity of
nations by virtue of treaties on terms of equality; nevertheless, she has become
the political partner of that immense island-empire which stretches in all
directions, and encircles the globe with the drum-beat of her garrisons. The huge
empire on whose possessions the sun never sets has taken as its ally the small
empire of the rising sun!
This recognition of the status of New Japan has been, of course, a matter of
great pride and rejoicing to that nation and therefore a source of encouragement
to continue steadfast in the paths of progress along which she has been moving
so rapidly.112 It has likewise been recognized that this alliance imposes great
responsibilities upon Japan, if she would maintain her new position.113 These
responsibilities are along not only military, naval, political, and commercial
lines, but also along social, moral, and religious lines. The new alliance means
that licentiousness, dishonesty, and other vices should not be tolerated, and that
ignorance, superstition, and idolatry should not be allowed to thrive among a
people in alliance with such a progressively Christian nation as Great Britain. In
other words, this alliance should hasten the spread of the Gospel in Japan.
But this alliance means much to Christianity, not merely in Japan, but over all
the Orient. For the prime objects of the alliance are the independence of Korea
and the integrity of the Chinese Empire; and the prime effect of the alliance is
peace in the Orient. This means that Russian aggressions in China and Korea
will be, already have been, considerably checked, and that Anglo-Saxon and
Japanese influences will be paramount in those countries. And all this means that
Christian missionary work will be practically unhindered, unless it be by local
and spasmodic prejudice; and that the word will have freer course and be
glorified. The alliance of the first nation of Christendom with a largely
Christianized nation like Japan cannot fail to Christianize the Far East.
 STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
COUNT ŌKUMA, MARQUIS INOUYE, COUNT ITAGAKI,
MARQUIS MATSUKATA
Finally, one significant phase of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance is the fact that,
to all intents and purposes, it includes the United States of America, which may
be called a “silent partner.” It is well known that the convention was shown at
Washington before it was promulgated, and that it was heartily approved by our
government. Practically, therefore, it is, in a very broad sense, an Anglo-
Japanese Alliance. Certainly our interests in the Far East have been and are
identical with those of Great Britain and Japan; and all our “moral influence,” at
least, should be exerted toward the purposes of that convention. Indeed, the
Anglo-Japanese Alliance should mean the union of Great Britain and the United
States with Japan to maintain in the Orient the “open door,” not merely of trade
and commerce, but of all social, intellectual, moral, and religious reforms; the
open door, not of material civilization only, but also of the gospel of Jesus
Christ.114
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Real Japan” (Norman), chaps. v., xiii.; “Advance Japan” (Morris), chap. xiii.; “The New Far East”
(Diosy), especially chap. vii.; “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada); “The Awakening of the East” (Leroy-
Beaulieu), chap. ix; and “Japan in Transition” (Ransome), chap. xv.; “Japan Today” (Scherer), chap. xi.;
“The Real Triumph of Japan” (Seaman); “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd); “Dai Nippon” (Dyer), chaps. vi., xvi.,
and xvii.; and “The Imperial Japanese Navy” (Janes).
 CHAPTER XII

LEGAL JAPAN
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Justice in Old Japan; new codes; list of same; crimes and punishments; convicts;
police; arrest; trials; courts; judiciary; prisons; legalized prostitution; crusade against social evil; rescue
homes, etc.—Registration.—Taxation.—Foreigners under Japanese law; restrictions upon them.—Leasing
land.—Mines.—Railways.—Banking, insurance, etc.; kinds of corporations; foreign associations; Japanese
corporations.—Foreigners in business.—Bibliography.

THE difference between Old Japan and New Japan is quite clearly evident when
one comes to the study of law and jurisprudence. It would be very misleading to
affirm that the administration of justice was a farce; and yet so-called legal
decisions were too often arbitrary and tyrannical. The feudal lords were too
much inclined to visit summary and cruel punishment on slight pretext; and
altogether too few were the men like Oöka, the justice and wisdom of whose
decisions won for him the title of “Japanese Solomon.” As a matter of fact, there
was in Old Japan, as Wigmore has abundantly shown,115 “a legal system, a body
of clear and consistent rules, a collection of statutes and of binding precedents.”
The chief characteristics of Japanese justice under the old régime, as indicated
by Wigmore, were the following: (1) Making justice “personal, not impersonal,”
by balancing “the benefits and disadvantages of a given course, not for all time
in a fixed rule, but anew in each instance,” and thus “to sacrifice legal principle
to present expediency”; (2) the feudal spirit, especially in criminal law, as
illustrated by the use of torture, humiliating forms of procedure, and awfully
severe punishments; and (3) the attainment of justice, “not so much by the aid of
the law as by mutual consent,” by means of definite customs, applied, however,
“through arbitration and concession,” so that there was “a universal resort to
arbitration and compromise as a primary means of settling disputes,” and only a
dernier ressort to the process of law. These characteristics should be noticed, not
merely on account of their historical value, but in explanation of certain traits
still prominent even in New Japan.
But Modern Japan is pretty well equipped with a system of new codes, based
on European models, yet showing some modifications to suit Japan’s peculiar
needs. This codification along Western lines was strongly opposed by the
conservatives, who insisted that national codes, “interpreting national needs,”
should be naturally developed in due course of time. But this opposition was
overcome by the demands for treaty revision and the recognition of Japan in the
comity of nations; for Occidental powers would not remove their extra-territorial
jurisdiction and leave their nationals to the mercy of Japanese courts, unless the
laws were codified according to Western models.
A list of the new codes is taken, with slight modifications, from Chamberlain’s
“Things Japanese,” which has been especially helpful in the preparation of this
chapter.
The new codes resulting from the legislative activity of the present reign are:
(1) the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, drafted by Monsieur
Boissonade, on the basis of the Code Napoleon, with modifications suggested by
the old Japanese Criminal Law; these were published in 1880, and came into
force in 1882; the Code of Criminal Procedure was, however, revised in 1890, in
order that it might be uniform with the Code of Civil Procedure, according to the
provisions of (2) the Law of the Organization of the Judicial Courts,
promulgated in the month of February, 1890, and put into force on November 1
of the same year; (3) the Code of Civil Procedure, which went into effect at
once; (4) the Civil Code, and (5) the Commercial Code, which were put into
force in 1898; and (6) divers statutes on miscellaneous subjects.116
There are, according to the Japanese Criminal Code, three kinds of crimes, of
two degrees, major and minor. The three kinds are: (1) against the State or the
Imperial Family, and in violation of the public credit, policy, peace, health, etc.;
(2) against person and property; and (3) police offences. Major crimes are
punishable by (1) death by hanging; (2) deportation with or without hard labor,
for life or for a term of years; and (3) imprisonment on similar terms. Minor
crimes are punishable by fines and confinement with or without hard labor. What
are called police offences are punishable by small fines running from 5 sen to 2
yen, and by detention for from 1 to 10 days without hard labor. In cases of
capital punishment no public visitors, only the necessary officials, are allowed to
be present. Deportation is usually made to the northern island of Yezo, to work
generally in the mines.
Convicts are easily recognizable by their “crushed strawberry” uniforms, and
are often seen in public; for convict labor, in the case both of individuals and of
gangs, is utilized by the authorities. In fact, all prisoners, according to their
abilities, are required to labor nine hours each day in some kind of employment,
either inside or outside of the prison.
The Japanese policeman is one of the most interesting “characters” of his
nation. He is the successor of the samurai, who, in the old régime, took upon
themselves the duty of enforcing justice. He possesses all the pomp and dignity
of his knightly predecessor; and he, too, carries a sword. All the people, from
children up to grandfather, stand in complete awe of him. And well may they be
afraid; for in his dealings, at least with the common people, he manifests no
gentleness, but by his dictatorial manners compels the utmost respect for himself
and the law. He seldom has to use force in making an arrest, unless in the cases
of the professional criminals; and he does not usually find it necessary to use
handcuffs, as a strong cord will serve his purpose on ordinary occasions. He is
more easily to be found, when wanted, than the proverbial American policeman.
He is poorly paid, but richly faithful, and in every sense of the words upholds the
dignity of the law. His figure clad in white or blue uniform, respectively, for five
and seven months of the year, is familiar and welcome to foreigners, because to
them he is invariably kind and courteous.
When a person suspected of some crime or misdemeanor has been arrested by
the police, he is taken to the nearest detention station and put through a
preliminary investigation before the judge of the local court. As this may be
delayed, and bail allowed or not at the discretion of the judge, accused persons
are sometimes kept in detention for a considerable period. No counsel is allowed
at this secret preliminary examination before a kind of justice of peace. The
latter, from the evidence, either dismisses the prisoner, or imposes a suitable
punishment, or remands him for trial before the proper court.
A trial in Japan, as in France, is of the “inquisitorial” type, and is conducted
by the judge (or judges) alone. “All questions by counsel must be put through
him. Counsel do not so much defend their clients as represent them.” Witnesses
are sworn, so to speak, by “a solemn asseveration,” without “any religious
sanction”; and this takes the form of a written document “duly signed and
sealed.” The government is represented by the public procurator, who seems to
combine in one person the duties of inspector, grand jury, and prosecuting
attorney. Hearsay evidence is admitted; and circumstantial evidence has no small
influence.
Japanese courts are organized according to the French system, with some
modifications along German lines. They are four in kind, from the Local Court,
through the District or Provincial Court, and the Court of Appeal, up to the
Supreme Court. The local courts have jurisdiction over police offences and some
minor crimes; the district courts conduct preliminary investigations and have
jurisdiction over crimes; the courts of appeal hear new trials; while the supreme
court hears criminal appeals on matters of law. Japanese courts are very solemn
places, with strict regulations as to costume, ceremony, and conduct.
The Japanese judiciary is, by this time, pretty much weeded out of the old
judges with antiquated notions, and consists very largely of comparatively young
men, educated in the modern systems. A graduate of the Law College of the
Imperial University may attain a seat on the bench after three years as a
probationary judge, and one examination; other persons must pass two severe
examinations. The salary of an ordinary judge is small; and just after the
Imperial Diet in 1901 had failed to pass a bill for increase of their salaries, a
large number went on a strike! Judges are appointed for life on good behavior.
 COURT BUILDINGS, TŌKYŌ, AND THE MINT, ŌSAKA
The management of the Japanese prison system will bear favorable
comparison with that of any Western country; for it has undergone considerable
improvement of recent years, and is quite up to date. It is rather amusing to
recall the fact that, before the new treaties came into effect, by which foreigners
were to fall under Japanese jurisdiction, considerable anxiety was manifested
lest American criminals, for instance, should suffer inconvenience in Japanese
jails! And it was a singular coincidence that the first crime committed after the
midnight when those treaties went into effect was by an American, who
committed a triple murder in Yokohama. But the trial and treatment of Miller
showed to the world that Japanese law and prisons were entirely unworthy of the
captious criticism that had been passed upon them. With commodious buildings,
extensive grounds, ventilated rooms, gardens and shops for laborers, hospitals
for the sick, bath privileges, wholesome food, reading matter under certain
limitations, rewards for good behavior, part pay for labor, the Japanese prison,
especially the largest ones at Tōkyō, Yokohama, and other important cities, must
be acknowledged to hold high rank among the reformatory institutions of the
world.
This is, perhaps, as appropriate a place as any to introduce one of the peculiar
legal institutions of Japan, that is, the public brothel. As is well known, the social
evil is licensed, and therefore legalized, in Japan; it is not merely not
condemned, but actually condoned. In Old Japan the young girl willing to sell
herself to a life of shame to relieve the poverty and distress of her parents would
be considered virtuous, because filial piety was regarded as a higher virtue than
personal chastity. Nor would the parents who accepted such relief be severely
condemned, because the welfare of the family was more important than the
condition of the individual. And even in Modern Japan, in the eyes of the law, it
is no crime to visit a licensed house of ill-fame; and visitors to such places hand
in their cards and have their names and addresses registered, just as if they were
attending an ordinary public function. Nay more, an ex-President of the Imperial
University, and one of the leading philosophers and educators of the day, has
come out in public print and affirmed that, from the standpoint of science and
philosophy, he can see no evil in prostitution per se. And when such licensed
brothels are allowed near Buddhist temples and Shintō shrines, it would appear
as if those cults were really culpable not to protest. Indeed, when the patriotic
youth of New Japan, wishing to pay homage at the most famous shrines of Ise,
are compelled to reach the spot by passing along a road lined on both sides with
legalized brothels, it looks as if official encouragement to impurity was offered,
or at least temptation was presented, to the rising generation.
But Christianity has always taught, in Japan as elsewhere, that prostitution,
whether licensed or unlicensed, is a sin, and has sought by various means to
check this terrible evil. Formerly no girl was able to escape from her awful
slavery, no matter how much she desired to free herself, except by permission of
the keeper! But within the past few years a campaign has been waged that has
greatly weakened the tyranny of the abominable system. A test case, bitterly
fought at every point, was carried up through all the courts to the highest, and
finally won by those who contended that a girl could not be kept in a brothel
against her will. Another test case, carried up to the Supreme Court, and decided
in favor of the keepers, to the effect that the financial obligations of the girls are
valid in law, has given the reform movement a temporary set-back. But, in spite
of all obstacles and opposition, the crusade against the social evil has achieved a
large measure of success. About 14,000 girls have been set free; the number of
applicants for admission, as well as of unlicensed prostitutes, has diminished; the
number of visitors has so largely decreased, that some brothels have been
compelled to go into bankruptcy and close up the business; public opinion has
been aroused, and the moral tone of society has been elevated and purified.
We must not fail to call attention to the fact that the destructive work of this
crusade has been supplemented by the constructive work of establishing “rescue
homes” under the auspices of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, the
Salvation Army, and other Christian organizations. There is also a very large and
successful Home for ex-Convicts, conducted in Tōkyō by Mr. Hara, a Christian
minister, often called the “Howard of Japan.” This title might also be given to
Mr. Tomeoka, another Christian minister, who has made a special study of
penology and prison management, and is conducting both a “reform school” and
a “school for prison officials.”
Inasmuch as Japan is under a paternal government, the system of registration
is carefully and thoroughly employed. It is practically ubiquitous and universal;
and it is carried to such an extreme as to be vexatious to Anglo-Saxons,
especially to Americans. But to a Japanese the seki (register) is all important; it
is the certificate of his (or her) very existence, age, status, occupation, home
(permanent or temporary), and almost of the character of the individual. In case
of change of residence, this biographical sketch must be transferred from one
locality to another; and even in case of travel, or presence in a hotel for a single
night only, the guest must give an account of himself to the proprietor according
to certain blanks supplied by the police. A foreigner is concerned with the
following information by Dr. Masujima, the eminent lawyer and jurist of Tōkyō:
—
“A foreign householder who intends to stay for more than nine days at one place in Japan, must, within
ten days of his arrival, report to the police regarding himself and persons in his company, stating full
particulars, ages, profession or other occupation, the place from which they last came, their home domicile,
and the relationship of those persons with him; as well as the full address of the house in which he lives,
countersigned by the landlord, any changes in such information to be treated in like manner from time to
time.”

The subject of taxation is one which may well be mentioned in this chapter,
although it is scarcely profitable to devote much space thereto. In Old Japan
taxes were paid in kind, chiefly with rice; but in New Japan they are payable
only with cash. The system of taxation is rather complicated and oppressive; and
yet the people stoically endure their burdens without indulging in the pastime of
agrarian riots. The land-tax of 3-1/3 per cent of the assessed value of the land in
the case of rural lands and 5 per cent in the case of urban lands is a very
important source of revenue, and has always been the cause of great trouble in
political circles. Other taxes are the business tax, the income tax, the house tax,
etc. The last mentioned is the one which foreigners claimed to be exempt from
paying, but the Japanese government claimed to have the authority to levy; the
question has been submitted to arbitration, and is still sub judice. Under the new
treaties Japan has the right to levy duties on imports, and thereby secures
considerable revenue. In the list of articles exempt from duties we find books,
maps, charts, bullion, coins, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, rice, wool, plants, trees,
shrubs, etc.; and in the list of prohibited articles opium and adulterations are
most prominent.117
Inasmuch as the status of foreigners under Japanese law is a subject of
growing practical importance, we make extracts from an address delivered by
Dr. Masujima before the New York State Bar Association in January, 1903:—
“The cases in which foreigners are restricted in the enjoyment of private rights, are the ownership of land
or Japanese ships, the right to work mines, to own shares in the Bank of Japan or the Yokohama Specie
Bank, to be members or brokers of exchanges, to engage in emigration business, or to receive bounties for
navigation or ship building. Any company must, in order to own Japanese ships, have its principal office in
Japan, and all members in case of a Gōmei Kaisha, all unlimited liability members in case of either a Gōshi
Kaisha or Kabushiki Gōshi Kaisha, and all directors in case of a limited company, must be Japanese
subjects. Otherwise foreigners are as free as the Japanese to own shares in any Japanese commercial
companies organized by themselves alone, or in combination with the Japanese, or to engage in any
manufacture or other commercial operations.
“Foreigners may hold a long lease of land to plant trees or erect permanent structures, which may be
arranged for an indefinite term almost perpetual, such as one thousand years, or as long as may be agreed
upon. Such a holding is called superficies, and it is very much like a long English lease, the only difference
being that trees or buildings do not, at the end of the term, revert to the landlord, his right being only that of
pre-emption at current valuation. The most advisable way for the enjoyment of the actual and permanent
holding of land is for a foreigner to buy land himself through a Japanese, as bare trustee, and to secure its
superficies for the period of as long a term as may be desirable for his purposes.
“Although no foreigners may work mines individually, they may be taken on mortgage, and a company
registered as a Japanese organization is entitled to engage in mining; the theory is that foreigners as
members merge themselves in the entity of a Japanese corporation, although it may be composed of
foreigners exclusively.
“No railway or tramway business is allowed to be carried on unless by a limited company and a
concession for such purpose has to be secured from the proper authorities. No such railway can be pledged,
but it may be hypothecated. Japanese pledge corresponds to English mortgage, differing therefrom in that
immediate transfer of possession and holding the pledged property absolutely is essential. Hypothecation
does not carry possession nor the right of entry. This condition of Japanese railway law has not satisfied
capitalists as not affording sufficient security to induce investment by them. There has been some attempt to
have this law altered, but it has not yet been accomplished.
“Banking, insurance, shipping, and all other kinds of commercial business may be carried on in Japan by
foreign companies by observing the treaties and certain regulations, such as the registration of their branch
offices, their representatives or other matters prescribed by law.
“There are two kinds of civil corporations, the one consisting of persons associated together, and the
other an estate of aggregate property somewhat like a trust in English law, formed or established for the
purpose of religious worship, teaching, art, charity, education, or any other object of public benefit, not
aiming at the making of a profit. Such a corporation can come in existence only with the permission of the
competent authorities, while Japanese commercial corporations may be formed without it.
“No foreign association of persons or trust property is accorded the same rights and privileges as are
enjoyed by similar Japanese corporations; such a foreign corporation has no standing whatsoever in the
Japanese courts, and the only way in which it could obtain protection would be to appear in the individual
names of its members, just as used once to be the case in partnership actions. Purely technical evidence
must be procured and filed before any legal proceeding can be initiated, and the best interests of the
corporation might easily be jeopardized. Some foreign religious societies have sought to get themselves
incorporated as Japanese corporations, but failed. Japan has no State religion, and she is absolutely
impartial in religious matters. Any religious body so applying must be and show itself to be a purely
Japanese institution, free from all control of any sort from its corresponding religious bodies in foreign
countries. Any legal connection whatever between the home body and Japanese organization is a bar to
such purpose.118
 STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
ŌKUBO, SAIGŌ, KIDO, AND PRINCE IWAKURA
“A Japanese corporation has almost as large privileges as a Japanese subject. It can own land and exercise
other rights not accorded to individual foreigners. A corporation so organized may contain in its ranks
foreign members, but it must be of such a nature as not to be under any danger of control of any kind from
outside. Even after incorporation, the charter will be forfeited should the policy of the Japanese Government
be at any time prejudiced by the conduct of a corporation so sanctioned.
“If foreigners wish to do business in combination with the Japanese, the best way would be to form a
Gōshi Kaisha or limited partnership, they themselves carrying unlimited liability. To control a Kabushiki
Kaisha, or limited company, they should own more than half the amount of capital, either by holding
themselves or through their own nominees, and shares should be tied up so as not to allow their transfer
without the consent of the board of directors. The advantage of any business being organized as a Japanese
corporation consists, as the law now stands, in owning land and having the full rights of Japanese subjects.”

It should be added here that many prominent Japanese continue to urge that
foreigners be allowed to own land, possibly under certain restrictions; and that
such a privilege is quite likely to be granted before very long.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Suitable works of reference on this chapter are scarce. “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), chap, viii., and
“The Real Japan” (Norman), chaps. iii. and xi., furnish some material. Dr. Masujima’s papers in the
Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan on “The Japanese Legal Seal” (vol. xvii.) and “Modern Japanese
Legal Institutions” (vol. xviii.) are quite instructive; and so is Longford’s “Summary of the Japanese Penal
Codes” in vol. v. Some specific references have already been made in footnotes.
“Every Day Japan” (Lloyd) contains interesting material on these topics. Hozumi’s “Lectures on the New
Japanese Civil Code” and “Ancestor Worship and Japanese Law” are very valuable.
 CHAPTER XIII

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN119

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Not Western “new woman,” but abstract, legal new woman in Japan.—Woman in old
régime; wife in old régime; lack of “home”; woman anciently honored.—Legal status in Old Japan, in New
Japan; independent person; marriage; right of marriage; husband and wife.—Divorce,—by arrangement and
judicial.—Concubinage; child of a concubine.—Prospects of new woman; openings for labor.—The “New
Great Learning for Women.”—Enlarged educational advantages; new schools.—Women in business.—The
Empress and the Crown Princess.—The woman question; further needs; women and Christianity.—
Bibliography.

ANY intention of using the term “new woman” in a jocose or satirical way is
disclaimed at the outset. It is not our purpose to refer at all to such a creature as
that called “new woman” in the Occident; for it has not yet appeared to any great
extent among the Japanese. It may be true, in some cases, that the modernized
Japanese woman is “without gentleness or refinement,” and may be called a
“parody of a man” or a “sickening sort of person.” But, as the “Jiji Shimpo”
explains, “the process of the new woman’s evolution may be disfigured by some
accident”; and “the new woman stands out with objectionable salience because
her environment is so colorless.”
It is desired, in the first instance, to consider, not the new woman in the
concrete, in the flesh, but the abstract, legal new woman that has been created by
the new Civil Code of Japan. In looking through the translation of that document
by Mr. Gubbins, we have been deeply impressed with the possibilities which lie
before the women of New Japan through the rights and privileges vouchsafed to
them under that code.
In Old Japan, as stated in a preceding chapter,120 the constitution of the family
was practically that of an empire, in which all other members thereof were
subject to the despotic authority of the master. A Japanese woman was subject to
the “three obediences”: as a maiden, to her father; as a wife, to her husband and
his parents;121 as a widow, to her oldest son, whether real or only adopted. A
daughter might even be called upon, for the sake of her parents, to sacrifice her
honor and enter a brothel; and she was still considered virtuous, because
personal chastity was a lower virtue than filial piety.
A Japanese, like a Grecian, wife was to her husband a faithful slave,
“something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse”; she was both a
drudge and a plaything, to be cast aside as capriciously as a child throws away a
toy. She must tamely submit to having concubines brought, perhaps, right into
the house at the will of her lord; or she herself might, under slight and flimsy
pretexts, be divorced and sent back to her parents. The following “seven reasons
for divorce” were laid down by a celebrated Japanese moralist: disobedience to
father-in-law or mother-in-law; barrenness; lewdness; jealousy; leprosy or any
like foul disease; garrulousness and prattling; stealing.
It is, therefore, a misnomer to speak of “Japanese homes” of the old régime, in
the sense in which we use that little word “home” with all its depth and wealth of
meaning and its associated thoughts of “love” and “sympathy.” Indeed, the word
“home” cannot be perfectly translated into the Japanese language, and is
generally transferred bodily with the pronunciation homu. And one of the far-
reaching results of Christian mission work in Japan has been the introduction of
the idea and the ideal of the Christian home.
It should, however, be constantly kept in mind that in the most ancient times
women were highly esteemed, and even “used to play an important part on the
political stage.” In Shintō the central object of adoration is the sun, which is
worshipped as a goddess. There have been seated on the imperial throne of Japan
eight empresses, one of whom is famous for her martial valor and military
exploits. It was when Buddhism became powerful that Hindoo and Chinese
conceptions of woman’s position moulded public opinion and thus eventually
changed the manners, customs, and laws of Japan so as to relegate woman to an
abnormally inferior position. As only one striking example out of many possible
illustrations of the relative positions of man and woman, we note that, in the case
of the death of the husband, the law prescribed mourning garments for thirteen
months and abstinence from impurity for fifty days; but, in the case of the death
of the wife, mourning garments for three months and abstinence for twenty days
were sufficient.
Mr. Gubbins in the introduction to Part II. of his translation of the Civil Code,
writes as follows:—
“The legal position of women in Japan before the commencement of modern legislative reform is well
illustrated by the fact that offences came under different categories according to their commission by the
wife against the husband, or by the husband against the wife, and by the curious anomaly that, while the
husband stood in the first degree of relationship to his wife, the latter stood to him only in the second.122
The disabilities under which a woman formerly labored shut her out from the exercise of almost all rights.
She could not inherit or own property in her own name, she could not become the head of a family, she
could not adopt, and she could not be the guardian of her child. The maxim, mulier est finis familiae, was as
true in Japan as in Rome, though its observance may have been less strict, owing to the greater frequency of
adoption.
 “In no respect has modern progress in Japan made greater strides than in the improvement of the position
of women. Though she still labors under certain disabilities, a woman can now become the head of a family
and exercise authority as such; she can inherit and own property and manage it herself; she can exercise
parental authority; if single, or a widow, she can adopt; she is one of the parties to adoption effected by her
husband, and her consent in addition to that of her husband is necessary to the adoption of her child by
another person; she can act as guardian or curator; and she has a voice in family councils.”123

Moreover, although it is true that for the performance of certain acts (Art. 14)
a wife must obtain her husband’s permission, and that a wife’s acts may be
annulled by her husband (Art. 120), yet it is explicitly stated that “a wife who
has been permitted to engage in one or more businesses possesses in regard
thereto the capacity of an independent person.”
But let us look a little more particularly into the provisions relating to
marriage, divorce, etc. The marriageable age is 17 full years for men and 15 full
years for women. Marriage takes effect when notice of the fact is given to a
registrar, by both parties with two witnesses. From this it will appear that the
ceremony is a “purely social function, having no connection whatsoever with
law beyond the somewhat remote contingency of its being adducible as evidence
of a marriage having taken place.” And here is where some Japanese Christians
make an unfortunate and sometimes serious mistake, in thinking that the
ceremony by a minister of the gospel is sufficient and registration is a matter of
convenience. Without registration a marriage is not legal.
The right of marriage is not free, except to the head of a family.124 All other
persons, whatever their ages, can marry only with the consent of the head of his
or her family. Men under 30 and women under 25 cannot marry without the
consent of the parents; and minors in some cases must obtain the consent of the
guardian or even of a family council.
In Art. 790 it is stipulated that “a husband and wife are mutually bound to
support one another.” A husband manages the property of his wife, unless he is
unable to do so, when she manages it herself. “With regard to daily household
matters, a wife is regarded as her husband’s agent.”
There are two ways of effecting divorce: either by arrangement, which is
effected in a similar way to marriage—that is, by simply having the registration
of marriage cancelled—or by judicial divorce, which may be granted on several
grounds specified in the Code. But divorce by arrangement cannot be effected by
persons under 25 years of age, without consent of the person or persons by
whose consent marriage was effected. And if the persons who effect this kind of
divorce fail to determine who is to have the custody of the children, they belong
to the father; but “in cases where the father leaves the family owing to divorce,
the custody of the children belongs to the mother,” evidently because she
remains in the family. In other words, children are chattels of the family.
The grounds on which judicial divorce is granted include bigamy, adultery on
the part of the wife, the husband’s receiving a criminal sentence for an offence
against morality, cruel treatment or grave insult such as to render living together
unbearable, desertion with evil intent, cruel treatment or gross insult of or by
lineal ascendants.
The new Civil Code indirectly sanctions concubinage by stipulating (in Art.
827) that “an illegitimate child may be recognized by the father or mother” by
giving notice to a registrar. Such a child is called shoshi, but is not legitimized. It
is, however, stipulated (in Art. 728) that between a wife and a shoshi “the same
relationship as that between parent and child is established.” That seems clearly
enough to mean that a wife must accept a concubine’s child as if it were her
own, in case the father “recognizes” it. This would appear to be little, if any,
advance over the old régime, where “the wife of the father,” as she was
technically called, frequently had to accept as her own child that of a concubine.
Mr. Gubbins makes the following explanation of shoshi:—
“This term illustrates the transitionary phase through which Japanese law is passing. Japanese
dictionaries define shoshi as the child of a concubine, and this, so long as concubinage was sanctioned by
law, and the question of legitimacy never arose, was the accepted meaning of the term. The law of Japan,
which, in the course of its development on western lines, has come to accept the principle of legitimacy, and
to admit of the legitimization of children by the subsequent marriage of their parents, now recognizes an
intermediate stage between legitimacy and illegitimacy.”

Such is the general outline of the legal status of woman according to the new
Civil Code. It will undoubtedly be most interesting to watch the gradual
evolution of a new woman in Japan as the outcome of this legislation. It remains
to be seen how far the social status of woman will be improved. It is not at all
likely that her actual position will be immediately advanced in any great degree.
It is probable that custom will continue, for a while at least, to wield a mightier
influence than the Code; and that, as Mr. Gubbins remarks, “the present
transitional condition of Japanese society may favor a rule being honored more
in the breach than in the observance.” But it will probably not be long before
here and there certain women will claim the rights accorded by law125 and will
find a corresponding improvement in their social condition; and thus the general
position of the Japanese woman will gradually be advanced.
And, as a matter of fact, the status of woman in Japan is improving in practice
no less than in theory, especially in the new openings for work that render her
more or less independent of male support. For instance, although the work of
weaving, formerly carried on by women in the homes, is now largely transferred
to factories, with modern machinery, there is an increasing demand for female
hands. This is also true in cotton mills, match factories, tobacco shops, and many
other such places of work. Telephone exchanges, post-offices, railway ticket
offices, printing offices, also find girls and women deft and skilful. In hospitals
and schools, too, the Japanese young woman is finding her sphere. She is
likewise showing her skill and taste in both artistic and literary employments.
But in Japan, as elsewhere, this drift into industrial and other occupations is
producing a scarcity of servants for housework.
Just as Kaibara’s “Onna Daigaku” (Great Learning for Women) was the
standard for female education under the old régime, so New Japan most
appropriately has a “Shin [New] Onna-Daigaku,” by Mr. Fukuzawa, the famous
educator and writer. The following summary thereof is from the “Japan Mail”:—
“The ‘Sekai-no-Nihon’ reviews at some length Mr. Fukuzawa’s series of articles entitled ‘Shin Onna-
Daigaku,’ which have now appeared in book form. We give in a brief form the gist of the reviewer’s
remarks. Mr. Fukuzawa’s object in writing so much on the subject of women’s position in modern times is
to endeavor to create a new standard for women. Hitherto the teaching of Kaibara Ekiken’s ‘Onna Daigaku’
has been accepted in all quarters. According to it woman occupies a subordinate position, and must on no
account assert her independence or claim equality with man. While showing the untenableness of all such
theories, Mr. Fukuzawa does not rush to an opposite extreme. He defines woman’s position in a remarkably
common-sense way. He would not have women attempt to imitate men. They have their own spheres and
should keep to them. When discussing the education of girls he insists on the necessity of making a special
point of giving them a thorough drilling in household duties. They should have a knowledge of cooking;
they should be taught how to make the most of money, how to manage servants, &c. Next to these things he
attaches great importance to their being instructed in the laws of health. Among other subjects botany is to
be recommended as specially suited to the female mind. He further argues that women should be taught
Economy and Law. He thinks that a knowledge of these subjects will tend to develop their general
intelligence, and save them from becoming the creatures of emotion. In olden times a woman carried a
dagger in her girdle to be used as a last resource. In modern times a thoroughly enlightened mind will be her
best protection against the dangers to which she is exposed. With the tendency to conceit which is said to be
engendered by the kind of education recommended, Mr. Fukuzawa deals in his treatise, arguing that this
tendency can be rendered harmless by instruction in the kind of demeanor that best becomes a woman....
Marriage according to the old methods Mr. Fukuzawa condemns, and the practice of having the father-in-
law or mother-in-law living with the married couple should, he thinks, be discontinued. Marriage should be
regarded in a serious light, and the duties and responsibilities it involves should be duly considered.
Mothers should take pleasure in instructing their children, and should know enough to gain their respect.
The whole system recommended is based on Western life and thought. This new Gospel for woman
preached by a man who has spent his whole life in advocating reform, as one of his last messages to the
nation, is, says the ‘Sekai-no-Nihon,’ very striking and likely to effect great good.”126

Within the past decade or so the educational advantages for Japanese girls
have very largely increased; and the number of girls and young women availing
themselves of these advantages has grown encouragingly. There has been a
marked increase in the number of female pupils in public and private, including
mission, schools of all grades; and there have been new institutions organized
especially for young women, concerning two of which it is necessary to speak
more particularly.
One is a kind of English normal school in charge of Miss Umé Tsuda, herself
a type of the best kind of “new woman” in Japan. She was the youngest of the
first group of Japanese girls sent over to the United States in 1871 to be
educated; and ever since her return to Japan she has been trying to elevate the
condition of her sisters. Her school is intended primarily to train young women
to be efficient teachers, particularly of English. Another important institution is
the University for Women, opened in 1901 in Tōkyō, the first of its kind started
in the first year of the new century, as a harbinger that the Twentieth Century in
Japan will be largely the women’s century.127
What the new woman in Japan is able to accomplish in business lines is well
illustrated in the following paragraphs:128—
“Mrs. Asa Hiroöka, of Ōsaka, is well known in business circles as the actual guiding spirit and organizer
of the famous banking firm of Kajima. A daughter of the Mitsui family, she was married at the age of 17 to
Mr. Shingorō Hiroöka of Ōsaka a few years previous to the restoration. The Hiroöka family was one of
those celebrated banking agents of the feudal barons who flourished at Ōsaka during the Tokugawa régime,
and, like many of the rest, had its affairs thrown into disorder and was itself reduced to a precarious
condition by the political convulsion of three decades ago. The Kajimaya, under which style the Hiroöka
family conducted its business, would certainly have shared the same melancholy fate that overtook so many
of its compeers had it not been for the resolute character and business capacity of Mrs. Asa, who assumed
the sole direction of affairs, introducing sweeping changes in the organization of the firm, and in a
remarkably short space of time succeeded in starting it on a career of fresh and increasing prosperity.
“About twenty years ago Moji, the present flourishing centre of the coal business, had scarcely come into
existence; in other words, few people had yet commenced to turn their attention to the development of coal-
mining. In this venture she encountered innumerable difficulties. In the first place, she had to overcome the
determined opposition of the other members of the family. Their position was, in fact, so strong and
persistent that she had to engage in the undertaking entirely on her own account and responsibility. She had
thus to start afresh with little capital, except her own personal credit, and many were the hardships and
disadvantages against which she had to struggle. But there is always a way where there is a will, and our
fair but indomitable miner was ultimately rewarded with signal success, and succeeded in adding largely to
the capital of the firm and in establishing her reputation as a resourceful organizer and a unique business
woman.
“All the collieries in her possession have one after another been disposed of at profitable prices, and just
at present she is devoting her whole attention to the expansion of the banking business of the firm. An
eminently successful financier and business organizer, she is by no means indifferent to interests of a higher
sort. Herself well educated, she takes a keen interest in educational matters, especially those relating to her
own sex, being one of the principal supporters of Mr. Naruse’s scheme for a university for girls. By way of
giving practical encouragement to the movement in favor of female education, she already employs some
educated girls as clerks at her banks, and intends to place a new department which is about to be opened at
those banks almost exclusively in the hands of female clerks.”

This chapter would, of course, be incomplete without a few words about the
recent first lady of the land now Empress Dowager, who has proved herself to be
in heartiest sympathy with the ideals of New Japan. As she had no children of
her own, she adopted the entire nation and completely won their love; she was,
indeed, the mother of millions. She is especially interested in educational and
benevolent institutions; she is the active patron of the Peeresses’ School, the
University for Women,129 the Red Cross Society, and other philanthropic
enterprises. In times of calamity her purse is always opened for a liberal
contribution to the suffering.130
The lady now of special interest is Empress Sada, the young wife of the new
Emperor. She was born in 1884, and was educated in the Peeresses’ School until
her betrothal, when she was placed under private tutors. She was married on
May 10, 1900, and is the mother of three healthy sons. The young rulers live a
happy and congenial life.
 H. I. M. THE EMPRESS
In conclusion, we make one more quotation, from Miss Bacon’s “Japanese
Girls and Women,” as follows:—
“The woman question in Japan is at the present moment a matter of much consideration. There seems to
be an uneasy feeling in the minds of even the more conservative men that some change in the status of
women is inevitable, if the nation wishes to keep the pace it has set for itself. The Japanese women of the
past and of the present are exactly suited to the position accorded them in society, and any attempt to alter
them without changing their status only results in making square pegs for round holes. If the pegs hereafter
are to be cut square, the holes must be enlarged and squared to fit them. The Japanese woman stands in no
need of alteration unless her place in life is somehow enlarged, nor, on the other hand, can she fill a larger
place without additional training. The men of new Japan, to whom the opinions and customs of the western
world are becoming daily more familiar, while they shrink aghast, in many cases, at the thought that their
women may ever become like the forward, self-assertive, half-masculine women of the West, show a
growing tendency to dissatisfaction with the smallness and narrowness of the lives of their wives and
daughters—a growing belief that better-educated women would make better homes, and that the ideal home
of Europe and America is the product of a more advanced civilization than that of Japan. Reluctantly in
many cases, but still almost universally, it is admitted that in the interest of the homes, and for the sake of
future generations, something must be done to carry the women forward into a position more in harmony
with what the nation is reaching for in other directions. This desire shows itself in individual efforts to
improve by more advanced education daughters of exceptional promise, and in general efforts for the
improvement of the condition of women.”

Miss Bacon, in her book, traces very clearly the progress that has been made
in the condition of woman, and shows how “better laws, broader education for
the women, [and] a change in public opinion” are still necessary. And she
affirms that “we can feel pretty sure that, when the people have become used to
these [recent] changes [of the new Civil Code], other and more binding laws will
be enacted, for the drift of enlightened public opinion seems to be in favor of
securing better and more firmly established homes.”
The following is also worthy of quotation: “It is not possible to understand the
actual progress made in Japan in improving the condition of women, without
some consideration of the effect that Christian thought and Christian lives have
had on the thought and lives of the modern Japanese.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Real Japan,” chap. viii.; “Out of the Far East” (Hearn), pp. 85-125; “The Yankees of the East,”
chaps. ix., xix.; “An American Missionary in Japan” (Gordon), chap. xv.; “Japan and her People,” vol. i. pp.
178-191; “A Japanese Interior” (Miss Bacon); “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd); and, last and best, Miss Bacon’s
“Japanese Girls and Women,” revised edition, illustrated.
 CHAPTER XIV

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Japanese syllabary; i-ro-ha arrangement; arrangement of fifty-sounds; modern
inventions.—Chinese ideographs; Kata-kana; Hira-gana; Kana-majiri and Kana-tsuki; variety in
pronunciation.—Japanese elocution.—Japanese syntax; logic in linguistics; a sample sentence; kind of
language; topsy-turvy practices.—Ancient literature; poetry; naga-uta and tanka; hokku; a poem a picture.
—Characteristics of Japanese poetry.—Modern literature: newspapers; press laws; English journals;
Japanese journals; magazines and periodicals; books; what the Japanese read; their literary taste; foreign
books; linguistic reforms, theory and practice.—Bibliography.

THE Japanese language belongs, philologically, to the Altaic family, and is of

the agglutinative type. Practically, it is musical and easy to pronounce, but, on
account of its long and involved sentences, difficult to learn. Its alphabet is not
phonetic, but syllabic, and very simple and regular. It comprises 73 characters, of
which 5 are duplicates of the same sounds, so that there are really only 68
distinct sounds. As many of the sounds, moreover, are only slight modifications
of other sounds, they are represented by the same characters, with certain
diacritical signs attached (as in the case of ha, ba, and pa). There are,
consequently, in common use only 48 distinct characters, which are arranged in
such an order as to form a stanza of poetry131 as follows:—

Iro wa nioedo
Chirinuru wo—
Waga yo tare zo
Tsune naran?
Ui no oku-yama
Kyō koete,
Asaki yume miji,
Ei mo sezu.

Which means, being interpreted by Professor B. H. Chamberlain:—

“Though gay in hue, [the blossoms] flutter down, Alas! Who then, in this world of ours, may continue
forever? Crossing to-day the uttermost limits of phenomenal existence, I shall see no more fleeting dreams,
neither be any longer intoxicated.” In other words, “all is transitory in this fleeting world. Let us escape
from its illusions and vanities.”

Another arrangement, based on the five vowels and their combination with
certain consonants, gives fifty sounds, of which, however, two or three are really
duplicates. This table of fifty sounds (gojū-on) is as follows:—
132
a ka sa ta na ha ma ya ra wa

i ki shi chi ni hi mi (y)i ri (w)i

u ku su tsu nu fu mu yu ru (w)u

e ke se te ne he me (y)e re (w)e

o ko so to no ho mo yo ro wo
Those in italics are duplicates; and (w)i and (w)e, though written with different
characters from i and e, have practically the same pronunciation.
It will be seen that both of these arrangements are more or less artificial; at
least, they appear to be mnemonic contrivances, and are certainly very
convenient, because they are flexible. For instance, the demands of modern
times and European languages for a v sound has led the Japanese to represent it
by the simple device of attaching the common diacritical mark to the w series.
By a similar device they might utilize the r series for l and the s series for th!
The Japanese characters, not difficult or complex in formation, are
modifications and simplifications of Chinese ideographs. There had been in
Japan no written language until after the introduction of Chinese civilization in
the sixth century A. D., when Chinese words and characters were absorbed by the
wholesale. Later, two systems of contracting the complex and cumbersome
Chinese ideographs were invented, and are still used to some extent, indeed
almost entirely by the uneducated class.
The oldest and simplest modification is called Kata-kana (side-letters), and
consisted merely in taking part of a Chinese ideograph. But, as these characters
were separate, and did not easily run together, they have not been used much,
“except in dictionaries, books intended for the learned, or to spell foreign
names.”
The next modification was a contraction of Chinese characters into a running,
or grass, hand, and is therefore called Hira-gana (plain-letters). These are all that
the ignorant, especially the women, can read.
But a Japanese who aspires to the smallest degree of education must be
familiar with many Chinese characters; and a pupil is, in fact, instructed in that
language and literature from the primary school up through the university. Some
books are written entirely in Chinese, and, of course, can be read only by the
best educated. But the commonest method for newspapers and books which are
not intended for a limited circulation among the erudite only, is the use of a
mixture of Chinese and Japanese characters, of which the root forms are
Chinese, and the connectives, agglutinative particles, and grammatical endings
are Japanese; this is called Kana-majiri. For even more general circulation the
Chinese characters will be explained by Japanese characters at the side; this is
called Kana-tsuki.
This practice of mixing the characters of the two languages leads to some
variety in pronunciation. That is to say, a word written with Chinese ideographs
may be read with the Japonicized Chinese pronunciation or with that of the pure
Japanese word of which it is the equivalent. For instance, the Chinese characters
which make up the word meaning “Japan” are usually pronounced Nippon, or
Nihon, by the Japanese, but may also be read, in pure Japanese, as Hi-no-moto. It
is practically the same as when we are allowed to read “etc.” either as “et cetera”
or as “and-so-forth” (or “i. e.,” either as “id est” or as “that is”).
In connection with this topic of reading, we may as well touch on the
elocutionary element in reading by Japanese. Their style of reading, as amusing
to us as ours is to them, may be called “sing-song”: they rise and fall by
monotones, and, going very rapidly without attention to the beginning or the end
of a sentence, catch breath now and then by a peculiar sucking sound. They seem
to make no attempt to read “with expression,” as we call it; and, when they come
to study English, are a great trial for a while to the foreign teacher!
The peculiarities of Japanese syntax have been so attractively discussed by
Mr. Percival Lowell,133 that any other writer on that subject must at the outset
acknowledge his indebtedness to that author. It will be unnecessary in this
chapter to go into details; it will be sufficient to mention several of the points in
which Japanese and English syntax are different. For instance, a Japanese noun
knows no distinction (in form) of gender and number; a Japanese adjective or
adverb has no terminational comparison; a Japanese verb is proof to the
distinctions of number and person. In the Japanese language the connectives
which correspond to our prepositions are placed after their nouns; the verbs
always come last; our personal and possessive pronouns are supplanted by
honorific expressions; and the definite article, the relative pronoun, and the pure
temporal conjunction are lacking. To illustrate the first point, it is enough to say
that a teacher once asked a young Japanese pupil, “Have you any brothers?” and
received this answer: “There are four men; but they are all women.” In the
question, the generic term kyōdai, which may be applied to both sexes, although
strictly it should be limited to the male sex, was employed; in the reply, the
generic term for “man” was used in the first clause, and the proper specification
was added in the second clause. What he literally replied was this: “There are [=I
have] four [such] persons; but they are all women.” And, in Japanese, “man,”
whether singular, dual, or plural, whether single or married, may be simply hito;
and yet the idea of “men” may also be expressed by doubling the word into hito-
bito; while that of “women” is expressed by suffixing domo or tachi to onna and
making onna-tachi, onna-domo.
With reference to language in general, a most patriotic Japanese once proved,
to his own satisfaction, “the wickedness of foreign nations, not only in act but in
speech,” and illustrated by the fact that the Europeans, for instance, put the verb
before the noun, and said, “see the moon.” But the Japanese said “moon see,”
because, “if the moon was not there first, you could not see it afterwards”!
 H. I. M. THE CROWN PRINCE
Some of the peculiarities of Japanese sentences are illustrated in the
following: “The man whom I met yesterday went to Tōkyō by the nine o’clock
train this morning,” if translated literally from Japanese, would read: “My
yesterday-on met man-as-for, this morning’s ninth-hour’s train-by Tōkyō-to
went.”
In short, the Japanese language is an involved, complicated, impersonal,
neutral, obscure, but withal a pretty, musical, logical, and polite tongue.
Chamberlain says: “Japanese is probably—all things considered—the most
difficult language on the face of the earth.”
A Japanese book begins where an English book ends; it is read from top to
bottom in lines running from right to left; and the “foot-notes” are at the top of
the page, while the reader’s mark is inserted at the bottom. Books are always
arranged on a shelf or elsewhere, with the first volume at the right hand, or in
horizontal piles. The Japanese call our style of writing “crab-writing,” because it
“goes backward” and across the page like a crawfish; and the individual just
quoted, claimed to be able to judge of the hearts of foreigners by their writing,
“which was crooked”! Inversion appears again in such expressions as “east-
north,” “west-south,” instead of “northeast,” “southwest.” The address of a letter
runs as follows: “America, United States, Illinois State, Chicago City, Hyde Park
District, Washington Avenue, 0000 No., Smith, John, Mr.” In dates the order of
year, month, day, is followed. The word for roof (yane) means literally “house-
root,” because a Japanese house is constructed to fit the roof, which is made
first. But, as words are only the expression of thought, this contrariety must be
traced back to the thoughts and ideas of Japanese, who, in so many other things,
seem to us as “topsy-turvy” as we seem to them.
Japanese literature of the old régime was written partly in classical Chinese,
partly in pure Japanese, and comprised mostly mythology, history, law, poetry,
romance, drama, and Buddhist and Confucian philosophy. As we cannot go into
details on this subject, so tempting, we shall confine ourselves to a few
comments on Japanese poetry, which is more original and less Chinese than
prose. The Japanese are very much addicted to writing poetry; like Silas Wegg,
they drop off into poetry on every possible occasion. They are, in one sense,
“born” poets, and, in another sense, made poets: poeta Japonicus et nascitur et
fit,—“The Japanese poet is both born and made.” There are certain rigid forms,
and only a few, for verse; and all fairly educated Japanese know those forms. In
school, moreover, they are carefully taught the theory and the practice of
versification.
Occasionally a Japanese poem will be rather long, and is then called naga-uta,
(long poem); but usually it is only a “tiny ode” of 31 syllables, arranged in 5
lines of respectively 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables. The following is a specimen of
such an uta, or tanka, from the famous “Hundred Poems”:—

Kokoro-ate ni
Orobaya oran
Hatsu-shimo no
Oki-madowaseru
Shiragiku no hana.

“If it were my wish

White chrysanthemum to cull:—
Puzzled by the frost
Of the early autumn time,
I perchance might pluck the flower.”134

There is also an abbreviated form called hokku, which contains only the 17
syllables of the first 3 lines of the tanka. The following is an example:—

Kare-eda ni
U no tomari keri
Aki no kure.
“On an autumn evening a crow perches on a withered branch.”

The quaintness and simplicity of Japanese thought and expression appear very
clearly in their poetry. It has been truly said that a Japanese poem is a picture or
even only the outline of a picture to be filled in by the imagination. It may be
merely an exclamation, without any logical assertion, like the following, written
a thousand years ago:—

Shira-kumo ni
Hane uchi-kawashi
Tobu kari no
Kazu sae miyuru
Aki no yo no tsuki.

“The moon on an autumn

 night, making visible the
very number of wild geese
flying past with wings intercrossed
in white clouds.”
135

Japanese poetry has no rhyme, no parallelism, no alliteration, no accent; it is

almost all lyrical, and abounds in acrostics, anagrams, and palindromes. Its chief
subjects are taken from nature, and a poem may be evoked by the simplest thing.
Although Japanese poetry is difficult to understand, it is interesting to study.
Japanese literature of the new régime is too varied to enumerate, as it covers,
in both original and translated work, about all the fields of modern thought, as
well as the fields of the old régime, just mentioned.
The development of newspapers is, perhaps, one of the most interesting
phases of the progress of New Japan. The year 1902 was the thirtieth anniversary
of the establishment of Japanese journalism. Before that time small sheets, each
like a modern “extra,” were issued to give account of a murder or an important
event, and were hawked about by street-criers. But the “Nisshin Shinjishi,”
started in 1872 by an Englishman named Black, was the first attempt at a real
newspaper.136 Now there are probably more than 1,000 papers, magazines, etc.,
published in the empire. The newspapers are issued daily, and cost from 25 to 50
sen per month. Most of the metropolitan papers indulge in wood-cuts, even
cartoons.
At first the press laws were rigorous and the official censors zealous; so that a
Japanese editor must weigh carefully his utterances, and even then was likely, in
a time of great political excitement, to bring upon his paper the ban of either
temporary or total suspension. Some of the papers tried to circumvent the laws
by having an extra edition issued under a different name, so that when one was
suspended the other might continue; and sometimes a paper had nominal editors,
or dummies, to suffer the punishment of imprisonment, while the real editors, or
criminals, remained at their desks! It might be added, in this connection, that a
public speaker also was liable to interruption by the police if he was considered
by them to be uttering sentiments subversive of peace and order. Perfect freedom
of speech and liberty of the press do not now, and cannot yet, exist in Japan; but
the restrictions have been gradually withdrawn, and are now comparatively
small.
Newspapers in foreign languages, most of them in English, are issued in
Yokohama, Kōbe, Nagasaki, and Tōkyō. Of all these, the “Japan Mail,” of
Yokohama, is facile princeps, for it does not deal in captious criticisms of the
mistakes and sins of the Japanese, but is keenly sympathetic with their desire for
improvement and progress in all lines. The “Japan Times,” of Tōkyō, is owned,
managed, and edited by Japanese, and is a valuable paper. Deserving also of
mention are the “Japan Daily Advertiser,” of Tōkyō, and the “Herald” and the
“Chronicle” of Kōbe.
It is rather a difficult task to select from the vernacular newspapers the few
most worthy of mention; but two from Ōsaka and six from Tōkyō will suffice.
The “Ōsaka Asahi Shimbun” is said to have the largest circulation in the whole
country; and the “Ōsaka Mainichi Shimbun” is well known. In Tōkyō the most
prominent journals are the “Jiji Shimpō,” the “Nichi Nichi Shimbun,” the
“Kokumin Shimbun,” the “Mainichi Shimbun,” and the “Hōchi Shimbun.”
Another Tokyo paper of very large circulation is the “Yorozu Chōhō.” Almost all
the newspapers of Japan are morning papers; but, as they generally go to press
early in the evening of the preceding day, the “news” is not the latest. But very
important events will always be published in “extras” at any hour.137
There are also magazines galore of every kind. Some of them prove rather
short-lived; but most of them find a constituency, as each one seems to have its
own field. Probably the largest and most successful magazine is named “Taiyō”
(Sun), which issues monthly about 250 pages of Japanese matter, with 24 pages
of English matter, and is finely illustrated. Its leading articles by well-known
writers cover a great variety of topics. The “Kokumin-no-Tomo” (Nation’s
Friend) is another excellent magazine, famous for the admirable style of its
contributions. The “Rikugō Zasshi” (Cosmos) is philosophical and religious.
There are a great many Shintō, Buddhist, and Christian weekly and monthly
periodicals, which are published primarily for the edification of the believers.
“Of making many books there is no end” in Japan. Composition is apparently
such an easy task, and publishing is so cheap, that every person inspired with an
idea is tempted to rush into print. And those who are not so fortunate as to be
rich in “original” ideas, have an inexhaustible field in the translation of books
from English and other Occidental languages; indeed, a fair living may be made
in that way.
Japanese taste in reading is illustrated by a table accompanying a recent
official report from the Imperial Library at Tōkyō. During a period of 24 days
covered by the report, the readers numbered 7,770, and the books called for were
classified as follows:—
 Japanese and European
Chinese works. works.
Theology and religion 635 14
Philosophy and education 2,368 145
Literature and languages 8,038 998
History, biography, geography, travel 9,768 460
Law, politics, sociology, economy, statistics 6,577 304
Mathematics, natural philosophy, medicine 9,506 388
Engineering, military arts, industries 4,943 205
Miscellaneous books 4,840 530
The table will interest American readers as showing how large is the number
of European works included. It may be added that the Japanese are decidedly a
reading people. Even the “jinrikisha man,” waiting on the street-corner for a
customer, is frequently to be seen reading a newspaper, magazine, or book.
The leading firm of booksellers in Japan recently asked a large number of
eminent Japanese men of letters, of science, of business, etc., to name their
favorite European or American books. The 73 answers received have been
published in a Japanese periodical, and are interesting as displaying the literary
tastes of Japanese readers of foreign literature.
The most popular work is Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” which received 26
votes; next come Goethe’s “Faust,” the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” and Hugo’s
“Les Misérables,” in the order named. Among English men of letters, Byron and
Tennyson are the most popular. The names of Stevenson, Hardy, Meredith,
“Mark Twain,” and other recent writers are rarely met with, while that of Kipling
occurs not even once. Among continental writers, Tolstoi, Schopenhauer, Heine,
and Zola are frequently mentioned; and Nietzsche’s “Zarathustra” is
characterized more than once as the greatest work in the last decade of the
nineteenth century.138
Some interesting information with reference to the demand for foreign works
in Japan has been made public in the “Japan Times” by a Japanese importer of
foreign books, and several items therefrom are of interest.
Works relating to architecture and building, chemistry, electricity and
magnetism, engineering and mechanics, manufactures and industrial arts,
metallurgy and mining, together with dictionaries and encyclopædias, enjoy the
largest demand. In chemistry, Remsen is one of the popular authors; in
metallurgy, Phillips’s work heads the list; in electricity and magnetism,
Thomson’s works find the largest number of purchasers; and there is an active
demand for Taggart’s “Cotton Spinning.” The favorite dictionary is “Nuttall’s
Standard Dictionary,” of which the firm above named has already sold between
200,000 and 300,000 copies! Next comes “Webster’s Condensed Dictionary,”
and even “Webster’s Unabridged” sells at the rate of from 50 to 60 copies per
month. The “Students’ Standard Dictionary” also sells well.
Works on scientific subjects, especially new publications, are in great demand,
and show the eagerness of Japanese students to become acquainted with the
results of the latest investigations. In astronomy, Newcomb and Holden’s
popular treatise comes first. In pedagogics, Herbart is the most popular author at
present. In history, Fisher’s “Universal History” heads the list; in general, works
on modern history are in greater demand than those of earlier periods. The
greater demand for language books, among which the Otto series stands first,
may have been due to the arrival of the date [1899] of mixed residence.
Mathematical books are only in fair request.
In medicine, German books have practically driven from the field works in
other languages. In politics and diplomacy, however, French works are preferred;
Walker’s “Political Economy,” Jevons’s “Money,” and Bastiat’s “Science of
Finance” have a large sale. In law, German works are beginning to predominate.
Taine’s “English Literature” heads the list in works of that class, and is used as a
text-book or work of reference in several higher institutions of learning. Of
books on Japan, Griffis’s “Mikado’s Empire” maintains its ground as the
favorite. Works on antiquities and ethnology, elocution and oratory, theology and
religion, are said to be practically devoid of demand; but philosophical works
find good sale, with Herbert Spencer in the van.
Fifty years ago a foreign book had to be smuggled into Japan and studied
secretly; and many an earnest scholar paid with his life the penalty for desiring a
broad education through books. Fifty years ago, Dutch books were about the
only ones, except Chinese, that got into the empire even by smuggling. Now
information is eagerly sought from all quarters of the globe; and books in many
languages are readable by Japanese.139
It is generally supposed that languages, like poets, are “born, not made,” and
that the changes in a language come, not artificially, but naturally. Interesting,
therefore, is the spectacle of an attempt to effect a tremendous reform in a
language, many centuries old, by legislative enactment. The nation which is
making this apparently foolish and useless attempt is Japan, which has already
often startled the world by its marvellous reforms. And if its wonderful success
in legislative reforms in other lines are any criterion in this case, it will succeed
in effecting much-needed reform in its language. At the sixteenth session of the
Imperial Diet, a sum of money was appropriated for a “linguistic commission.”
This was appointed in the spring of that year, has held several meetings, and has
already arrived at some decisions. It has been decided, for instance, that “a
phonographic script” is to be employed; but the much discussed question,
whether it shall be the common Japanese kana (syllabic characters) or Roman
letters, is still on the docket. It is also proposed to reduce the number of Chinese
ideographs in common use. Moreover, the differences between the written and
the spoken language are to be abolished; and the formal epistolary style is to be
reformed. It has also been decided that the whole system of Japanese etymology
must be “carefully revised.” Even the “problem of local dialects” is to be
attacked, and “a standard dialect fixed.” It is noticeable that the commission is
not afflicted with trepidity, but is proceeding with the utmost courage to attack
the most difficult problems. It is composed of some of the most practical as well
as the most scholarly men of the empire, and its work will be watched with the
deepest interest, both at home and abroad. And the great changes already
effected in the Japanese language since the country was opened are some
warrant for believing that this commission will achieve a measure of success.140
And yet we understand that legislative enactment alone cannot make these
reforms perfectly effective; but we are gratified that intelligent public opinion
will support these reforms, not only theoretically, but also practically. For the full
fruition of such reforms must be attained through the schools and the public
press; and the latter has already begun to work along these very lines. It is,
indeed, well for Japan that her leaders realize the necessity of breaking loose
from her thraldom to Chinese letters, literature, thought, and ideals.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Rein’s “Japan”; “Advance Japan” (Morris), chap. xi.; Knapp’s “Feudal and Modern Japan,” vol. ii. chaps.
i.-iii.; and “Japan in History, Folk-lore and Art” (Griffis), pp. 76-91, 104-107. For special study of the
language, Imbrie’s “English-Japanese Etymology,” Chamberlain’s “Hand-book of Colloquial Japanese” and
“Moji no Shirube”141; Aston’s “Grammar of the Japanese Written Language”142; and Brinkley’s
“Unabridged Japanese-English Dictionary.”143 On the literature, Aston’s “History of Japanese Literature,”
entire; see also Chamberlain’s “Japanese Epigrams” in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part
ii.
 CHAPTER XV

EDUCATION
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Old-style education; study of Dutch; modern education; branches of curricula; three
kinds of schools; school age; the Imperial Rescript; kindergartens; elementary schools; middle schools;
higher schools; universities; normal schools; agricultural schools; technical schools; commercial schools;
foreign language schools; art and music; eleemosynary institutions; female education; professional schools;
private schools; mission schools; foreign instructors and study abroad; teachers’ associations; libraries;
scientific study; defects of Japanese education.—Bibliography.

THE old-style education was at first Buddhist, afterwards Confucian, in method

and matter. It comprised chiefly instruction in the Japanese and the Chinese
languages, literature, and history, and was mostly confined to the samurai
(knights), or military class. Female education consisted mainly of reading and
writing Japanese, the elaborate rules of etiquette, and “polite accomplishments”
in music and art. All instruction was given pretty much by the Chinese system of
lectures; and a “memoriter” method of learning hampered original investigation.
Especially in the domain of Japanese history, so called, on which rested the
political institutions, skepticism was practically synonymous with treason.
According to a Japanese authority, “the first book published [in Japan] on
foreign subjects” was by the famous scholar Arai Hakuseki [1657-1725] under
the title “Seiyō Kibun” (Notes of the Western Ocean). Early in the eighteenth
century a few scholars were officially commissioned to study Dutch; and many
others secretly engaged in the same pursuit. It was almost entirely through the
Dutch that, during the period of seclusion, the Japanese obtained their
knowledge of Western countries and peoples, of history and science, especially
of medical science.144 Several Dutch scholars also studied Japan.
But since the opening of Japan new ideas have gradually come to prevail; and
especially since the Restoration of 1868, education, like all other institutions of
Japan, has had the methodical and progressive spirit of Western civilization
infused into it. Foreigners, especially Americans, were called in to remodel the
whole system and to instruct in the new education. Thus in the various provinces
the system of education was graded and made harmonious for the entire empire.
Kindergartens have been established in many localities, and are especially
valuable, because most mothers are incompetent to give satisfactory home
instruction. Six is the age at which a child may enter the “elementary school” for
a course of eight years; next comes the “middle school” for five years; then the
“higher school” for two or three years, and, finally, the Imperial Universities at
Tōkyō and Kyōto, each with its various colleges. There are also normal schools,
“common” and “higher,” for the training of teachers, and a great many technical
and professional schools, public and private. Missionary schools of all grades are
doing an excellent work, and in many particulars supplying a great need. Co-
education prevails only in the elementary schools; and the higher education of
woman has been sadly neglected, but better provision for it is gradually being
made. The first year of the new century was marked by the establishment at
Tōkyō of the first University for Women.145 The present Emperor attended the
“Nobles’ School,” and having ascended the throne, becomes the first Japanese
Emperor educated in a public school; and the Empress Sada attended the
Peeresses’ School.
 IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS, TŌKYŌ
The principal branches taught in the elementary schools are reading, writing,
arithmetic (Japanese and foreign), composition, grammar, geography, history,
physical exercise, morals (Confucian), and English; those in the middle and
higher schools are Japanese and Chinese history, composition, language and
literature, general history, mathematics, sciences, philosophy, morals, physical
exercise, English, French, and German; in the universities the lines of study are
varied and specialized. The Japanese learn well to translate, write, and speak the
modern languages, and in the university may study Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.
If we classify Japanese schools according to management, there are three
kinds: those respectively under the central government, local authorities, and
private auspices. Those of the first class are under the supervision of the
Department of Education, are mainly special schools and higher institutions of
learning, and are supported by appropriations voted by the Imperial Diet in the
annual budget. Those of the second class are mainly elementary, middle and
normal schools, are under the supervision of the local authorities, and are
supported by local taxes, sometimes supplemented by national aid. Those of the
third class are supported chiefly by tuition fees, but may also be assisted by
individual beneficence.146
The school age for children is from six to fourteen, and covers the period of
the elementary school; while the period of compulsory attendance is from six to
ten years of age. During the latter period education is free; and in any case
tuition fees are arranged to suit the financial ability of the payer. Corporal
punishment is not allowed in any school.
The inspiring motive of education in Japan is found in an Imperial Rescript
that the late Emperor issued in October, 1890. A copy of this is kept, often
hanging framed, in every school, and on special occasions it is read aloud, while
all the scholars reverently listen with bowed heads. It reads as follows:147—
KNOW YE, OUR SUBJECTS:
Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply and
firmly implanted virtue. Our subjects, ever united in loyalty and filial piety, have from generation to
generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and
herein also lies the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your
brothers and sisters, as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; brothers, bear yourselves in
modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby
develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore, advance public good and promote
common interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws; should emergency arise, offer
yourselves courageously to the State; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne
coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious
the best traditions of your forefathers.
The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed alike
by their Descendants and the subjects, infallible for all ages and true in all reverence in common with you,
Our subjects, that we may all thus attain to the same virtue.

There are between 200 and 300 kindergartens, public and private, in Japan;
and they are conducted, so far as outward forms are concerned, very much as in
America and Europe. The common means of training are games, singing,
conversation, and handiwork. But the Christian kindergartens are the only ones
that carry out to full fruition the real spirit, as expressed in Froebel’s own words:
“My system is based upon religion and leads up to religion.” The Christian
kindergartens are quite popular and successful.
The Japanese elementary school, like the American grammar school, covers a
period of eight years, which is, however, divided into two parts of four years
each. The lower portion is called the “common elementary school,” and the
upper portion is the “higher elementary school.” In many a small village only the
former is maintained, and the latter is often carried on by the co-operation of
several villages; but in large places both exist, either separately or conjointly.
Under certain circumstances a supplementary course may be established in
elementary schools (Shō Gakkō). English may be begun in the higher elementary
school, and it is required in every middle school.
Each prefecture must maintain at least one middle school (Chū Gakkō), and
three prefectures have as many as seven each. This institution corresponds
practically to an American high school; but its course of study covers five years,
besides the opportunity of a supplementary year. Candidates for admission must
be over twelve years of age, and possess attainments equal to those who have
completed the second year of the higher elementary school. Thus two years of
these schools lap over each other. The number of middle schools, in spite of
annual increase, is still inadequate to accommodate all the applicants.
There are in Japan eight “higher schools” (Kōtō Gakkō), located at Tōkyō,
Sendai, Kyōto, Kanazawa, Kumamoto, Okayama, Yamaguchi, and Kagoshima.
These bear numbers in this order, and are often called by the name “High
School,” because the word Kōtō means simply “high grade.” If the reader, for
instance, sees elsewhere a reference to the “Third High School,” it will refer to
the Kōtō Gakkō at Kyōto. The word “Higher” is, therefore, used in this book to
avoid confusion. These schools are clearing-houses, or preparatory schools, for
the universities, and have also their own complete departments.
 At present there are only two public universities in Japan,—at Tōkyō and
Kyōto. The former contains six colleges (Law, Medicine, Engineering,
Literature, Science, and Agriculture); and the latter consists of only four colleges
(Law, Medicine, Science, and Engineering), but others will be added gradually.
There are also just two great private universities, both in Tōkyō: the Keiō-gijiku,
founded by the late Mr. Fukuzawa, the “great commoner,” and the “grand old
man” of Japan; and the Waseda, founded by that veteran statesman, Count
Ōkuma. There is no Christian institution of university grade, although it is
confidently expected that the Dōshisha, at Kyōto, will soon be elevated again to
that rank. The Japanese universities have very good accommodations and
equipment, with strong faculties, and are doing work worthy to be compared
with that of Occidental universities. One of the most unique phases of university
work in Japan is the fact that the Imperial University in Tōkyō maintains a chair
of seismology, or, in other words, supports a most important “professor of
earthquakes”!
Common normal schools number over fifty; there must be at least one in each
prefecture, and in four cases there are two or three each. Besides these and above
these is a “higher normal school,” or normal college, in Tōkyō, with an
elementary school and a middle school for practice work. There is also in Tōkyō
a “higher female normal school,” with a kindergarten, an elementary school, and
a high school for practice work. But these provisions are inadequate to supply
the increasing demand for teachers in public schools.
Inasmuch as Japan is an agricultural country and is rich in forests, agricultural
and dendrological schools are a necessity, in order that the people may be able to
make the most out of their resources. The Sapporo Agricultural College, founded
by Americans in 1872, is the best of its kind, and furnishes a broader course of
study than its name implies.
And, in order that the industrial life of New Japan may be elevated, and both
capital and labor may profit by the latest inventions and improvements, manual
training and other technical schools have been started and are very popular.
 EDUCATORS AND SCIENTISTS OF JAPAN
BARON ISHIGURO,
VISCOUNT MORI, MR. FUKUZAWA,
DR. KITASATO
In view of the fact that the Japanese are not fitted by natural temperament for
a mercantile life, and yet the geographical position of Japan is so well adapted to
a commercial career, the need of thorough instruction in modern methods of
business has been keenly felt, and is being supplied by business colleges, of
which the Higher Commercial School in Tōkyō is most useful and prosperous.
Formerly an adjunct of the above-mentioned institution, but now an
independent organization, is the Foreign Language School, Tōkyō. Besides this,
several foreign languages are taught in the middle and higher schools and the
universities; and there are also a great many private schools and classes for
instruction in one or more foreign languages. English is, of course, the most
popular and most useful.
The Tōkyō Fine Arts School is the best of its kind, and gives instruction in
painting (both Japanese and European), designing, sculpture, and “industrial
arts,” like engraving, puddling, casting, lacquer, etc. The Tōkyō Academy of
Music is a type of its kind, and gives instruction in vocal and instrumental music
and musical composition. It has accomplished wonders along those lines.
The education of the blind, the deaf, and the dumb is not neglected in Japan;
there are ten schools for the benefit of these unfortunates; and the government
institution in Tōkyō is the most important. Charity schools and orphan asylums
are also carried on, chiefly under Christian auspices, in very poor districts in
large cities.
During the early years of New Japan female education was almost entirely in
the hands of the Christian missionaries, who alone seemed to realize the
necessity of a better education and training for the future mothers of the nation.
But thinking Japanese have come to realize, with Count Ōkuma, that all
countries which have attempted “to work with the male sex as the single
standard” have “fallen signally behind in the march of progress”; and that “Japan
by raising woman to her proper place should provide herself with a double
standard.” Thus it has come about that educational privileges for girls and young
ladies are increasing.
Law schools, medical schools, theological seminaries, and other professional
schools are numerous; on these lines private enterprise is very active, because
the public institutions are inadequate.
There used to be a great dearth of good private institutions of learning, and
this lack was partly due to the fact that private enterprise in this direction
received little encouragement, and public spirit was lacking on the part of those
who might have assisted in this way. But recently both the advantages of private
schools and the opportunities thus afforded to men of means have come to be
appreciated.
In this connection a few words should be written concerning mission schools,
which will also be considered in the chapter on Christianity. In spite of
limitations both from within and from without, these institutions, having their
“ups and downs,” nevertheless maintained themselves and have won popular
favor against a strong prejudice. They have always insisted upon a high mental
and moral standard, and have without doubt aroused the public schools to raise
their standards and ideals. Whatever may be said for or against mission schools
as evangelizing agencies, it is generally acknowledged that, as educational
institutions, they have been models of correct pedagogical principles and
exemplars of high morality.
It is also interesting to note that, after a period during which the Japanese
thought that they could teach foreign languages as well as foreigners, there is an
increasing demand for foreign instructors. Within the past two years several
young men from America have been engaged as teachers of English in middle
schools; and such opportunities are increasing. Moreover, a larger number of
students than ever are annually sent abroad by the government, or go abroad at
their own expense, to finish their education. Thus narrow prejudices are
dissipated and minds are broadened.
Another means for improving the educational system of Japan is to be found
in teachers’ associations, educational societies, and summer institutes. The first
two are local; the last are national. The educational societies are for the purpose
of increasing the general interest in education in the different localities; the
teachers’ associations are, as in America, for the improvement of methods of
instruction; and the summer institutes are for the same purpose on a broader
scale.
What was written about private schools may be repeated concerning libraries.
No Japanese Carnegie has yet appeared; only a few men, like Mr. Ōhashi, and
the late Baron Kodama, formerly Governor of Formosa, have endowed libraries
as memorials. The largest public library is the Imperial Library148 in Tōkyō, with
over 400,000 volumes, of which more than 50,000 volumes are in European
languages.
It is in the domain of science that the Japanese have achieved, perhaps, their
greatest intellectual successes. Their work in original investigation is always
painstaking, and in many cases it has attained an international reputation. The
names of Dr. Kitasato, associated with the famous Dr. Koch in his researches,
and Dr. Aoyama, the hero of the pest in China, are well known; and now comes
Dr. Ishigami, who claims to have discovered the germ of smallpox.
The chief defects in the Japanese educational system are on three lines:
dependence on Chinese ideographs, vague instruction in ethics, and
encouragement of cramming. The removal of these hindrances to progress is
engaging the attention of thoughtful educators, but is a slow and gradual process.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Wee Ones of Japan” (Mrs. Bramhall), pp. 97-108; “When I was a Boy in Japan” (Shioya); “A
Japanese Boy” (Shigemi); “Japanese Girls and Women” and “A Japanese Interior” (Miss Bacon), all give
interesting accounts of school life in both Old and New Japan. The Department of Education issues
annually in English, for free distribution on application, a “Report,” which contains the latest statistics and
other information. “The Educational Conquest of the Far East” (Lewis) is an excellent discussion of
educational conditions and problems of the day in China and Japan. See also Scherer’s “Young Japan,” pp.
284-311. The (English) catalogue of the Imperial University, Tōkyō, is instructive. “Every Day Japan”
(Lloyd) contains interesting material on this subject. “Japanese Education” (Kikuchi) is authoritative.
 CHAPTER XVI

ÆSTHETIC JAPAN
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Japan’s debt to art.—Wide diffusion of æsthetic ideals.—Chinese origin of Japanese
art.—Painting the key-note.—Considered a form of poetry.—Characteristics.—Color prints.—Sculpture.—
Keramics.—Metal work.—Cloisonné. Lacquer.—Embroidery.—Music.—Poetry.—Dancing.—Drama. Tea
ceremonies.—Flower arrangement.—Landscape gardening.—Unity of the arts.—Bibliography.

IT has been said with a great deal of truth that no other country in the world
owes so much to its art as Japan. As Huish puts it, “Japan would never have
attracted the extraordinary notice which she so rapidly did had it not been for her
art.... Her art manufactures have penetrated the length and breadth of the world.”
Yet it is a curious fact, to which Chamberlain calls attention, that the Japanese
have “no genuinely native word” for either art or nature. The expression “fine
art” is commonly represented by the word bi-jutsu, a Chinese compound
meaning literally “beauty-craft.” So intimately are æsthetic ideals bound up with
the whole course of Japanese life and modes of thought, that art is not, as in the
Western world, a mere sporadic efflorescence, but the inevitable expression of
the spirit of the Eastern civilization, and needing therefore no distinctive term to
denote it as a thing set apart and existing by itself.
While this is true, it is also true that Japan furnishes no exception to Mr.
Whistler’s dictum that “there never was an art-loving nation.” The explanation
of this seeming paradox is one which needs to be borne in mind. The æsthetic
ideals crystallized in the works of the countless generations of artists who for
more than a thousand years have held to them firmly as their guiding principles,
have become so much the intellectual heritage of the people as a whole that it is
most natural that the foreign observer, noting the æsthetic impress upon
everything about him, should look upon the Japanese as a nation of artists. To an
extent not known elsewhere the Japanese mechanic is indeed an art-isan. And
there is a measure of truth in Percival Lowell’s assertion that there are “no
mechanical arts in Japan simply because all such have been raised to the position
of fine arts.”149 From the Japanese point of view, however, differences in degree
of artistic perception are as pronounced among the Japanese as among other
peoples. In Japan, as in all other lands, artistic inspiration is given to but few
among the many; artists having creative genius tower high above their fellows;
and the little touches that excite the wonder and admiration of the outside world
are seen to be in large degree the outcome of conventional notions rather than
the expression of individual feeling.
The art of Japan like most other elements in her civilization is of Chinese
origin. Concurrently with the introduction by way of the Middle Kingdom of
that stream of abstract idealism known as Northern Buddhism, China became the
fountain head whence until comparatively recent times a succession of æsthetic
ideas spread over Japan.150 Modern Chinese art is justly held to possess little
merit, but in the days when it exerted its dominating influence upon the Japanese
mind it had attained a very high standard of excellence, and in particular some of
the Chinese painters were among the greatest the world has ever known. With
the exception of a few original modifications, the product of temperament and
historical situation, everything in Japanese art has come from China; yet the
generic ideas have been so worked over and transformed in the process that the
resultant is distinctly not Chinese but Japanese. The influence of Buddhism has
been very great; it would indeed, be difficult to overestimate it.151 Most of the
earlier artists were Buddhist priests, and, until the revival of Shintō as the State
religion, during the present reign, Buddhism was directly and indirectly one of
the principal promoters and patrons of the arts.
 PAINTING BY HO-ITSU: VIEW OF FUJI-SAN
Foremost among the arts of Japan, both relatively and as the key which is
necessary to understanding and appreciation of the others, is painting. It is an art
differing in many respects from that of the European schools of painting, but not
less worthy of serious consideration, and in certain qualities it ranks supreme. To
those who have seen the masterpieces preserved among the temple treasures, or
hidden in the collections of Japanese noblemen, and have felt their grandeur and
charm, this will seem far short of over-statement. In the West, however, there is
little opportunity to gauge the achievements of the great Japanese painters,152
and it is even possible to spend a lifetime in Japan and remain in ignorance
thereof.
Japanese critics have always considered painting to be a form of poetry. The
painter therefore strives to represent the soul of things rather than their visible
forms. Not that he scorns realism, indeed he is often minutely realistic in a way
that is unapproachable; but realism with him is only incidental, his main purpose
being to produce a poem in form and color. To this end all irrelevant details are
necessarily omitted. Nothing is given that in any way interferes with the central
thought. Reduced thus to its simplest elements, his art calls for the utmost
harmony in all that enters into it, and first of all for perfect composition of line,
mass, and vacant space. Scarcely less important is color arrangement, including
the balancing of light and dark as factors in the result. A high degree of technical
skill is also requisite, for the poetry would be lost should the execution seem
labored. The greatest works are, in appearance at least, spontaneous to an
astonishing degree. Wonderful indeed are the possibilities of a single brush
stroke in the hands of a master. The effects produced range from almost
microscopic realism to the broadest impressionism, the latter quality being
predominant in the works of some of the most eminent artists.
So far as it is possible to sum them up in a brief statement, the distinguishing
characteristics of Japanese painting are these:—
1. Excellence of composition.
2. Subtlety and beauty of line.
3. Remarkable command of the brush, and directness of method in its use.
4. Simplicity of treatment, and rigid exclusion of non-essentials.
5. Absence of chiaroscuro, and the employment of notan, or contrast between light and dark.
6. Skilful generalization of forms.
7. Poetical conception.
 8. High development of the sense of harmony in color.

Any such summing up is, however, necessarily imperfect. It is not feasible to

give here any account of the various schools and artists, and the reader desiring
more extended information is referred to the sources indicated in the
bibliography appended to this chapter. Before leaving this branch of the subject,
mention should be made of calligraphy, which, although justly regarded in Japan
as an art, is not so much a separate art as the art of painting applied to writing the
Chinese ideographs. It will not appear strange, therefore, that masterly writing
should be esteemed equally with painting.
An art closely allied to painting is that of chromoxylography, or color printing
from engraved wood blocks. Nothing could be simpler than the method
employed, the sheets of paper being laid face down on the block which has been
previously inked with a brush, and pressure is then applied by rubbing the back
of the sheets with a pad held in the hand of the printer. Nevertheless no greater
triumphs of the printer’s art have ever been achieved than the beautiful color
prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries after designs by Harunobu,
Koriusai, Shunsho, Kyonaga, Toyokuni, Utamaro, Hokusai, and other noted
artists of the Popular school. Though still in use, this process is largely being
superseded by the cheaper, if less artistic, processes of lithography, collotype,
etc.
In glyptic art the triumphs of the Japanese have been little less than in that of
painting. The most remarkable specimens are the ancient figures in bronze and
in wood which are preserved in the temples. The Daibutsu, or gigantic bronze
statue of Buddha, at Nara will serve as an example, having been illustrated so
often that all the world is familiar with its appearance.
The objects upon which the art of the Japanese sculptors has been exercised
are many. Particularly in the carving of the masks used in the Nō dances, and the
little ornaments called netsuke, the skill and artistic qualities displayed are often
of the highest order. It would be difficult to overpraise the best work of such
artists in this line, as Deme Jikan, Minko, Tomotada, Miwa, and many others. As
in the case of painting, the method used by the carver must be direct and
masterly to satisfy Japanese taste. Only clean, strong strokes will pass muster.
There must be no niggling nor retouching. Visitors to the shrines at Nikkō will
be impressed by this quality in the remarkable works to be found there by the
famous seventeenth-century sculptor Hidari Jingorō, that is to say, “Left-handed
Jingorō.”
One of the most ancient of the arts of Japan is that of the potter. It is also one
of the most profitable for study. The principles which have been enumerated as
applicable to painting will be found carefully embodied in the fabrication and
ornamentation of keramic wares, the variety of which is endless. In some
instances these wares are known by the names of the makers, as Ninsei, Kenzan,
Kozan, Seifu, and others; but in general they are designated by the names of the
provinces wherein they are made. Thus we have the wares of Satsuma, Hizen,
Arita, Imari, Kaga, Kyōto, Owari, Bizen, Iga, Ota, Soma, Izumo, and many
more. Occasionally the name of a particular locality is used, as for instance that
of Seto in Owari. Here it was that Shirozaemon, called “the Father of Pottery,”
established himself in the thirteenth century; and such was the repute of the
products of his kiln that Seto-mono, or Seto ware, became a generic name in
Japan for all keramic productions, quite as in English we use the term “china”
for all kinds of porcelain wherever made.
Unfortunately the Japanese potter of to-day is largely under the influence of
foreign markets, to the great degradation of his art. The condition is well
portrayed by Huish, who says: “The wealthy ‘red-hairs’ who came to him from
the West could see no beauties in the objects that had given the greatest pleasure
to the men of refinement of his own country; and in order that the potter might
participate in the overflow of silver dollars with which the foreigners were
blessed, he was obliged to put aside those principles which he and his father
before him had looked upon as the fundamental ones of their craft, and produce
wares totally at variance with his preconceived ideas of the right.”
Many and distinctive are the arts of the Japanese metal-workers. They are
widely renowned for their skill in compounding numerous alloys, for inlaying
one metal upon another, for clever manipulation of refractory materials such as
wrought iron of exceeding toughness which they nevertheless carve and chase
almost as though it were wax, for casting in bronze and iron by the cire perdue
process, and especially for the manufacture of armor, both offensive (such as
swords and spears) and defensive (such as helmets and coats of mail). Japanese
swords excel even the famous blades of Damascus and Toledo, and the names of
the swordsmiths Munichika, Masamune, Muramasa, and others, are now of
international reputation. The blades which were made by these men are not only
of extraordinary excellence, but are also veritable works of art and highly prized
as such by connoisseurs. Equally celebrated in different lines are the works of
the Miochin and Goto families; and among the metal-workers of to-day are
many worthy successors of these giants of the past.
The art of enamelling upon metal is, with some exceptions, comparatively a
new one in Japan, but is now very popular. The wares are known to the Japanese
as Shippō-yaki, and in general, in the West, as cloisonné. The centres of the
enamel-workers are Tōkyō, Kyōto, and Nagoya, and the best-known makers are
Namikawa, of Tōkyō, the inventor of the “cloison-less” enamel, and his
namesake of Kyōto.
One of the most distinctive of the arts of Japan is that of lacquering, and the
Japanese product far excels that of any other makers. The lac, which is a varnish
made from the poisonous sap of a tree of the sumac (rhus) family, is applied in
thin layers on a carefully prepared ground, usually of wood, and after being
dried in a moist oven or steam-chest, is carefully rubbed down and polished.
This is repeated with each layer. Various substances, metallic and other, are
mixed with the lac or applied to its surface before it is dry, and it may be carved
and inlaid in different ways. This is a bare outline of a process which is long and
tedious and which has many variations. Extended accounts with many
interesting details will be found in Rein’s “Industries of Japan,” in the ninth
volume of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and in Volume VII.
of Captain Brinkley’s “Japan.”
 PAINTING BY YASUNOBU: HERON AND LOTUS
Embroidery, like the designing for brocades and other fabrics, is an art which
follows closely the analogies of the art of painting, and is governed by the same
æsthetic principles. The embroiderers in Japan are not women but men, and in
their work they often display remarkable taste and ability as designers, as well as
craftsmanship of the highest order.
To Occidental ears Japanese music, set, as it always is, in a minor key and
abounding in discords, seems unworthy of the name of music. To characterize it
as merely “strummings and squealings” because it does not conform to our
ideas, is, however, an unfair aspersion. The fact is that it is based upon a scale
which differs from that which we use, one of its peculiarities being the
introduction of a semi-tone above the tonic. In the Japanese mind music is so
closely related to the sister arts of poetry and dancing that neither can well be
treated separately. As Captain Brinkley tells us: “There is no Japanese music that
will not serve as accompaniment for the Japanese stanza, and the stanza, in turn,
adapts itself perfectly to the fashion of the Japanese dance. The law of the unities
seems to have prescribed that the cadence of the stanza should melt into the lilt
of the song, and that the measure of the song should be worked out by the
‘woven paces and waving hands’ of the dance. The affinity between them is so
close that it is difficult to tell where one begins and the other ends.”
Japanese poetry is also conspicuously different from that of the Occident. It is
a form of word painting in brief lyrics, and “it is primarily an expression of
emotion.” The odes which all Japanese learn to compose are verbal melodies
which can be neither transposed nor translated. Owing to the nature of the
Japanese language, there are no accented syllables, nor is there any quantity, nor
any rhyme. This is well explained by Aston in his “History of Japanese
Literature.” He says:—
“As every syllable ends in a vowel, and as there are only five vowels, there could only be five rhymes,
the constant reiteration of which would be intolerably monotonous.... The only thing in the mechanism of
Japanese poetry which distinguishes it from prose is the alternation of phrases of five and seven syllables
each. It is, in fact, a species of blank verse.”

The art of dancing, which consists mainly in rhythmic posturings, often of

great beauty, and requiring not only physical training of the most rigorous
character but a high degree of skill, is in turn intimately associated with the
histrionic art. For an account of the early dances and their gradual merging into
the classical drama or dance known as Nō (literally, “accomplishment”), the
reader is referred to the third volume of Captain Brinkley’s “Japan: Its History,
Arts, and Literature.” Few foreigners ever learn to appreciate Japanese dancing.
Its primary purpose is mimetic. “The mechanics of the dance,” says Brinkley,
“are as nothing to the Japanese spectator compared with the music of its motion,
and he interprets the staccato and legato of its passages with discrimination
amounting almost to instinct. In exceptional cases the foreigner’s perception may
be similarly subtle,” but as he must generally be unable to apprehend the
esoterics of the dance, he is “like one watching a drama where an unknown plot
is acted in an unintelligible language.”
As to the Japanese drama proper, it differs from our own chiefly in the stage
setting and accessories, and in the greater importance given to the mimetic side
of the performance.
An art essentially Japanese is that of flower arrangement. In its origin it is
closely related to the Cha-no-yu, or Tea Ceremonial, which developed into a cult
during the Shōgunate of Ashikaga Yoshimasa in the fifteenth century. This cult,
which was founded on the four cardinal virtues of urbanity, courtesy, purity, and
imperturbability, has been a mighty force in holding the Japanese true to a high
standard in matters of taste, by combining “æsthetic eclecticism of the most
fastidious nature with the severest canons of simplicity and austerity.” The end
has been achieved not so much by the elaborate code as through what it stands
for; the ceremony being in reality a gathering of connoisseurs to view works of
art, each of which to win favor must meet the requirements of the most exacting
taste. Out of the æsthetic necessity of making fitting disposition of the flowers
introduced into the tea-room, grew the art of Ike-bana, or flower arrangement.
This has gradually come to have an elaborate code of its own, and several
distinct “schools” have arisen. In a general way it may be said that the art
consists in arranging flowers with regard to harmonious composition of line,
while keeping in mind certain poetic analogies which must not be violated, and
the appearance of vitality and natural growth. Here, again, the principles of
composition in painting find their application.
Still another application is found in landscape gardening, which in the hands
of the Japanese is also a fine art. This too has its different “schools” and its
special code of rules, formulated during the many centuries of development at
the hands of successive generations of artists.
Japan is, in truth, a shining example of the essential unity of all the arts, and
illustrates admirably the truth of the old saying, Natura artis magister (Nature
the mistress of art). Unfortunately, what has been said in this chapter applies
more to Old Japan than to the Japan of to-day. Modern Japan, whether rightly or
wrongly, is becoming tired of being praised for æsthetic excellence, and is more
anxious to be appraised and appreciated for its material, social, commercial, and
political “progress.” To the cultivated Japanese, who regard art as the highest
outcome and flowering of civilization, this tendency is not encouraging. And as
to the future of Japanese art, its perpetuation must come from excluding rather
than attempting to amalgamate Western ideas. In the impressive words of
Okakura, the outcome will be “victory from within, or a mighty death without.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Painting: “The Pictorial Arts of Japan” (Anderson); “Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the
British Museum” (Anderson); “The Painters of Japan” (Morrison).
Prints: “An Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye” (Fenollosa); “Geschichte des Japanischen
Farbenholzschnitts” (Seidlitz); “Japanese Illustration” (Strange); “Japanese Wood Engravings” (Anderson);
“Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut Printing” (Tokuno).
Pottery: “Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese Pottery, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston” (Morse);
“Japan: Its History, Art, and Literature” (Brinkley); “Keramic Art of Japan” (Audsley and Bowes); “L’Art
Japonais” (Gonse).
Glyptic Art: “Histoire de l’Art du Japan,” published by the Japanese Commission for the Paris Exposition
of 1900. This work contains much information about all the arts, not available elsewhere.
Metal Work—Lacquer: “The Industries of Japan” (Rein); “Notes on Shippo” (Bowes); “Ornamental Arts
of Japan” (Audsley); “L’Art Japonais” (Gonse); “Japan and its Art” (Huish).
Music: “The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan” (Piggott); “Miyako-Dori” (Bevan).
Poetry: “History of Japanese Literature” (Aston); “Classical Poetry of the Japanese” (Chamberlain);
“Japanese Odes” (Dickins).
Drama: “Artistic Japan,” vol. v. (edited by S. Bing).
Flower Arrangement: “The Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement” (Conder).
Landscape-Gardening: “Landscape-Gardening in Japan” (Conder).
Tea Ceremonial: “The Book of Tea” (Okakura).
General: “An Artist’s Letters from Japan” (La Farge); “Jinrikisha Days in Japan” (Scidmore).
 CHAPTER XVII153

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTŌ
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Religion in Japan; Shintō; a “natural religion”; simple services; religious patriotism;
perfunctory worship; Shintō doomed “as a religion”; secularization of Ise shrines; element of
embarrassment to Christians; “worship” (?) of Emperor’s portrait; difficulties in translation of Christian
terms; method of reforms in Japan; future of Shintō.—Bibliography.

IT is a curious fact that Japan cannot boast of an indigenous religion, or of much

original mental or moral philosophy. “Shintō” (The Gods’ Way), purely Japanese
in its origin, is only a cult, a system of worship, not a religion, or even a
philosophy. Buddhism and Confucianism came in from China, perhaps through
Korea, and Christianity entered from Europe and America.
Shintō is a system in which the deification and worship of heroes, emperors,
family ancestors, and forces of nature play an important part. It has no dogmas,
no sacred books, no moral code, “no philosophy, no code of ethics, no
metaphysics”; it sums up its theory of human duty in the following injunction:
“Follow your natural impulses and obey the laws of the State.”154 It requires of
its adherents nothing except worship at certain temples or shrines on stated days.
A “pure Shintō” temple is an exceedingly plain affair, in front of which, at a little
distance, is invariably set a torii, or arch. Without idols, the temple contains, as
emblems of Shintō, strips of paper hanging from a wand, together with a mirror.
The form of ordinary worship is simple: it consists of washing the face, or hands,
or both, with holy water; of ringing a bell, or clapping the hands, to call the
god’s attention; of casting in a coin as an offering; of standing with clasped
hands during a short prayer, and of making a farewell bow. This ceremony is
sufficient to “cover a multitude of sins”! At the regular festivals there are special
and elaborate services, at which the priests (often laymen) officiate. Pilgrimages
to holy spots, usually “high places,” are important in Shintō.
But Shintō seems destined to decay as naturally as it developed. According to
the best authorities, it was, in the original and purest form, ancestor-worship
combined with the worship of nature. That is to say, it arose from the natural
reverence paid to ancestors, whether individual or national, and from the awe
inspired by the wonderful and frequently horrible forces of nature. In time these
two elements became more or less confused, so that eventually, in some cases,
national ancestors were identified with heavenly bodies, and the sun, for
instance, worshipped as a goddess, was called the special ancestor of the
Japanese nation. It seems proper, therefore, to call Shintō, so far as the word
“religion” is applicable to it, a “natural religion” in more senses than one of the
word “natural.”155
It has just been intimated that the word “religion” is not in all points
applicable to Shintō. It has, for instance, no dogmas or creed, except the very
simple and general injunction: “Follow your own natural impulses and obey the
laws of the State.” Dr. Nitobe says, in his book entitled “Bushidō”: “The tenets
of Shintōism cover the two predominating features of the emotional life of our
race—patriotism and loyalty.” Its services are very simple, and consist of the
presentation of offerings and the recital of formal addresses, which are partly
praises and partly prayers. In one ritual, that of purification, it is true that there
may be seen signs of moral instruction; but this is now a mere formal ceremony,
performed, perhaps, only twice a year in some, not all, of the principal Shintō
shrines. Certainly, in the sense that Christianity, with its creeds, whether simple
or complex, its moral doctrines, its spiritual teachings, its outlook into the future
life, its restraining and uplifting influence upon the individual and society, is
called a religion, Shintō has no right to that appellation.
But as a system of national as well as of individual worship, including prayers
to the deified ancestors or national heroes or to the personified and deified
powers of nature, Shintō is properly a religion. And there can be no doubt that,
in the eyes of the great mass of the people, it has all the force of a religion. One
needs to stand but a few minutes in front of a Shintō shrine to observe that the
mode of worship is practically the same as that before a Buddhist temple. This
does not refer to the regular public ceremonies at stated times, but to the brief
ordinary visits of the common people to the shrines and temples as they may be
passing by. In their hearts there is apparently as much “worship” and “reverence”
in one case as in the other. And this superstitious attitude of the people toward
Shintō has been utilized on more than one occasion in political measures, so that
Shintō has often been nothing but a political engine. “In its lower forms [it] is
blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates.” It has thus been unfairly
used as a test of so-called patriotism, a kind of ecclesiastical patriotism, founded
on mythology and superstition. Thus Shintō has been, as Sir Ernest Satow called
it, “in a certain sense, a state religion, since its temples are maintained out of the
imperial and local revenues, and the attendance of the principal officials is
required by court etiquette at certain annual festivals which are celebrated at the
palace.” Similarly, local officials are required to be present and “worship” on
certain occasions at local shrines. As Dr. Griffis has remarked, “To those
Japanese whose first idea of duty is loyalty to the Emperor, Shintō thus becomes
a system of patriotism exalted to a religion.”
But the relation of the educated classes toward Shintō is quite different. A
knowledge of science has shown the foolishness of personifying and deifying the
forces of nature and of worshipping foxes, badgers, and other animals.
Moreover, the scientific study of the Japanese annals has revealed the absurdities
of much that had been accepted as real history, and has shown that the so-called
historical foundation of Shintō is a mass of myths and legends. The well-
educated Japanese do not believe the nonsense of the “Kojiki”156 upon which the
claim that the Emperor should be worshipped is based; but few, if any, dare to
give public expression to their own private opinions, for they love life and
reputation more than liberty of speech. And many of those who really know
better not only will employ the old fictions in word of mouth or on the written
page, but will even visit shrines and go perfunctorily through the forms of
worship.
Now it is quite evident that, ever since the opening of Japan and the
consequent spread of popular education, the diffusion of scientific knowledge,
and the propagation of Christianity, Shintō as a religion has been doomed. Not
merely monotheism, but also science, ridiculed the Shintō doctrine of myriads of
gods; and even atheism and agnosticism, so heartily welcomed in Japan, would
not lend any support to the superstitions of Shintō. Ever since the Restoration of
1868, which was, of course, a revival of pure political Shintō, frequent attempts
have been made to have Shintō declared, in actual fact, by special enactment, the
State religion of Japan. But religious Shintō has been suffering a gradual decline,
as Dr. Griffis shows in “The Religions of Japan.” For a little while the council
that had charge of Shintō matters “held equal authority with the great council of
the government. Pretty soon the first step downward was taken, and from a
supreme council it was made one of the ten departments of the government. In
less than a year followed another retrograde movement, and the department was
called a board. Finally, in 1877, the board became a bureau.” And, in the closing
year of the nineteenth century, another step downward was taken by making a
complete official demarcation between Shintō shrines and Buddhist temples.
Hereafter Buddhist and Christian matters come under the charge of the Bureau
of Religions; while Shintō affairs are entirely secularized and set apart under a
Bureau of Shrines. This is the final step in the official disestablishment of Shintō.
It is one of the greatest triumphs of civilization and Christianity in Japan, for it
has evidently been made necessary by the spread of the gospel; and this move is
fraught with deep significance, with great promise and encouragement.
 Even before this official action had been taken, the necessity for completely
secularizing Shintō had been fully recognized within its own circles. In 1899 the
officials of the Great Shrine at Ise, in which are preserved the mirror, the sword,
and the jewel, the three sacred treasures of Shintō, took the proper legal steps to
become a secular organization. They asserted that Shintō is “merely a
mechanism for keeping generations in touch with generations, and preserving
the continuity of the nation’s veneration for its ancestors.” Shintō could never
hope “to stand as a religion,” but it might stand “as the embodiment of a national
sentiment.” According to the editor of the “Japan Mail,” the leaders of Shintō
have “shown great astuteness” in taking that step; and others have even
suggested that they have very shrewdly laid a most dangerous trap for Christians
by attempting to deprive them of a valid reason for not participating in Shintō
ceremonies.
And there is no doubt that there still remains an element of embarrassment to
Christians. Nominally and theoretically, Shintō is no longer a religion; it is
“merely a cult embodying the principle of veneration for ancestors, and having
for its chief function the performance of rites in memory of the [so-called] divine
ancestors of the empire’s sovereigns.” But the common people will continue to
regard Shintō in the light of a religion, and to worship and pray at the shrines.
Until, therefore, the masses are educated up to a knowledge of the distinctions
between “human” and “divine,” “secular” and “religious,” “reverence” and
“worship,” they will continue to bow their heads, clap their hands, and mumble
their prayers at Shintō shrines. Christians, of course, ought not to indulge in such
practices; but, because such things are done by those who do not know better,
should they refrain entirely from participating in national celebrations and
patriotic ceremonies? Or should they, regardless of what others may be doing,
take part in whatever way their consciences will allow? Is this a case in which
Paul’s instructions about eating meat and things offered to idols would be
applicable?
This is really much the same question that arose some years ago with
reference to bowing before the Emperor’s portrait. To that ceremony the
common word for “worship” [reihai or hairei] was applied; and therefore many
Christians conscientiously refused to perform it. Now, those Japanese words are
composed of rei, a very common term indicating any polite act, and hai, which
in its original ideographic form was written with a picture of two hands clasped,
and therefore naturally indicates worship. But this word hai is an integral part of
such words as haiken (a very polite expression for “please let me see”), haishaku
(“please lend”), haikei (the humble phrase at the beginning of a letter). In all
these cases the word hai expresses a humble request to a superior, originally
made with clasped hands and bowed head. These words are in daily use by
Christians, including missionaries, without conscientious scruples, because they
are apparently cases of what rhetoricians call “fossil metaphors.” It would
appear, then, that hai, which gives reihai its significance of “worship,” may have
shades of meaning, just as we speak, not only of the “worship of the one, true
God,” but also of “hero-worship.” It is, in fact, a question of terms in a language
and among a people where such fine distinctions are not drawn between the
secular and the religious, the common and the uncommon, the holy and the
unholy. In a country where each person must humble himself before others and
must express that humility in words and deeds that to Occidentals suggest Uriah
Heep, and where profound bows are the most ordinary occurrence, bowing to the
Emperor’s portrait is scarcely “worship.” It is no more “worship” or “idolatry”
than baring the head when the United States flag was raised at San Juan de Porto
Rico, or when the British sing “God Save the King,” or than standing with bared
and bowed heads before an open grave. To repeat, the whole question is largely
one of terms in a language undergoing great transitions and modifications
through contact with Occidental thought and speech.
In this connection the whole subject of translation comes up. What Japanese
words, for instance, shall be used for “God,” “spirit,” “love,” “home,”
“worship,” “personal,” and many other terms? The ideas included in such words
do not exist in the Japanese mind, and therefore there are no absolutely
equivalent terms. Either old words of lower concepts must be used, or words
must be coined; in either case the full idea of the original is not transferred to the
Japanese mind without considerable explanation. But this is a digression.
This disestablishment of Shintō is another instance of the peculiar method by
which reforms, whether political, social, or moral, are usually accomplished in
Japan. In Occidental nations political reforms have been initiated by the people,
by the power of public opinion; and popular rights have been wrested by the
ruled from the unwilling rulers, whether feudal barons or monarchs. But in Japan
all the political and social reforms of the last few decades have been imposed by
the ruling classes upon the indifferent people. It is probably true that the great
mass of the Japanese care very little, if any, whether their government is an
absolute or a constitutional monarchy; know scarcely anything about the cabinet,
the Imperial Diet, the new codes, and such things; and are contented with the old
customs, costumes, ceremonies, and religions. They are not like that Irishman
who, when he was asked, immediately upon landing in New York, to which
party he belonged, promptly replied, “I’m agin the government.” The common
people of Japan go to the other extreme and are always “for the government”;
that is, they favor the established order, whatever it may be, and do not want any
disturbance. Or it may, perhaps, be nearer the truth to say that they keep “the
noiseless tenor of their way,” regardless of what changes may be transpiring in
social and political Japan. But, although they are natural conservatives, they are,
nevertheless, able to adapt themselves gradually to the new order of things, as
soon as these are firmly established. Now this disestablishment of Shintō has not
come about, as idolatry has often been overthrown in the isles of the sea, in
accordance with the demands of the people, who had learned better from the
teachings of Christianity and modern science; but it has been carried out
somewhat as a political measure by the government, and the people must still be
educated up to an understanding of the new status of Shintō.
But, although Shintō will continue for some time to be considered a religion
by the mass of the people, and thus the full results of disestablishment cannot be
immediately realized; yet this official removal of Shintō from the position of a
religion is one of the most important reforms of this great reform era in Japan.
When Constantine disestablished the religions of Greece and Rome by
establishing Christianity as the religion of his empire, the worship of Zeus (or
Jupiter), of Aphrodite (or Venus), and of the other deities of Olympus, did not
cease at once; nor, on the other hand, did the efforts of Julian succeed in reviving
the old idolatry. Shintō will linger and continue to attract thousands of
worshippers to its shrines; but it is doomed to die as perished the Greek and
Roman religions. Amaterasu, the sun-goddess, will yet have her votaries in
Japan as had Apollo in Greece and Rome; but the rays of the Sun of
Righteousness will dispel the darkness of this myth. The farmers will continue to
make their offerings and their petitions at the shrines of Inari Sama, the rice-god,
and will attempt to propitiate the wrath of the god of thunder and lightning; but
they will gradually learn of the Almighty, who sendeth seed-time and harvest,
lightning and thunder, rain and sunshine. The sailors and fishermen will continue
their worship at the shrines of their special deities, until they know of Him who
maketh the seas to be calm and the winds to be still. Therefore, although the
Japanese government has pronounced the sentence of death upon the Shintō
religion, the execution of that sentence will be a very gradual and prolonged
affair. In the mean time it behooves the disciples of Jesus Christ to be
unremitting in their labors of teaching the Japanese people to substitute for “the
Way of the Gods” the religion of Him who said, “I am the Way, the Truth, and
the Life.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Rein’s “Japan,” Peery’s “Gist of Japan,” Cary’s “Japan and its Regeneration,” Knapp’s “Feudal and
Modern Japan,” and Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” pp. 162-193. But especially valuable are “The
Religions of Japan” (Griffis), “The Development of Religion in Japan” (Knox), “Occult Japan” (Lowell),
Hearn’s works, and papers by Sir Ernest Satow and Dr. Florenz in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan,
vols. ii., iii. (App.), vii., ix., xxvii. These references are, of course, on the general subject of Shintō rather
than the special topic of this chapter.
Aston’s “Shintō: The Way of the Gods” (1905) is, of course, most excellent. Hozumi’s “Ancestor-
Worship and Japanese Law” is very valuable.
 CHAPTER XVIII

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDŌ, BUDDHISM

OUTLINE OF TOPICS: Confucianism; “Five Relations”; Bushidō; influences of
Confucianism and Bushidō.—Buddhism; general view; chief sects; Tendai sect;
Shingon sect; Zen sect; Jōdo sect; Shin sect; Nichiren sect; New Buddhism;
influences of Buddhism; corruption of Buddhism; control of cemeteries; mixed
sects.—Relations of Shintō, Confucianism, and Buddhism.—Religious
toleration.—Bibliography.
THE philosophical teachings of Confucius were very popular in Japan among
the educated classes, who, caring little for religion, were content to supplement
Shintō with Confucianism. Its moral code undoubtedly proved beneficial to
Japan in many respects; but now it is practically superseded by the doctrines of
Western atheistic, agnostic, and materialistic philosophy.
The “five relations” (gorin), around which clustered the Confucian ethical
code, were those of Father and Son, Ruler and Ruled, Husband and Wife, Elder
and Younger Brothers, and Friends. In China, “filial piety,” the great virtue of
the first relation, was the foundation of the whole system; but in Japanese
Confucianism this was relegated to the second place, and “loyalty,” the great
virtue of the second relation, was put first. The scope of this relation, moreover,
was quite wide; it included not only the relation between the sovereign and his
subjects, but also that between a lord and his retainers, and even that between
any master and servants. The virtue of the third relation was known as
“distinction,” which practically meant that each should know and keep his or her
own place; that of the fourth relation was “order,” which insisted upon the
primacy of seniority in age; and between friends the typical virtue was “faith,” or
“trust,” or “confidence.”
The word Bushidō means, literally, “The Warrior’s Way,” which was the code
of ethics that prevailed in Feudal Japan, and whose influence is still felt,
although waning, in Modern Japan. It was the moral code of Japanese chivalry,
of the knight and of the gentleman. It has not inaptly been styled “Japonicized
Confucianism,” for it was chiefly Confucian in its constitution. But it gathered
elements from Shintō and Buddhism: from the latter it received fatalism
(Stoicism); and from the former it received loyalty and patriotism, which meant
practically the same thing. It ignored personal chastity (except in women); it
encouraged suicide and revenge; but it emphasized justice, courage,
benevolence, politeness, veracity, honor, and self-control. One of its most
powerful principles was giri (right reason), which is difficult to translate or
define, but comes pretty close to what we call “duty” or “the right.” This still
maintains a potent influence in New Japan, and often accounts for erratic
procedures. Indeed, so-called peculiarities of the Japanese cannot be understood
without a knowledge of Bushidō, which has been analyzed in a flattering manner
in Dr. Nitobe’s book, entitled “Bushidō, the Soul of Japan.”
Inasmuch as the influence of Confucianism in Japan was chiefly manifested
through Bushidō, to be correct, we ought to speak of their joint influences. But
since Bushidō, as we have just seen, was largely Confucianism, slightly
modified to suit the needs of the Japanese spirit (Yamato-damashii), we shall, for
convenience, follow other writers in using the term “Confucianism.” Rein
testifies that in Japan “widely diffused religious indifference and formal atheism
are the consequences” of the pursuit of Confucianism. Chamberlain says that
“during the two hundred years that followed, the whole intellect of the country
was moulded by Confucian ideas.” Griffis bears similarly strong testimony, and
emphasizes the fact that “all Japanese social, official, intellectual, and literary
life was permeated with the new spirit of Confucian thought.” It is not strange,
therefore, that when Japan was opened to the world, and Occidental learning and
literature poured in, the materialism and the agnosticism of the West met with a
sympathetic reception.
 GROUP OF PILGRIMS, AND BUDDHIST PRIESTS
Buddhism is the accepted faith of the great mass of the Japanese people. It
was introduced into Japan from Korea, in the sixth century A. D., and spread
rapidly. It is now divided in Japan into eight sects, with various sub-sects, which
bring the grand total up to about thirty-five. These sects vary, some in doctrines
and others in rituals, and are even quite hostile to each other. The Shin sect
deserves, perhaps, a special mention; because it opposes celibacy and asceticism,
does not restrict the diet, worships only one Buddha, and preaches salvation by
faith. It is often called “the Protestantism of Buddhism.” Buddhist temples are
usually magnificent structures, and the ritual is elaborate; but, in spite of the
assistance of Colonel Olcott, Sir Edwin Arnold, and others, it is fast losing
ground. It has degenerated and become idolatry and superstition. It keeps hold of
the ignorant masses, and even of intelligent persons, chiefly because it has
control of funeral rites and cemeteries. It has been said that a Japanese is a
Shintōist in life and a Buddhist at death; and it is also true that he may be during
life, at one and the same time, a devotee of both. Buddhism may suffice for a
people who are crushed under an Oriental despotism; but Christianity alone is
the religion of liberty and progress. Buddha may be “the light of Asia,” but Jesus
Christ is “the light of the world.”
Nanjō, the historian of Japanese Buddhism, has written a “History of the
Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects”; but as some of these are now defunct, it is
sufficient to notice here only eight principal sects, as follows: Tendai, Shingon,
Zen, Jōdo, Shin, Nichiren, Ji, Yuzu Nembutsu. Moreover, as the last two of these
are comparatively insignificant, the mere mention of their names is enough, but a
little more should be said concerning each of the other six.
1. The Tendai sect is the oldest, but now ranks among the lowest. It belongs to
the school which “sought to define truth and to find salvation in knowledge”: but
as the truth was often too abstruse for the mass, it must be dealt out, by means of
pious devices, according to the ability of the learner; so that the disciples of this
sect have been called the Jesuits of Buddhism.
2. To the same school belongs the Shingon sect, which is only a year younger
than the former sect and now ranks third in the list. It was founded by the
celebrated priest Kōbō Daishi; and its doctrines also are quite abstruse. This is
the sect which is responsible for that mixing of Shintō and Buddhism that
prevailed for so many centuries by the adoption of Shintō deities into the
Buddhist pantheon. These believers are sometimes called the Gnostics of
Buddhism.
3. The Zen sect represents the school which teaches that “abstract
contemplation leads to a knowledge of saving truth.” “Look carefully within,
and there you will find the Buddha.” This sect arose probably “out of a reaction
against the multiplication of idols,” and was “a return to simpler forms of
worship and conduct”; therefore its disciples have been called “the Quakers of
Japanese Buddhism.” Others call them “the Japanese Quietists” or “the Japanese
Mystics.” This is now the largest Buddhist sect.
4. A third school, teaching that salvation was to be obtained only through the
works of another, has been represented by two sects, the Jōdo and the Shin. The
former, which now ranks fourth, was founded upon a very simple doctrine, with
an easy rule of life, that is, the frequent repetition of the invocation Namu Amida
Butsu, “Hail to Amida the Buddha.” These Buddhists use a double rosary.
5. The Shin sect,157 which sprung out of the Jōdo sect, is that of the Japanese
Reformers or Protestants. In numerical strength it is second to the Zen sect, but
in real power and influence it is facile princeps. Its priests are allowed to marry,
and to eat flesh and fish. It teaches that morality is as important as faith; or, in
quite familiar words, that “faith without works is dead.” It is monotheistic, as it
worships only one Buddha. It alone of all Buddhist sects provides a way of
salvation for women. It upholds a high standard of education, carries on vigorous
missions in China and Korea, and has priests even in America.
6. The sect founded by the priest Nichiren and named for him is not large, but
very radical and influential. In their controversial and uncompromising attitude
toward other religions or even other sects of Buddhism, the disciples of the
“fiery Nichiren” have been called “the Jesuits of Buddhism.” Their invocation is
Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō (Hail to the Doctrine of the Lotus of the Wonderful
Law). Their doctrine is complete pantheism; as Dr. Griffis expresses it, Nichiren
“was destined to bring religion, not only down to men, but even down to the
beasts and the mud.”
Of all these sects, the only one which has been appreciably influenced by
contact with Western civilization and conflict with Christianity is the Shin sect.
One type of New Buddhism tries to ally itself with the doctrines of scientific
evolution. Another type has learned lessons from Christian activity in Japan, and
is putting forth its energies in the direction of philanthropic and educational
institutions; so that it has its hospitals, magazines, schools, and, to balance the
Young Men’s Christian Association, its Young Men’s Buddhist Association, with
summer schools, etc. The New Buddhism will die hard.
The influence of Buddhism upon the Japanese people must not be
underestimated, especially because it is still manifest, to a high degree, even in
New Japan. Chamberlain says:158 “All education was for centuries in Buddhist
hands, as was the care of the poor and sick; Buddhism introduced art, introduced
medicine, moulded the folk-lore of the country, created its dramatic poetry,
deeply influenced politics and every sphere of social and intellectual activity. In
a word, Buddhism was the teacher under whose instruction the Japanese nation
grew up.” Or, as Griffis outlines it,159 the Buddhist missionaries were purveyors
of civilization, ministers of art, wielded a mighty influence in military and
political affairs, transformed the manners and customs, inspired a tremendous
development in education and literature; but Buddhism was “kind to the brute
and cruel to man,” neglected charity and philanthropy, degraded woman, and left
upon the Japanese character the blight of a merciless fatalism and an awful
pessimism.160 It created “habits of gentleness and courtesy” and a “spirit of
hopeless resignation.” To sum up, “in a word, Buddhism is law, but not gospel.”
At present, Buddhism in Japan is exceedingly corrupt, is losing its hold upon
the educated, but retains a tremendous influence over the great mass of the
people. The majority of the priests are ignorant, illiterate, and immoral, “blind
leaders of the blind.” The newspapers of the day are unsparing in their
denunciation of the immoralities of the priesthood. The following is only one of
many such testimonies by ex-priests: “Something that did trouble me was the
growing conviction that Buddhism was dead, that it had reached the extremity of
corruption. Strife and scandal were rife everywhere. The chief priests ... were
grasping after worldly place and prosperity. Of the immorality of the priests it
makes me blush to speak. It is not a rare thing to see men with shaven heads and
attired in black garments wandering about in prostitute quarters, or to find
women living in temples, or to discover fish-bones thrown among the graves....
The religion has no rallying power left, no inner life.... It has contributed much
to our civilization in the past, but it is now exhausted.”
One element of the strong hold which Buddhism had and has upon the people,
even upon the educated classes, is the fact that so many cemeteries have been
and are connected with Buddhist temples. It used to be a frequent saying that a
Japanese was a Shintōist in life and a Buddhist in death; because, though he may
never have espoused Buddhism, he might be laid away in his grave according to
Buddhist ceremonies in a Buddhist temple and a Buddhist graveyard. But this
control of the cemeteries seems to be passing out of Buddhist hands into the care
of the local civil authorities. And this secularization, if it may be so called, of the
graveyards not only abolishes the Buddhist monopoly, but also takes away from
the priests the golden opportunity of extorting immense fees. The Buddhist
control of cemeteries has often been a source of great embarrassment to
Christians, who were frequently compelled to bury their dead under Buddhist
auspices. But there have lately been cases where no objection was made to the
burial of Christians with Christian rites in a Buddhist graveyard.
This is, perhaps, the most suitable place to devote just a few words to those
sects which are comparatively modern in their origin, and are so composite in
their doctrine that they cannot be classed under either Shintō or Buddhism.
Indeed, they even show traces, though perhaps slight, of Christian teaching; and
they all agree in the one doctrine of faith healing. These are Remmon-kyō
(Doctrine of the Lotus-Gate),161 Kurozumi-kyō (Doctrine of Kurozumi, name of
founder),162 and Tenrikyō (Doctrine of Heavenly Reason).163 The first and the
last were founded by ignorant peasant women, and win adherents mostly among
the lowest classes. The first seems more Buddhist than Shintō; the second seems
more Shintō than Buddhist; while the third is the one which shows most plainly
traces of Christian influence. In Kurozumi-kyō, the Sun-goddess is the chief
object of devotion, because the founder was healed by worshipping the rising
sun. Tenrikyō is growing rapidly, and is exclusive and intolerant.
The eclecticism of the Japanese in intellectual matters may be explained by
calling attention to one phase of their attitude toward the three cults of Old
Japan. There was in general a feeling of “with malice toward none, with charity
for all”; for the three, to a greater or less degree, overlapped or supplemented
each other.164 Shintō, as we have seen, was only a national cult; Confucianism
was a philosophy of the relations between man and man; while Buddhism was a
true religion, with ideas about sin and salvation. As another has summed up the
scope of these three “ways,” “Shintōism furnishes the object of worship,
Confucianism offers the rules of life, and Buddhism supplies the way of future
salvation.” It was, therefore, possible for a person to be a disciple of two, or even
all, of these “doctrines” at one and the same time. He “had constantly before his
eyes the emblems of each of these religions. In nearly every Samurai’s house
were the moral books of Confucius, the black lacquered wooden tablets,
inscribed in gold with the Buddhist names of his ancestors, while on the god-
shelf stood the idols and symbols of Shintō.”
Therefore there are to-day probably thousands of Japanese who would readily
accept Christianity by simply adding the image of Jesus to their present
collection, and giving it equal honor with those of Buddha and their ancestors.
They might easily incorporate Jehovah in their pantheon; but they find difficulty
in appreciating the intolerance of Christians in having “no other gods besides”
Jehovah.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The references for this chapter are in general the same as those for the preceding chapter, except that, in
place of the special papers on Shintō, should be substituted special papers on Confucianism by Knox and
Haga in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xx. pp. 1-192; on Buddhism, by Lloyd in Transactions
Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxii. pp. 337-506, and in “Every Day Japan”; and Nitobe’s “Bushidō, the Soul
of Japan.”
“Japan To-day” (Scherer) contains an interesting chapter (vi.) of Buddhist sermons: see also Mitford’s
“Tales of Old Japan.”
Dr. Knox, who is an authority on Confucianism, has given in his “Japanese Life in Town and Country” a
few chapters (vi.-xi.) of interest in this connection; and he has also issued (1907) a valuable book, entitled
“The Development of Religion in Japan.” Lloyd’s “Creed of Half Japan” is very suggestive.
 CHAPTER XIX

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM
OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Mediæval Christianity; Modern Christianity; missionaries; Japanese Christians;
Christian literature; kinds and methods of work; churches and chapels; Sunday-schools; Christian
education; Christian philanthropy; Young Men’s Christian Association and Young Women’s Christian
Association; temperance and the social evil; interdenominational institutions; Japonicized Christianity;
Christianity and business; Sabbath; Christianity and the press; Christianity and Christians in politics; simple
Christianity; status of Christianity.—Bibliography.

THE great Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, was the one who introduced
Christianity into Japan, in 1549; and the labors of himself and his successors
were so faithful and successful, that at the beginning of the next century there
were about 1,000,000 Christians in Japan. But political complications, internal
and external, and religious jealousies, brought on a terrible persecution, in which
the Church was practically extinguished. In 1638 the following edict was issued:
—
“So long as the sun shall continue to warm the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and
let all know that the King of Spain himself, or the Christian’s God, or the great God of all, if he dare violate
this command, shall pay for it with his head.”

And, all over the Empire, on special bulletin-boards, notices were published to
the effect that this edict must be strictly enforced.165 And yet, in spite of the
shrewd measures employed to detect Christians, by compelling suspected
persons, for instance, to trample on the cross or be crucified, in some sections
the knowledge of the Gospel was handed down in secret from one generation to
another; so that, when these edicts were removed in 1873, to a few here and
there Christianity was not a strange doctrine.166
Just as soon as it was possible, under the treaties of 1858, for foreigners to
reside in Japan, even under restrictions, missionaries began to enter (1859), and
are now numbered by the hundreds. This count includes both single and married
men, the wives (for in some cases the wife is worth more than the husband), and
single ladies.
The work of the Greek Church has been carried on, except for a few years, so
far as foreigners are concerned, by only one man, and even now has only two
single men connected with the mission; but the remarkable personality of the late
Bishop Nicolai and his tact in utilizing Japanese workers made a profound
impression and neutralized the prejudice arising out of political animosity to
Russia.
The Roman Catholic missionaries, both male and female, have been carrying
on their work with the usual devotion and self-sacrifice in a quiet and un-
ostentatious manner, and are overcoming to a large extent the inherited prejudice
against the Catholic Christians of Old Japan. The present workers are mostly
French, and number more than 200; they are scattered all over the empire, even
in small places.
The principal Protestant denominations represented by missionaries in Japan
are the Baptists, Congregationalists, Disciples, Episcopalians, Friends,
Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians (including Reformed), Salvation Army, and
Universalists. There are in all over thirty different Protestant organizations at
work in Japan, of all sorts and shades of belief; and there are several
Independents, or free lances. The Protestant missionaries represent High Church,
Low Church, and No-Church (Plymouth Brethren et al.); two regular Baptist
societies (but only one Japanese Church), besides Disciples and Christians; six
branches of the Presbyterian family, but all uniting in one Japanese Church; six
branches of the Methodist family, now at work, with good prospects for success,
to effect a similar union of their Japanese churches; three kinds of Episcopalians,
with one Japanese Church; Seventh-Day Adventists; Dowie’s followers; Faith
Mission; Christian Alliance; Scandinavian Alliance; German Liberals; the Young
Men’s Christian Association; the Women’s Christian Temperance Union; the
Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor;—in short, the entire alphabet for
a complete vocabulary of Christian activity. And the Mormons, too, have
recently sent emissaries to Japan.
The missionaries have been, and are, a mighty force in New Japan, not merely
through their preaching of the Gospel, but also through their practising of the
Christian virtues; not only by their teaching of all-sided truth and wisdom, but
also by their touching, their social contact with the people; not only by their
logic, but also by their lives. They are vivid and impressive object-lessons of the
ideal Christian life,—“living epistles, known and read of all men.” They are, in
general, well-educated men and women, a noble company, respected and loved
by the Japanese.
The Japanese Christians are not strong numerically; but they exercise an
influence entirely out of proportion to their mere numbers. There are more than
180,000 nominal Christians of all kinds, who may represent a Christian
community of at least twice that number. But, in spite of their faults and failings,
due to the fact that they are less than fifty years removed from anti-Christian
influences of the worst types, and are still surrounded by various hindrances,167
they are also a noble body of men and women, loved and honored by fellow-
Japanese and foreigners.
The Christian literature of Japan is truly voluminous, and is an important
factor in moulding and elevating public opinion. The Bible has been translated
into the Japanese language, and is widely circulated; it is published in many
forms by the Bible societies. Until a few years ago, it was almost impossible to
induce a non-Christian bookseller to keep the Bible on hand; for its presence in
his store might prejudice him in the eyes of the public, and, besides, it was not
easily salable. But such prejudice has died away, and a demand for the Bible has
sprung up, so that it has become to the book-dealer a profitable article of his
stock. Commentaries on the books of the Bible and theological treatises are
numerous, and tracts are counted by the millions.168 Christian magazines and
books are published and obtain circulation. The Methodist Publishing House and
several Japanese companies find the publication of Christian literature a
profitable venture. There are daily newspapers, owned and edited by Christians,
who use their columns to teach Christian ideals. And in 1901 was issued a
popular novel, called “Ichijiku” (The Fig Tree), which is Christian in tone and
teaching.
The work of foreign missionaries and native Christians in Japan may be
divided into four kinds: evangelistic, educational, publication, and philanthropic.
It is, however, very difficult and extremely unwise to attempt always to make
and to maintain these distinctions; for these classes of work often overlap and
supplement each other. The work, as a whole, is carried on much as it is in the
West, except that the measures and methods must be more or less adapted to the
peculiar conditions in Japan.169 Thus Christianity is represented there by certain
institutions, which, according to various circumstances, are flourishing in a
greater or less degree in different localities, but which, as a whole, are exerting a
tremendous influence upon the nation and are creating the ideals for Twentieth
Century Japan.
There are hundreds of churches and chapels, but they are seldom indicated by
spires and steeples pointing upward as signs of the doctrine which leads mankind
onward and upward. For that reason they are not generally discovered by the
“globe-trotter,” who tries to do Japan in a month or less, and is not usually
looking for such things, but yet goes back to report Christianity a failure in
Japan. Nevertheless, the churches and chapels are there,—perhaps in out-of-the-
way places, on narrow side-streets, or even on the principal thoroughfares, and
they may be only ordinary Japanese houses; but the work is going on there,
quietly and unostentatiously. There is also a “gospel ship” (Fukuin Maru),
cruising about the long-neglected islands of the Inland Sea.
In the churches and chapels, or in other buildings, or even in the private
houses of foreigners and Japanese, are about 1,000 Sunday-schools, where the
children are being instructed in the simplest truths of the Bible. They may not
understand at once much of what they hear; but they gradually come to better
and better ideas, and when they reach years of understanding, many of them
fully accept the truths learned in Sunday-school.170
But the duty of the Christian propagandist is not completed by the conversion
of unbelievers; it extends also to the training of these converts into a useful body
of Christian citizens. It is unwise to rely entirely upon public education by a
system so well organized even as that of Japan. If private schools under
Christian auspices are useful, in America, they are an absolute necessity in
Japan. It is dangerous to leave Christian boys and girls under the irreligious and
often immoral influences of public institutions. As “an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure,” it is supremely important to keep Christian Japanese
youth under positive Christian instruction and influences during their
impressible period. And it is also necessary to train up a strong body of Christian
pastors and laymen, who shall be the leaders in the self-supporting Japanese
church that is the goal of all missionary effort. Therefore the work of
Christianity in Japan includes a system of education, with kindergartens and
elementary schools, academies and colleges, universities and theological
seminaries, and with a strong emphasis on the education and training of the girls
and women.171
 GOSPEL SHIP “FUKUIN MARU,” AND Y.M.C.A. SUMMER SCHOOL,
DŌSHISHA, KYŌTO
But Christianity in Japan is also philanthropic, as it should be, and therein
exposes clearly what Buddhism left undone. The latter was, as has already been
said, proportionately “kind to the brute and cruel to man”; for it allowed
humanity to suffer while it regarded animals as “sacred.” Christianity, however,
has not only its Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, but also its
“Homes,” asylums, hospitals, refuges,—for the poor, the neglected, the widow,
the fatherless, the sick, the insane, the outcast, the Magdalene, and the worst
criminal. All such institutions it is carrying on in Japan; and most of them never
existed there until Christians introduced them or Christian teaching inspired
them. This may be predicated even of the Red Cross Society; for although the
branch in Japan was first organized as an independent association, yet the very
fact that the need of such a society was felt was due largely to Christian
influence. Revenge and “no quarter” were the doctrines of Old Japan; but New
Japan, aroused by the example of Christian nations, and inspired by the
teachings of the Bible, now heartily supports the Red Cross Society, a Christian
institution with a distinctively Christian banner.
When the forces that have made for true civilization and for righteousness are
figured out, it will be found that the work of the Young Men’s Christian
Association has been a very important factor. In Japan, as elsewhere, that work is
unusually successful in gaining sympathy and forming a common platform on
which all Christians may unite in valuable work. It has there both city and
student associations, of which the latter are more numerous and powerful, but
the former are increasing in number and influence. The work there is varied, as
in other lands, and is constantly broadening out. The visits of Mr. John R. Mott
have been peculiarly beneficial to the student class. In two special phases the
work of the Young Men’s Christian Association in Japan has been most helpful,
—in the establishment of Christian boarding-houses for young men in public
schools, and in securing for public high schools and colleges Christian young
men from America as teachers of English. And it is a matter of great rejoicing to
all interested in the welfare of the girls in the public schools, and shops and
factories,172 of the large cities of Japan that Young Women’s Christian
Association work has been started.
The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and other Christian temperance
organizations are fighting the same battles in Japan as in America. The old
religions never made any attempt to check the tobacco, liquor, and social evils;
they seemed to assume such to be inevitable. Even now the leadership in these
social and moral reforms is almost solely in the hands of Christians. By their
untiring efforts the public sentiment against these evils is rapidly growing, and
various organizations, by public meetings and pages of literature, are trying to
lift the people out of these “habits.” A bill prohibiting the sale of tobacco to
minors was made a law by the Diet, and one prohibiting the sale of liquor to
minors is being pushed. By the indefatigable labors of a Methodist missionary,
the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, and the Salvation Army, some
14,000 girls have been enabled to free themselves from their slavery in the
brothels; some of these wicked resorts had to close up; and public sentiment was
so vehemently aroused against this evil that the number of visitors to houses of
ill-fame considerably decreased. And it is Christian teaching that has
disestablished concubinage and is constantly working to purify the family life of
Japan.
The Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, the Scripture Union, and
the Evangelical Alliance are other examples of interdenominational institutions
which are doing much to minimize sectarianism and remind Japanese Christians
that, in spite of minor differences, they ought to be and are really “one.”
Indeed, the Japanese converts are naturally much less sectarian than the
missionaries, and can change their denominational affiliations without difficulty.
The Japanese Protestants are coming nearer and nearer together by minimizing
their differences and emphasizing their correspondences. For instance, the innate
courtesy of Japanese Baptists makes them loath to insist on “close communion”;
while with the Presbyterians and other Pedobaptists, “infant baptism” is
unpopular. The Methodists, in their plan for a single church of all their branches,
had to choose an ambiguous term for the title, instead of “Bishop,” of their chief
official. The Friends cannot emphasize their anti-military doctrine among a
people liable to conscription; and though High-Church Episcopal missionaries
may be exclusive, their Japanese believers enjoy co-operation with other
Christians. There will eventually be developed a “Japonicized Christianity.”
Christianity has already made an impression upon the commercial life of New
Japan. The tremendous development of industry, trade, and commerce has
required new business standards, and especially does it demand honesty and
integrity. It is not infrequent, therefore, for companies and corporations to seek
out young men trained in Christian schools, because they are most likely to be
actuated by high ideals. The Sabbath, too, although Sunday is more a holiday
than a holy day, is also proving to be a boon in business and labor circles, and is
coming gradually to be observed more strictly. Christian socialism, too, is not
without its influence in Japan.
There are a few Japanese newspapers which are owned, managed, and edited
by Christians, and are working, in their way, to uphold Christian institutions.
They are also striving to introduce into Japanese journalism higher ideals. There
is a still larger number of papers, whose managers and editors, though not
professedly Christian, favor Christianity, especially in its social and moral
aspects, and have, for instance, given a hearty support to the crusade against the
social evil. The influence of Christianity may also be seen in the elevation of the
tone of the Japanese press.
The impress of Christianity has also been felt even in the political institutions
of New Japan. The principle of constitutionalism found no encouragement in the
philosophy of Old Japan, but is the fruit of Christian civilization. The doctrine of
religious liberty, acknowledged in the Constitution, is of Christian origin. The
old idea of impersonality, which recognized no value in the individual, but called
him or her a “thing,” could not live long after the Christian teachings of
individual worth, rights, and responsibility, and personal salvation became
prevalent. These points illustrate some indirect, but important, results of
Christianity in Japan.
There are also influential Christian men in public life. Every Diet contains a
disproportionately large number of Christians, who may be counted upon on
every occasion to stand up for right principles, and most of whom are very
influential. The late Speaker Kataoka and Messrs. Ebara, Shimada, and Nemoto
may be named as examples of Japanese Christian men in politics. In army and
navy circles, on the bench and at the bar, in business, and in many other high
positions, Christian men are among the most prominent, and are found even in
“Cæsar’s household.”
Christianity is bound to become a greater power in Japan, but it will be a
Christianity modified by native ideas and influences. It is the tendency of the
Japanese less to originate than to imitate; to adopt, but also to adapt and to
simplify. They are not inclined to metaphysical and theological discussions, and
they care little for Occidental and accidental denominations differentiated by
hair-splitting distinctions embodied in verbose creeds. They are, therefore,
desirous of uniting Japanese believers upon a simple statement of the
fundamental and essential truths of Christianity. They need less of dogmas and
rituals, and more of the spirit of Christ in their lives. The people are superstitious
and sensual, and need intellectual and moral training. Superstition can be
dissipated by science, and sensuality can be conquered only by spirituality. The
great mass of the people are still sunk in comparative ignorance and superstition,
but are gradually being elevated by the spread of knowledge. But the Japanese
public-school education is one-sided and imperfect, without a lofty and inspiring
standard of morality. Christian education supplies all needs by developing a
well-rounded and balanced intellect, and furnishing the highest and purest ideals
of life. Theology is not wanted or needed in Japan so much as a practical and
spiritual Christianity.
The condition of Christianity in Japan at the present time is quite like that of
Christianity in the Roman Empire in the days of Constantine, who, himself a
nominal Christian, “established” Christianity as the official faith of his empire.
And yet, as Uhlhorn says,173 “the ancient religion was still deeply rooted in the
manners and customs, in the domestic and the public life.” And this situation
Uhlhorn represents by the following illustration:—
“In this new city on the Bosphorus, Constantine set up a colossal statue of himself. It was an ancient
statue of Apollo. Its head was struck off and a head of Constantine was substituted. Also, inside the statue
was placed a piece of what was supposed to be the holy cross. This is a kind of mirror of the age. A heathen
body with a Christian head and Christian life at the heart.”

This is a fair illustration of the condition of affairs in Japan at the beginning of

the twentieth century. There is a heathen body, for the great mass of the Japanese
(many millions) still cling to the old faiths. But there is a Christian head, because
the leaders of New Japan are favorable to Christianity and its institutions, and
are reconstructing the nation largely on Christian lines and with Christian ideals.
And there is Christian life at the heart, for it is that life, as shown in the
preceding pages, which is inspiring Japan with new ideas and ideals. And when
we take into consideration how much Christianity has done for Japan in less than
fifty years, we feel quite warranted in prophesying that within this twentieth
century Japan will become practically a Christian nation.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Those specially interested should not fail to consult “The Gist of Japan” (Peery); “Christianity in Modern
Japan” (Clement); “Japan and its Regeneration” (Cary); “Dux Christus: An Outline Study of Japan”; “The
Religions of Japan,” “Verbeck of Japan,” and “A Maker of the New Orient” (all by Griffis); and “Sunrise in
the Sunrise Kingdom” (De Forest). The “Proceedings” of the Osaka and the Tōkyō Missionary
Conferences, and Ritter’s “History of Protestant Missions in Japan” are very valuable. “From Far Formosa”
(Mackay) tells of wonderful pioneer work there. For current news, the “Japan Evangelist,” a monthly
magazine published by the Methodist Publishing House, Tōkyō, is the best.
The pamphlet entitled “The Christian Movement [in its Relation to the New Life] in Japan,” issued
annually by the Standing Committee of Coöperating Christian Missions, is most instructive.
On early Catholicism, the “History of Japan,” by Murdoch and Yamagata, is invaluable.
The authoritative work is Cary’s “History of Christianity in Japan” (2 vols.).
 CHAPTER XX

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Japan in 1801 and 1901; eras; Emperor and Court; Shōgun.—Sealed and wide-open
Japan.—Travel and barriers.—Social changes.—Samurai.—Ideals of 1801 and 1901.—Costume.—
Architecture.—Diet.—Education.—Newspapers.—Manufactures.—Status of woman.—Christianity.—
Permanent transformations.—Prophecy.

IN order to understand as clearly as possible the progress made by New Japan

during the past fifty years, it will be profitable to institute some comparisons
between conditions then and now. As a matter of fact the greater part of this
wonderful advancement was achieved during the last third of the nineteenth
century; but it suits our purpose better to compare 1801 and 1901, the first years
of the two centuries. Thus can we appreciate fully with how much difference in
conditions and prospects Japan has entered upon the twentieth century than she
entered upon the nineteenth century.
By the Japanese calendar, the year 1801 was the first of the Kyōwa Era, a
short and uneventful period; but the year 1901 was the thirty-fourth of the Meiji
Era, or Period of Enlightened Rule,—a most appropriate name for the first era of
the New Empire.
The Emperor in 1801 had been known before his ascension of the throne as
Prince Kanin Kanehito (from whom the present Prince Kanin has descended);
but he is now known by his posthumous title of Kōkaku. He is said to have been
“a sovereign of great sagacity”; but he was, as we know, only a nominal ruler,
like the fainéant kings of France, while the actual authority was held, and the
real power was exercised, by a Mayor of the Palace, a Shōgun of the Tokugawa
family. The Emperor was “powerless and lived in splendid poverty.”
The Imperial Court was organized in Kyōto “with all pomp and circumstance;
it had its Ministers, Vice-Ministers, and subordinate officials; it had its five
principal, as well as more than a hundred ordinary, Court nobles; but the
sovereign’s actual power did not extend beyond the direction of matters relating
to rank and etiquette, the classification of shrine-keepers, priests and priestesses,
and professionals of various kinds,—in a word, actual functions of no material
importance whatever.” In an absolute empire Kōkaku was Emperor in name and
fame only.
 “He was practically confined in sacred seclusion; his person must neither
touch the earth nor be polluted by contact with common mortals. The most
scrupulous care was exercised about his dress, food, even the very dishes
themselves; he was, to the common people, a real invisible deity. It is reported
that the Emperors of the olden days must sit motionless upon the throne for a
certain number of hours each day, in order that the empire might have peace.
Their persons were sacred, so that nobody was permitted to lay hands thereon;
therefore their hair and nails might have grown to an unseemly length, had they
not been clandestinely trimmed during sleeping hours. The dishes from which
they had partaken of food were forthwith dashed in pieces, in order that nobody
else might ever use them. And the very rice that they ate was picked over kernel
by kernel, in order that no broken or imperfect grain might find lodgment in the
Imperial stomach.” It is also said that no one was allowed to speak the name of
the Emperor or to write in full the characters of his name; in the latter case, for
clearness, at least one stroke must be omitted from each character.
But the late Emperor, whose name was Mutsuhito, was an entirely different
personage. He did not live in seclusion, but frequently showed himself in public
to his subjects, who could look upon his face without fear of being smitten with
death. He was, none the less, revered and loved by all the people, and was the
real ruler of the land. He had, however, voluntarily surrendered to the people
some of his prerogatives, so that the Japanese to-day enjoy constitutional
government, parliamentary and representative institutions, and local self-
government. And in 1901 the Empire, instead of being divided up, as in 1801,
into about 300 feudal fiefs, in each of which a Daimyō was more or less a law
unto himself, is divided into about 50 Prefectures, Imperial Cities and
Territories, in each of which the people have more or less a voice in the
administration.
The Empress Dowager, too, although brought up and educated in the old-
fashioned way, had yet adopted modern ideas with great ease. She did not have
shaven eyebrows and blackened teeth, like her predecessor of 1801. She often
appears in public, and continues a generous patron of female education, the Red
Cross Society, and artistic and philanthropic enterprises.
The Shōgun of 1801 was Iyenari, who exercised that authority for about half a
century. He lived in glory and splendor in Yedo (now Tōkyō) with his vassals
around him. Theoretically he was only Generalissimo under the Emperor, and, as
a matter of policy, kept up the practice of occasional visits to Kyōto, where he
humbled himself before his nominal superior; but, as the highest administrative
officer, he was ruler in act and fact. Very appropriately has he been called “the
Emperor’s vassal jailer.” During his Shōgunate “the military class remained
perfectly tranquil, and the feudal system attained its highest stage of efficiency.”
In 1901 there was no Shōgun; the last of the Tokugawa dynasty abdicated in
1867, and has spent most of his life since then in retirement in Mito and
Shizuoka. He is now living quietly in Tōkyō, without much regard, apparently,
to the new-fangled ways of these times, except that he is reported to ride a
bicycle!
In 1801 Japan was still a sealed country, but not hermetically, because there
was one chink at Nagasaki, where occasional intercourse was allowed with the
Chinese and the Dutch. Not only were foreigners forbidden to enter, but natives
were also forbidden to leave, this “holy land.” Already, however, efforts were
being made spasmodically to break down the policy of seclusion, with its two
phases of exclusion and inclusion.
In 1901, however, thousands of foreigners of many nationalities travelled and
resided in Japan; and thousands of Japanese were travelling and residing in many
parts of the globe. Foreign vessels, flying many different flags, freely entered the
harbors of Japan; and Japanese ships conducted freight and passenger services to
Asia, Australasia, America, and Europe. The figures of the small amount of the
foreign trade of Nagasaki in 1801 are not at hand; but the exports and imports of
Japan for 1901 amounted respectively to 252,349,543 yen and 255,816,645 yen.
A Japanese of 1801 would have travelled, if he were one of the common
people, by foot, and, if he were of sufficient rank or wealth, by norimono, or
kago, or on horseback. The Japanese of 1901 might continue to travel by foot,
and, in mountainous districts, might still use the kago; but they might also travel
by jinrikisha, horse-car, stage, steam-car, steamboat, horse and carriage, electric
car, and bicycle. The letter of 1801 was despatched by courier or relays of
couriers; that of 1901 by mail, and communication by telegraph and telephone
was becoming more and more common. There were over 3,600 miles of railway,
9,500 miles of telegraph, and, in Tōkyō alone, over 6,000 telephones. An electric
railway was actually disturbing and desecrating the hallowed precincts of Kyōto,
once sacred to the Emperor. And even His Majesty’s Palace in Tōkyō had been
put into telephonic and telegraphic communication with the rest of the city and
even of the world.
Nor was travel throughout the empire itself free and unimpeded to all in 1801.
The country was split up into feudal fiefs, of which each lord was intensely
jealous of other lords and had to act on the defensive. Every traveller was under
considerable surveillance, and had to be able to give a strict account of himself;
and many “barriers” were erected where travellers were challenged by guards.
The large places where the lords lived were walled towns, entered by gates
carefully guarded by sentinels. In Kyōto and Yedo the palaces of the Emperor
and the Shōgun were protected by moats and gateway. But in 1901 those historic
castles and gateways had mostly crumbled into ruins or been destroyed in war, or
demolished by the hands of coolies working under the direction of the Board of
Public Works or the Bureau of Street Improvements.
We cannot refrain from referring more particularly to the great change that has
been effected in the whole constitution of Japanese society. In 1801, below the
Court nobles and the feudal lords, there were four classes of society,—the
knight, the farmer, the mechanic, and the merchant, besides the outcasts. In
1901, below the nobility, there were only two classes,—the gentry and the
common people; and the distinction between these two is one of name only. In
official records and on certain occasions the registration of the nominal rank is
necessary; but in actual life few questions are asked about a man’s standing, and
merit finds its reward.
 FOUR GATES: PALACE, TŌKYŌ; PALACE, KYŌTO; SAKURADA,
TŌKYŌ; NIJŌ CASTLE, KYŌTO
In 1801 the samurai (knight) was the beau ideal of the Japanese. His courage
was unimpeachable; he was the model, not only of a warrior, but also of a
gentleman, and before him the common people had to bow their heads to the
ground. But now the sword which was his “soul” is a curio, the bow and arrows
are also curiosities, and the panoply either hangs rusty in a storehouse or is
offered for sale by a dealer in second-hand goods. The samurai is now only an
historical character; and when feudalism was abolished, many an individual of
that class fell into a pauper’s grave, or, forced into unaccustomed manual labor,
learned the culinary art, and entered service in the despised foreigner’s kitchen!
Indeed, although the soldier is still highly honored, and deeds worthy of the
best of the old samurai are still performed,174 the merchant, formerly despised
because he bartered for profit, has risen in esteem and become one of the most
important factors in Japanese society and civilization. The age of 1801 was
feudal and æsthetic; the age of 1901, democratic and commercial. In 1801, the
swords; in 1901, the soroban (abacus): in 1801, the castle; in 1901, the counting-
house: in 1801, bushi (knights); in 1901 budgets.
In 1801 the Japanese wore nothing but their own national costume, with
strictly prescribed uniforms for every occasion. In hot weather a scarcity or utter
lack of clothing was the prevailing style. In 1901 the latter style, though no
longer conventional, prevailed under certain limitations,—when and where the
police were not strict constructionists of the law! And in 1901 there was a great
variety of styles, ranging from pure native to pure foreign, with all kinds of fits
and misfits and ludicrous combinations.
Japanese houses of 1801 and 1901 show some differences. The native style
has been more or less modified by foreign architecture. Glass, of course, is
largely taking the place of paper for doors and windows; carpeted floors are
often preferred to matted floors; stoves, chairs, tables, lamps, and bedsteads are
coming more and more into use; and brick and stone are more largely employed
in the construction of residences, offices, and stores.
The diet of the Japanese has also changed considerably within 100 years.
Whereas in 1801 they were practically vegetarians, in 1901 they had learned to
eat and drink anything and everything. Foreign cooking had become very
popular and also cheap; in many Japanese families foreign food was eaten at
least once a day.
 A Japanese student of 1801 was compelled to study at night by the dull light
of a pith wick floating in vegetable oil, or by the fitful flame of fifty fireflies
imprisoned in a small bamboo cage. The student of 1901 burned midnight oil
from Russia or America, or studied by the aid of gas or electric light. The studies
in 1801 were confined to Japanese and Chinese classics. It was considered
practically a crime to seek learning outside of Japan and China, but in 1901 the
studies included the whole range of Oriental and Occidental learning; and one
school in Tōkyō tried to attract students by assuming the name “School of One
Hundred Branches.” And while in 1801 Dutch books were read only by a very
select few, and mostly in secret at the risk of one’s life, in 1901 it was possible to
find readers of Dutch, English, French, German, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Latin,
Greek, Hebrew, Sanskrit, and other books. In 1801 education was practically
confined to the priestly and military classes, but in 1901 there were no such
limitations, and elementary education was made free.
In 1801 there were no newspapers in Japan; in 1901 papers and magazines
galore, printed in almost all parts of the empire. Indeed, in 1801, books were
either copied laboriously by hand or printed from wood-cuts; but in 1901 all the
modern improvements in printing were utilized. Moreover, fonts of type of many
languages might be found; and in fact, anything needed in the printing line could
be manufactured at the Tsukiji Type Foundry, Tōkyō.
The mention of this foundry suggests also the immense number of
manufacturing plants that were to be found in Japan in 1901 against none in
1801. Cotton, woollen, and paper mills, iron foundries, electrical apparatus
manufactories, engine works, steamships, docks are only a few examples of the
development along this line. And in Tōkyō the grounds which in 1801 were
entirely devoted to the æsthetic gardens of the Prince of Mito are now partially
given over to the practical but sooty purposes of an arsenal.
There is a great difference also between the Japanese woman of 1801 and her
descendant of 1901. The former had practically no rights that her husband was
bound to respect; she must be respectfully obedient to her husband and his
parents, and she could be divorced at will. But, according to the new codes
which went into effect in 1899, “a woman can now become the head of a family
and exercise authority as such; she can inherit and own property and manage it
herself; she can exercise parental authority; she can act as guardian or executor
and has a voice in family councils.” Thus her legal and social status has greatly
improved.
In 1801 Christianity was under the ban of a strict prohibition, publicly
advertised on the official bulletin-boards; and although believers in secret were
transmitting the faith which had been secretly handed down to them, it was
supposed that “the corrupt sect” had been wiped out. But in 1901 there were
more than 120,000 enrolled believers, who represented a Christian community of
about twice that number. Christian preachers and churches were all over the
empire, and a Gospel ship was cruising about in the Inland Sea. According to the
Constitution, religious belief is free; so that Christianity was becoming more and
more a power in the land and wielding in society an influence that cannot be
measured. And in 1901 Japanese troops, in alliance with those of nations of
Christendom, had rescued Christian missionaries and Chinese converts from the
fury of mobs and soldiery, and Christian missionaries, driven out of China, had
found safe and comfortable places of refuge in Japan.
Such comparisons might be carried out with regard to many other items and in
greater detail; but these will, perhaps, suffice as illustrations of the extent to
which Japan was transformed during the nineteenth century. In some points, of
course, especially in modern inventions, there has been no greater change than in
Occidental nations during the same period. But it should be carefully borne in
mind that these transformations, in geographical, agricultural, mineral,
industrial, commercial, manufacturing, social, economic, political, legal,
educational, moral, and religious affairs, so far as they have gone, are not
temporary or superficial, but permanent and thorough; there is to be no
retrogression. Japan has deliberately and firmly started out, not only to march
along with the other so-called civilized nations, but also to contribute toward
further progress in civilization. The only question is, What will be the record of
Twentieth Century Japan?
The full answer to this question we must pass on to the man who one hundred
years hence may write on “Japan in 1901 and 2001.” But though we do not lay
claim to any special gift of prophecy, we venture to indulge in some general
predictions which no one, to-day at least, can challenge. We feel sure, for
instance, that Twentieth Century Japan will keep apace with the progress of the
world in material civilization. We doubt not that during this century the Japanese
people, becoming better fitted, will gradually be admitted to a greater share in
the administration of the government, local and national. We feel quite certain
that the social conditions of Japan will be greatly ameliorated, and education
become very widely diffused, so that an immense intellectual improvement will
be attained during the next hundred years. We also dare to predict that by 2001
Shintō will have entirely disappeared as a religion, Buddhism will have lost its
hold upon the people, and Japan will have become practically a Christian nation.
 CHAPTER XXI

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

OUTLINE OF TOPICS : Aims and ambitions of Japan.—Grand park.—Commercial centre.—Advantageous
position.—Leader in civilization.—Example of civilized nation.—Transmitter of Western civilization.—
Japan and Korea.—Japan and China.—Fuchow, Yangtse Valley, and Manchuria.—Japanese leaders of
Chinese.—Dr. Hirth on China and Japan.—Japanese invasion of China.—Siam and Japan.—The United
States a Pacific Power.—A complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance.—Russia and Japan.—Two streams of
civilization.—New Japan egotistic.—Prospects of Japan.—Confidence in Japan.—Bibliography.

IT is now appropriate to inquire what is apparently the mission of Japan in the

world. Since even much less powerful nations have played most important parts
on the stage of the world’s history, it is simply inconceivable that Japan should
have attained in so brief a period such an eminent position as a world-power
without having some special mission to perform and some contribution to make
to the sum total of what is called civilization. And in considering this topic of the
mission of Japan, it may be well to ascertain what are the aims and aspirations of
the Japanese, because it is usually along these lines that a nation, as well as an
individual, achieves success. Let us then permit Japanese themselves to answer
largely our queries concerning the rôle which is to be theirs “in the great world-
drama that continues unendingly, like a Chinese play, in the Far East.” And the
opinions which are now to be presented, even though the individuals themselves
are not, in every case, the most prominent personages that might have been
selected, nevertheless fairly represent Japanese public opinion.
One175 says: “Japan is especially favored by nature with beauty and
picturesqueness of scenery and a healthful climate, and has been appropriately
called the ‘Paradise of the East.’ We shall turn this country into a grand park of
the nations, and draw pleasure-seekers from all parts of the world. We shall build
magnificent hotels and establish excellent clubs, in most splendid style, to
receive the royal visitors of Europe and the millionaires of America.” And while
the objection has been raised that this is not “a very lofty rôle for Japan,” it is
claimed that “it is seen to be about the rôle that France, the great nation of
artists, is content to play in Europe—making herself infinitely beautiful and
infinitely charming.” And certainly to minister artistically to the enjoyment of
residents and visitors by making the country as pleasant and delightful as
possible is an aim that accords well with the naturally æsthetic tastes of the
Japanese people. Therefore, concerning success in this endeavor there cannot be
the slightest doubt.
That rôle is not, however, purely æsthetic, because it contemplates the
mercenary advantages to be reaped from the expected throngs of pleasure-
seekers, and is, therefore, also practical. And the same person makes another
suggestion, wholly practical and pecuniary, as follows:—
“Japan is geographically situated in an advantageous position, as at the centre of the world’s commercial
routes. China will be the future market of the world, and Japan will receive the mercantile vessels fitted to
be despatched to all parts of the earth. Japan should provide herself with extensive docks at the various
ports of the island on the route of the mercantile vessels, to give them shelter and, if needed, necessary
repairs and cleaning, and eventually supply fuel and water.”

We have already referred, in the closing paragraphs of the first chapter, to the
physiographical advantages of Japan, but we are impelled to dwell more at
length on the subject. A noted Japanese176 has emphasized the point with the
following suggestions:
“To all appearances, the seas about Japan and China will be the future theatre of the Far East. The
Philippines have been reduced to a province of the United States. China, separated from us only by a very
narrow strip of water, is offering every promise of becoming a great resource open to the world of the
twentieth century. The Siberia railway has been opened to traffic; and the construction of a canal across
Central America is expected to be finished before long.... As for fuel, our supply of coal from the mines of
Hokkaidō and Kyūshiu is so abundant that the surplus not required for our own consumption is exported
largely into various parts of the East, where no productive coal mines have been found except a very few
ones of poor quality....
“Taking all these [things] into account, it is not too much to say that the future situation of Japan will be
that of a central station of various water passages,—a situation most conducive to the good of our country;
and that, numerous as the attractive places of historical interest and natural beauty are, it is chiefly from our
excellently advantageous position, a connecting link common to the three chains of water passage to and
from Europe, America, and Asia, that we shall be able to obtain the largest share of the riches of the nations
of the world.”

With reference to the success of Japan in such a purpose as this, there can be
very little doubt; for the natural advantages are so great that they require
comparatively little improvement.
But, besides this aim of commercial prosperity, there is a higher ambition. One
writer177 says:—
“Japan’s mission at this juncture would be to act as the leader to the Asiatic countries in introducing
modern civilization: China and Korea, for instance, can learn about civilization much faster and easier than
from the countries in Europe and America, for they have common systems of letters and to a certain extent
of ideas.”

Prof K. Ukita178 makes the following suggestion:

“It is the mission of Japan to set up an example of a civilized and independent national state for her
Asiatic neighbors, and then to make a confederation of all the Asiatic nations on the basis of international
law; just as it is the mission of the United States of America to form one vast pan-American Union of all the
republics of the new hemisphere, and thus to hasten on the progress toward the organization of the whole
world.”

Again we quote from the editor of the “Taiyō” (Sun), as follows:—

“It is our duty to transmit the essence of Occidental civilization to our neighbors, as better success may
be realized by so doing than by introducing there the new institutions directly from the West. The present
state of things in China does not allow her to appreciate fully the ideas of Westerners, more so because their
fundamental conception of morals is at variance with that of Occidentals. But Japan has every facility to
win the confidence of China, in consideration of its geographical situation and of its literary affinity. The
valor, discipline, and order of our army have already gained the confidence and respect of the Chinese, and
it now remains for us to guide them to higher possibilities with enlightened thoughts and ideas. Such a work
cannot be accomplished in a day; it will require years of perseverance and toil.”

Now, it may be profitable to ascertain to what extent Japan is fulfilling her

self-appointed but natural mission to uplift her neighbors and kindred in Eastern
Asia. In Korea, for instance, what is the scope of Japanese influence? In that
peninsula there are thousands of Japanese, by whom almost all the important
enterprises of the country are managed. Of the foreign trade of Korea, by far the
largest per cent of both exports and imports is in connection with Japan; while
the trade of Russia with Korea is positively insignificant. The principal articles
of export to Japan are agricultural products, while the imports from Japan are
chiefly manufactured goods. At every open port of Korea there is a Japanese
post and telegraph office, through which alone can communication be had with
foreign countries. As Korea is almost wholly destitute of shipping, her coasting
trade is chiefly carried on by Japanese vessels, which also furnish almost all the
means of trade and travel abroad. In railways, too, the Japanese have largest
control; and their banks are strong and prosperous. Fisheries and mining likewise
furnish employment for Japanese, who also carry on numerous miscellaneous
business enterprises.
When we pass on to China, we find most astonishing results, a full treatment
of which would require a volume, so that we must be content with a few typical
examples. In Fuchow, for instance, in the six years since a Japanese consul first
landed there, the number of Japanese residents had increased from 8 to 70, and
the number of Formosan natives, now naturalized Japanese, who were staying
there, was more than 160. The Ōsaka Shōsen Kwaisha179 has a branch office in
Fuchow; and the Formosan Bank has sent there a special commissioner. In
Amoy also, on account of its proximity to Formosa, Japanese influence is
growing.
The great increase of Japanese enterprise on the Yangtse River during recent
years deserves a paragraph by itself. There are several Japanese lines of
steamers, besides special vessels for the coal and iron trade. “Side by side with
this development of carrying facilities many Japanese, in the capacity of
merchants, Government employes or projectors, may be seen travelling in the
Yangtse Valley; and further the number of persons engaged in the translation of
Japanese books into Chinese has increased in an extraordinary degree.... Nothing
is more remarkable than the popularity enjoyed by Japanese things and Japanese
subjects.”
In view of the complications with Russia, it is well to call attention to the fact
that Northern China, especially Manchuria, is most important to Japan from the
commercial point of view. The trade with Dalny alone is from 30,000,000 to
40,000,000 yen per year, and that with all Manchuria amounts to about
20,000,000 yen annually. It is perfectly natural, therefore, that Japan should
object to continued Russian occupation, from which she has already suffered by
direct and indirect interference, and that she should demand a fair field with
“open doors.”
From such instances, of which more might be cited, it is apparent that Japan is
doing her duty in the way of helping China to the benefits of material
civilization. But her influence is being exerted for good on higher planes. For, as
the editor of the “Japan Mail” observes, “every Japanese subject employed in
China in whatever capacity will be a centre for diffusing the light of liberalism”;
and “the Chinese are apparently to be led along their new path by the Japanese,”
who “have some degree of distant kinship with the Chinese.”
The words of Dr. Hirth will add weight because he is, perhaps, the most
eminent Chinese scholar in the country and holds the professorship of Chinese in
Columbia University, New York City. He spoke as follows:180—
“No capable observer of events in China since the Imperial Court returned to Peking can doubt that the
government has decided to adopt the policy of Japan, which is to take the methods of western civilization
for their models. In directing the new movement in China, Japan is taking the lead over other foreign
nations, and this, it is asserted, is due to her superior command of the language.
“Moreover, every educated Japanese is imbued with the ideas prevalent in Chinese literature, religious
and political, and hence he has a different standing in the eyes of the Chinese from that of Americans and
Europeans. China has thus placed the work of educating the rising generation in the hands of the Japanese
as being less likely to destroy the old knowledge while familiarizing the students with the advantages of the
new.
“A National University has been established by the Emperor at Peking, which it is calculated will be the
model for educational institutions all over the country. Recently a Japanese professor has been selected to
draft a new code of laws for the empire. The reason why a Japanese was selected for this work in preference
to an equally learned German, American, or Englishman, is because men who are both willing and capable
of making due allowance for traditional prejudices will never arise from a country where the study of
Chinese institutions is so much in its infancy as with all of us, except Japan.”

The present peaceable invasion of China by Japanese, “not this time with guns
for weapons, but with ideas and educational influences,” is along these seven
lines:181—
“1. The Agricultural College, established some years ago at Wuchang by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung,
and managed for some time by an expert American, has now been given over to Japanese management.
“2. The military school in Hangchau is taught wholly by Japanese.
“3. A large amount of translation work is done by the Japanese.
“4. Many Chinese students have been sent by Chang Chih-tung during recent years to be educated in
Japanese schools for Chinese government service.
“5. More than one large and influential Chinese newspaper is owned and edited by Japanese, one of
which is an especially strong advocate of closer union between the two great nations of the East.
“6. Nearly 100 Japanese students are in attendance at school in Shanghai, studying Chinese and English
with a view to positions of usefulness in China.
“7. A large and increasing number of translation societies are being organized in Shanghai, the principal
object of which is to get into circulation books on Western learning. The significant fact is that the large
majority of them are translated from the Japanese rather than European languages, because, as they say, the
Japanese have already selected the best, and they wish to profit by their experience. Books on Political
Economy, General Science, Agriculture, Pedagogics, Ancient and Current History are now commonly on
sale in Chinese bookstores, most of which are advertised as having been adapted from the Japanese.”

There is yet another country which is feeling the influence of Japan; and that
is Siam. No doubt much of this increased interest in “things Japanese” may be
attributed to the recent visit of the Siamese Crown Prince to Japan. He is having
a Japanese building constructed for himself; and the king is to have a Japanese
garden and house added to the grounds of his palace. The trade between Japan
and Siam is not yet very extensive;182 but it is capable of considerable
expansion. Siamese boys and girls have begun to resort to Japan for educational
advantages; so that, in more senses than one, Japan is coming to be the teacher
and leader of Siam.
But there is another phase of the Far Eastern situation that demands close
attention. The United States has definite and direct interests of several kinds in
Japan, Korea, China, and Siam; and she must maintain these at all hazards.
Through the possession of Hawaii, Guam, and particularly the Philippines, she
has become a Pacific Power, more than ever concerned, and directly, in Oriental
politics. The advent of the United States into that field was hailed with joy by the
Japanese, who have the utmost confidence in our international policy.
In view of the fact, therefore, that the United States, by virtue of providential
necessity, must be reckoned as a factor in Oriental politics, and cannot herself
ignore such responsibilities, there is only one course open, only one policy to be
pursued. It is most clearly our duty as a nation (passively, if possible, but
actively, if necessary) to support the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in its efforts in
behalf of the nations of Eastern Asia. The union of the greatest nations of
Europe, America, and Asia in a complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance would make
a “triple alliance” practically invincible.
There are two rival interests contending for mastery on the other shore of the
Pacific Ocean,—Russia and Japan. Toward the former we must feel gratitude for
her attitude toward us when our Union was in utmost peril; but that sentiment is
overbalanced by other considerations. Toward the latter we have an imperative
duty, as toward a protégé, because it was America who started Japan on her
present career and must acknowledge the responsibility to assist her in every
laudable purpose. And certainly her aims in the Far East coincide with ours and
with the dictates of civilization. The supremacy of Japan in Eastern Asia means
far more for America and American institutions than does the domination of
Russia. Japan to-day enjoys rights unknown in Russia: social freedom, political
privileges, representative institutions, local self-government, intellectual liberty,
freedom of assembly and of the press, and religious liberty. Japan is already far
in advance of Russia and, in many respects abreast of Germany, in civilization.
And, as “Japan holds the key of the Far Eastern position,” she is our natural ally.
Dai Nippon banzai—“Long live Great Japan.”
But let us now revert again to the Japanese writer quoted near the close of the
first chapter. With a reminder of the ever westward course of empire, he pens a
paragraph so bold and suggestive that it is worth transcribing:183—
“Two streams of civilization flowed in opposite directions when mankind descended from their primitive
homes on the table-land of Iran or America. That towards the west passed through Babylon, Phœnicia,
Greece, Rome, Germany, England, and culminated in America, while that through the east travelled through
India, Thibet, and China, culminating in the Manchoo Court of Peking. The moral world is also a magnet
with its two opposite poles on the opposite banks of the Pacific, the democratic, aggressive, inductive
America, and the imperial, conservative, and deductive China. There have been constant attempts for the
union of these magnetic currents.... Grander tasks await the young Japan, who has the best of Europe and
the best of Asia at her command. At her touch the circuit is completed, and the healthy fluid shall overflow
the earth!”

In fact, it seems not improbable that the nation which, having from ancient
times imbibed and assimilated the elements of Oriental civilization, has been
swallowing and digesting Occidental civilization, may produce a new and strong
tissue. It is, therefore, argued with no little force that “to reconcile the East with
the West: to be the advocate of the East, and the harbinger of the West: this we
believe to be the mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil.”
To most persons, undoubtedly, this conception of the future of Japan appears
to be teeming with national vanity. And, indeed, it cannot be denied that New
Japan is extremely egotistic. She views with evident self-gratulation the
astonishing progress she has made, and believes herself capable of even more
wonderful transformations. And surely, when we contemplate the history of the
past fifty years, and consider the remarkable facility with which Japan has
metamorphosed herself, we need not wonder that she is confident or even
boastful. To those conversant with this people, their capabilities, and
possibilities, the above forecast of Japan’s future seems to photograph, with
some exaggerations, the natural and not altogether improper self-confidence and
reliance of an able, growing, and independent nation, which has shown an
inexplicable power of assimilating the various and diverse elements of
civilization. Even a foreigner has so much confidence in the grand future of
Japan that he expressed himself in the “Atlantic Monthly” (June, 1892) in the
following strong language:—
“In bringing to pass the fusion of eastern and western types, which ... shall create in both hemispheres a
far more rounded civilization than either has ever known, Japan has the inestimable privilege of becoming
our most alert pioneer. Through her temperament, her individuality, her deeper insight into the secrets of the
East, her ready divining of the powers of the West, ... it may be decreed in the secret council chambers of
destiny that on her shores shall be first created that new latter-day type of civilized man which shall prevail
throughout the world for the next thousand years.”

But while we may not, perhaps, be fully warranted in such sanguine

expectations, we cannot help being impressed with the fact that the prospects of
Japan are unusually bright. She slept for 250 years while the Occident was
moving rapidly onward in the path of civilization, and she must now hasten to
catch up. But she can avoid the pitfalls into which the others, now and then, here
and there, have fallen, and by which they have been delayed. She can profit by
the mistakes, by the costly experiences, of those who preceded her along the
rough road. She must move quickly to make up for lost time, but not too rapidly;
she must “make haste slowly.” She can never go back, except to ruin and death.
She has stepped into the path of progress forever. She must discard all things,
whether manners, customs, letters, political forms, superstitions, moulds of
thought, or anything else which tends to retard her onward movements. But it is
sincerely to be hoped that even the demands of modern progress will allow her
to retain much of that grace and charm, of that quaint simplicity, of that light-
hearted and merry nature, all of which characterize the Japanese.
We believe in Japan. We are confident that she has powers, both patent and
latent, which will enable her to achieve still greater successes than she has yet
accomplished. We have had our “blue spells,” when, for this or that reason, we
felt discouraged over the apparent failure of some movement for reform; but in
most instances we have eventually seen success crown the effort. With reference
to political affairs F. V. Dickins has well expressed it: “There is a silent strength
underlying the sound and fury of Japanese politics which will enable the country
to weather much worse storms than any that threaten it.”184 Therefore we
reiterate that we have confidence in the future of Japan and the Japanese. We
repeat that their achievements up to date are a guarantee of continued success in
the future. We dare prophesy that they will yet display wonderful
transformations in their development. We feel perfectly warranted in applying
Vergil’s line,—

Hos successus alit; possunt, quia posse videntur,

which Conington translates into two verses,—

“These bring success their zeal to fan,

THEY CAN BECAUSE THEY THINK THEY CAN.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura); “The White Peril in the Far East” (Gulick); “Dai Nippon” (Dyer),
chap. xix.; “The Spirit of the Orient” (Knox); and “The Future of Japan” (Watson).
THE NAVAL HERO OF THE WAR
ADMIRAL TŌGŌ
 THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
The war between Japan and Russia was inevitable, because, as already pointed
out in this volume,185 the two countries represented different and naturally
hostile interests. Ever since Russia, shut out from an open port on the European
or Western Asiatic seaboard, began to spread eastward through Asia to seek an
outlet into the Pacific Ocean, it had been inevitable that the two powers would
some day come into collision. And it can be confidently affirmed that the
Russians did nothing, while Japan had done much, to avert the conflict. Russia
not infrequently committed overt acts to provoke Japan, and had generally
treated the latter in an overbearing and insolent manner.
In 1875, Japan was forced to give up Sakhalin for the bleak and barren Kurile
Islands. It was just twenty years later (1895) that Russia committed her most
unjust act of interference and provocation. Japan, after her successful conflict
with China, by the treaty of Shimonoseki, had obtained the cession of the
Liaotung Peninsula, of which Port Arthur was then the most important port.
“Hardly was the ink dry on it [treaty] before the three great European powers—
Russia, France, and Germany—stepped in, and, in order to justify their
interference, declared that any holding of Manchurian territory by Japan would
constitute a menace to the peace of Asia.”186 Japan, exhausted by her first
foreign war under the new régime, was in no position to offer any opposition to
three of the greatest World Powers, when they tendered her kindly(?) advice.
The only two powers who might have assisted her against this combination were
neither sufficiently interested nor far-sighted enough to interfere; and they (Great
Britain and the United States) kept silent. Therefore, Japan had nothing to do but
to submit and accept a monetary consideration for giving up her claim to the
Liaotung Peninsula.
This in itself was not a casus belli, but it was enough to arouse to almost
fever-heat the excitement of an intensely patriotic and naturally militant nation.
The Government was able to hold in check the indignant people; but nothing
could prevent the development of a not unnatural desire for revenge. From that
time it was definitely and positively known that a war with Russia was inevitable
in the not-distant future; and calmly and carefully the Japanese went to work to
prepare themselves for that conflict. It is not necessary to go into the details of
that preparation, the thoroughness of which has been surprising the civilized
world.
 But even then war might have been averted, for the spirit of revenge would
have faded away in the multitude of other interests and sentiments that have
been pressing upon Japan’s attention within the past decade. Indeed, during the
Boxer troubles of 1900 and 1901 in China, when the troops of Japan were
marching, in company with those of Russia, Germany, France, Great Britain, the
United States, et al., to the relief of the beleaguered foreigners in Peking, it
almost seemed like a harbinger of continued peace in the Far East. But this
harmony was only apparent, not real,—only temporary, not permanent.
In fact, it was that very campaign which enabled Russia to complete her
practical possession of Manchuria. She had, in the meantime, obtained from
China a lease of that very territory which she had forced Japan to give up. She
had also obtained permission from China to extend the Siberian Railway through
Manchuria to Port Arthur and Dalny, and thus obtain an outlet to the Pacific
Ocean. Measures of material expansion might not have alarmed Japan, if it had
not been that Russia sought to obtain permanent possession of Manchuria
through a military occupation ostensibly for the purpose of protecting her
commercial interests. She marched her troops in large numbers into Manchuria
in order to protect the railway from the depredations of Chinese bandits; she
fortified Port Arthur and built up Dalny, the great “fiat city,” and in every way
showed no intention of letting Manchuria slip out of her control. All such acts
did not tend to allay the spirit of revenge in the hearts of the Japanese, but of
course made them more and more indignant.
Nor was this all. Russia began to show most evident signs of encroaching
upon Korea. “Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If there were
any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany, and France had declared to be
incidental to Japanese occupation of part of Manchuria, the same dangers must
be doubly incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria; the
independence of Korea would become illusory ...; an obstacle would be created
to the permanent peace of the East.”187
If Russia succeeded in maintaining her position in Manchuria, her next step
would take her into Korea, for whose safety and independence there would be no
guarantee; and still another step would bring her over against Japan. Thus would
be endangered, not only the influence of Japan on the continent, but even her
very existence. She would sink at least into the position of a third-rate power,
and would be completely isolated from all opportunities for expansion.
But, even in spite of insults and provocations, Japan set herself to resist the
Russian encroachments by peaceable means and measures, in which she at last
had the support of Great Britain and the United States. It was to be presumed
that Russia would keep her promise to give up her military occupation of
Manchuria and restore to China the administration of the “Three Provinces” on
the dates specified in a convention with China signed April 8, 1902. According
to this, Russia agreed to withdraw her troops gradually from Manchuria and
entirely resign her control thereof within one year.
But when the time came for the final evacuation, Russia showed no sign of
intending to carry out her agreement. After futile protests from Japan, Great
Britain, and the United States, Japan suggested to Russia to open up negotiations
concerning their respective interests in the Far East; and to this Russia assented.
It is scarcely profitable to follow the devious windings of these negotiations,
which were delayed by Russia on one pretext or another. It is sufficient to state
that Japan invited Russia to nothing more than “to subscribe to the policy
enunciated by the United States and Great Britain,—the policy of the ‘open
door’ and of the integrity of the Chinese and [the] Korean Empires.”
During the course of the prolonged negotiations, Russia was moving troops to
the scene of action and making other military preparations. These did not
necessarily mean that she anticipated war, but that she at least expected to
overawe little Japan and thus obtain her desires.
“The only alternatives for Japan were war or total and permanent effacement
in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting, she is fighting the battle of Anglo-
Saxondom as well as of herself,—the battle of free and equal opportunities for
all without undue encroachment upon the sovereign rights or territorial integrity
of China or Korea, against a military dictatorship, against a programme of
ruthless territorial aggrandizement, and against a policy of selfish
restrictions.”188
 DISTINGUISHED NAVAL COMMANDERS
ADMIRAL URIU
ADMIRAL KAMIMURA COMMANDER HIROSE
But it was not till after six months of negotiations that the Japanese
Government, on February 5, 1904, “having exhausted without effect every
means of conciliation,” and “finding that their just representations and moderate
and unselfish proposals in the interest of a firm and lasting peace in the extreme
East are not receiving the consideration which is their due,” officially announced
to the Russian Government that they would not only “terminate the present futile
negotiations,” but also “sever their diplomatic relations with the Imperial
Russian Government,” and “reserve to themselves the right to take such
independent action as they may deem best.”189 This was tantamount to a
declaration of war.
On February 6, Admiral Togo left Sasebo under official instructions, and
about midnight of February 8 struck the first blow of the war. Six of his torpedo-
boats attacked the Russian squadron in the harbor of Port Arthur, inflicted
serious damage upon the enemy, and retired without much loss. On the following
day a detachment of the fleet under Admiral Uriu defeated two Russian cruisers
in the harbor of Chemulpo, Korea. Thus within a few hours the Japanese gained
control of the sea, and landed troops, who soon entered Seoul.
The formal declaration of war was made by Russia on February 9, and by
Japan on February 10, for publication in the newspapers of the following day,
which was the anniversary of the founding of the Japanese Empire in 660 B. C.
and of the promulgation of the Constitution in 1889.
On February 23, a treaty of alliance between Japan and Korea was formally
signed at Seoul.190 On the next night began a series of attempts on the part of the
Japanese squadron to block the mouth of the harbor of Port Arthur. After several
essays, in one of which Commander Hirose met his heroic end, the Japanese so
far succeeded that the Russian war vessels were shut up in the harbor for a long
period. This enabled Japan to land troops with perfect immunity at several points
on the coast of Manchuria.
In the meantime, the First Army, under General Kuroki, was marching across
Korea without encountering much opposition, and, by brilliant strategy,
succeeded in crossing the Yalu River in the face of a well-fortified Russian army.
The Second Army, under General Oku, landed at Kinchow, and after bloody
contests, especially at Nanshan, was able to get possession of Dalny, and sever
connections between the Russians in Port Arthur and their main force under
General Kuropatkin. The Third Army, under General Nodzu, having landed at
Takushan, soon got into touch with the First Army; and together they continued
their march northward in the face of constant opposition.
When Port Arthur was isolated from the rest of the Russian forces, still
another army was sent out, under General Nogi, to carry on the investment of
that place, so that the former armies might be free to give undivided attention to
General Kuropatkin’s force. The attempt of the latter to relieve Port Arthur was
checked by the Japanese in bloody battles at Telissu and Kaiping, after which
they advanced northward toward Liaoyang.
In the meantime, in March, the Imperial Diet had met and voted unanimously
the Government’s proposals to raise from various sources a special war fund of
yen 576,000,000. Indeed, in every possible way, the Japanese people, as a unit,
supported the Government in the carrying on of war, even to undergoing many
hardships. All domestic loans thus far issued have been over-subscribed three or
four times.
Moreover, on the last day of March, the fiftieth anniversary of Commodore
Perry’s treaty with Japan, a memorable meeting to celebrate the event was held
in the Y. M. C. A. Hall, Tōkyō. It was attended by a large number of both
Japanese and foreigners, and, after listening to eloquent speeches, unanimously
adopted a resolution to raise a Perry Memorial Relief Fund for the destitute
families of Japanese soldiers and sailors. The subscription of over 60,000 yen on
the spot has since been increased to about 100,000 yen.
The events off Port Arthur were colored still more tragically on April 13,
when the Russian flagship “Petropavlovsk” of Admiral Makaroff was sunk, and
almost all on board, including the admiral and the famous painter Verestchagin,
perished. In May, the Japanese suffered their first heavy losses in the sinking of
the “Hatsuse” and the “Yoshino.”
In April the Russian Vladivostok squadron had taken the offensive and sunk a
Japanese transport with a few troops on board. After that it made occasional
sorties toward the Korean Straits in the hope of creating a diversion from Port
Arthur, and in one instance sunk the “Hitachi Maru” with a large number of
Japanese troops on board. Moreover, in July this squadron succeeded in getting
through the Tsugaru Straits to the eastern coast of Japan, where it committed
depredations, even just off the entrance of Tōkyō Bay. But later it was met in the
Korean Straits by Admiral Kamimura’s squadron and defeated with the loss of
the “Rurik.”
By the early part of August the army investing Port Arthur had made such
progress, in spite of severe opposition, that it became extremely dangerous for
the Russian fleet to remain there longer. Therefore, on August 10, they made a
sortie with the intention of escaping to Vladivostok. But Admiral Togo was not
to be caught napping, and engaged in battle with the squadron. A few vessels,
badly damaged, regained Port Arthur; others, some of which were severely
injured, escaped to neutral ports, where they had to be dismantled; the “Novik”
eluded its pursuers for a short time, but was finally overtaken and sunk in
Korsakoff Harbor, Sakhalin.
On August 23 began the great battle of Liaoyang, which continued for over a
week, and deserves to go down on the pages of history as one of the severest,
bloodiest, and probably most decisive battles ever fought. It was only by the
most tremendous exertions that General Kuropatkin was enabled to save his
army from having its retreat cut off by the flanking movement of Kuroki, while
Oku and Nodzu were pounding away from other directions.
The attempt of Kuropatkin to retrieve his fortunes by advancing with heavy
reënforcements to retake Liaoyang met with another disastrous defeat in the
battle of the Shaho River, October 10-15. After that, the two armies practically
went into Winter quarters and engaged in nothing more than skirmishes until
January, 1905, when Mitschenko’s cavalry made an unsuccessful raid upon
Newchang and Yinkow, and Kuropatkin’s army, apparently urged on by the
political exigencies caused by discontent at home, attempted a flanking
movement on Liaoyang, but was repulsed in the battle of Heikeutai.
In view of the lull in hostilities along at the front, popular interest was once
more directed toward Port Arthur. The Japanese navy continued faithfully its
task of watching the harbor; and, although it could not maintain an absolutely
complete blockade, it was nevertheless able to prevent exit and entrance, except
in the case of Chinese junks and small steamers, which occasionally succeeded
in running the blockade under cover of night or stormy weather. The navy also
coöperated with the army by means of frequent bombardments of the harbor, in
which the remnants of the Russian fleet had sought refuge, and even of the city
of Port Arthur.
The Japanese army persistently pushed the attack from the land side; and the
Russians stubbornly resisted every step of the advance. The former employed
both direct and flanking attacks, and utilized every device known in engineering
to overcome the “impregnable” fortress, so well fortified both by nature and by
art. Slowly but steadily the besiegers pressed on and obtained possession of
various forts. On October 30 they made a general assault, in which they
succeeded in capturing several important positions. Just one month later, the
“203-metre Hill” fell into the hands of the Japanese and gave them the command
of the inner harbor. In a few days they had succeeded in completely disabling the
remnants of the Russian squadron, so that the greater portion of their own fleet
was released from its long and arduous blockade, and enabled to undergo a
thorough overhauling in the docks. A portion of it, under Vice-Admiral Uriu,
was despatched to watch the course of the Baltic fleet, and every preparation was
made to accord to these visitors as warm a reception as possible.
Admirals Togo and Kamimura, with their suites, returned, for a short period,
to Tōkyō, where they were greeted on December 30 with an enthusiastic
welcome. And, when the eventful year 1904 passed away, it was generally
thought that Port Arthur might be able to hold out a month longer.
It may, therefore, be easily imagined with what complete surprise came the
news that on January 1 General Stoessel had opened negotiations with General
Nogi concerning surrender. “Hope deferred maketh the heart sick”: but the relief
from the long suspense showed itself in a kind of prolonged banzai and a series
of celebrations which lasted through the month. The stubborn defence and the
bravery of the defenders had awakened in every Japanese heart a feeling of
admiration; so that the chivalrous treatment of the garrison found a ready
response on all sides.
 DISTINGUISHED LAND COMMANDERS
GENERAL BARON KODAMA GENERAL COUNT NOGI
ADMIRAL PRINCE ITŌ
During most of the month of February, the two armies confronting each other
along the banks of the Shaho River remained in apparent inactivity, except for
occasional skirmishes, but in real preparation for another battle. Just when this
began it is a little difficult to state precisely, because some of the earlier
operations were only feints to disguise the real purpose. On February 24, the
Japanese gained a point by the capture of Ching-ho-cheng after two days of hard
fighting. And from this time the struggle went on practically without cessation
for two or three weeks. Within a few days the Japanese had turned both flanks of
the Russian army, which was compelled to beat a precipitate retreat in great
confusion and barely escaped complete annihilation. The Japanese pushed on in
hot pursuit, and occupied Fushun, Mukden, Tiehling, Kaiyuan, and Changtu.
This was the result of the great battle of Mukden, which was much more
decisive than even Liaoyang, and ended the military activity in Manchuria for
several months.
In the meantime the Baltic fleet had been leisurely making its way eastward,
and, apparently regardless of international law, had been enjoying the hospitality
of neutral waters, especially those of Madagascar and Annam. But, although
Japan, supported by Great Britain and the United States, vigorously protested
against the flagrant violations of international law in the abuse of French
hospitality, yet she did not allow herself to swerve from her original plan
concerning the Baltic fleet, or to be lured away from her own strategic position
to a battlefield of Russia’s choosing. The Japanese fleet, under the indomitable
Togo, was watching and waiting in the waters between Japan and Korea; and, as
all things come to those who wait, to the Japanese came finally the Russian fleet,
steering boldly through the Tsushima channel for Vladivostok. May 27 and 28
(the latter the birthday of the Empress of Japan) are the red-letter dates of the
great naval battle, which resulted in the practical annihilation of the Baltic fleet,
with tremendous loss to the Russians and only slight damage to the Japanese.
The Battle of the Sea of Japan, as it is officially designated, was the decisive
conflict of the war; and it deserves also to rank among the decisive battles of the
world’s history. If Togo had been defeated, the communications of the immense
Japanese army in Manchuria would have been severed, and Japan itself would
have been at the mercy of the depredations of the Russian fleet. But the
destruction of the latter was so complete, that it is not strange that Russia was
willing at last to listen to the tactful intervention of President Roosevelt. Peace
commissioners were appointed by both combatants to meet in some suitable
place in the United States about August 1. The Japanese representatives were
Baron Komura, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Mr. Takahira, Minister to the
United States; and the Russian representatives were Count Sergius Witte,
President of the Imperial Committee of Ministers, and Baron Rosen, Minister to
the United States.
 COUNT KOMURA
MINISTER TAKAHIRA
THE JAPANESE PEACE ENVOYS
Accordingly, avoiding the heat of Washington, the peace envoys convened at
Portsmouth, N. H., on August 9, after paying their respects to President
Roosevelt. The Japanese presented the following twelve articles for the
consideration of their opponents:
1. That Russia recognize Japan’s preponderating influence in Korea.
2. That Russia and Japan evacuate Manchuria.
3. That Japan restore Chinese sovereignty and civil government in Manchuria.
4. That both powers respect Chinese sovereignty in Manchuria and the principle of equal commercial
opportunity there for all nations.
5. That the island of Sakhalin be ceded to Japan.
6. That Russia surrender to Japan all rights accruing under Chinese leases of the Liaotung peninsula,
including Port Arthur, Dalny, and the Blonde and Elliott islands.
7. That Russia surrender to China by arrangement with Japan the branch of the Chinese Eastern railway
from Harbin to Port Arthur and Newchwang, with retrocession of all privileges under the concession of
1898.
8. That the Russian concessions obtained in 1896 by which the short route connecting the Trans-Siberian
and Ussuri railways in northern Manchuria be given to the Chinese Eastern railway, Chinese imperial police
to be substituted for the Russian guards.
9. That Russia pay Japan the substantial costs of the war.
10. That Russia surrender to Japan all warships interned in far Asiatic waters.
11. That Russia limit strictly the naval establishment maintained in neutral waters of the far East.
12. That Russia grant fishing rights to Japan along the Russian littoral in Siberia.

After the agreement by Russia to certain of these articles, and skilful

manœuvring by the Russian envoys until the demand by Japan for an indemnity
was practically the one remaining cause for dispute between them, the world was
startled on August 29 by the surrender of the Japanese of all demand for
indemnification and the consequent declaration of peace. As amended the treaty
grants to Japan all that Japan contended for before the declaration of war except
the maintenance of the territorial integrity of China, with the addition of the
valuable fishing rights along the Siberian coast and the right to establish a
consular service throughout eastern Russia.
The two powers mutually obligate themselves not to fortify the Russo-Korean
frontier nor to erect fortifications on the island of Sakhalin, the more valuable
portion of which, situated below the fiftieth meridian, is ceded to Japan. Japan
obtains the Chinese Eastern railway and the right to build a branch line to Kirin,
while the South Manchuria railway is to be used for commercial purposes only,
both powers maintaining guards along its right of way. Korea, Manchuria, and
Siberia are opened to trade on the most favored nation basis, and Manchuria is
given the “open door” for all the world to enter.
Japan finds herself in possession of the sea and land routes to Peking through
the ownership of Port Arthur, and her influence in China has waxed as that of
Russia has waned, the subjects of the czar standing now in the territorial position
they occupied in 1890, with every diplomatic advantage then held at the Chinese
capital practically annihilated.
By the surrender of all claim for compensation, except that for the care of
Russian prisoners of war, and by the return of the warships interned in far
Eastern waters, Japan has shown herself as magnanimous as brave, as thoughtful
for the peace of the world as for the details which have brought her such success.
Scrupulously respecting all the rules of war, Japan has also set the world a new
standard of hygienic efficiency in the care of the wounded and especially in the
prevention of disease among her soldiers in the field.

Space fails to tell of innumerable deeds of Spartan heroism at the front; of the
calmness and dignity of the Japanese people in the time of war, which they do
not allow to interfere with their usual daily duties; of working overtime to
increase the productive wealth of the country in this crisis; of the extra labor
performed, even at night, that a neighbor’s field or business may not suffer loss
during his absence from home to fight his country’s battles; of the work of
women, young and old, to provide necessary clothing and “comfort bags” for
those at the front; of the suffering and self-sacrifice of many at home that loved
ones may serve the country on the battlefield; of the kindly care of Russian
prisoners, who are “treated more like guests”; of the work of the Red Cross
Society, and its abundant labors both at home and at the front. The Japanese are
truly heroic in every sense of the word.
Two features have already stood out prominently in this war,—the “splendid
tenacity” of the Japanese soldiery, and the coördination of the movements of
their armies and navy. The strategic phase of the war reflects the utmost credit
upon Yamagata, Ōyama, Kodama, and the others who planned the campaigns.
 It ought not to be necessary to consider seriously the so-called “Yellow Peril,”
but it may be well to refer briefly to this bogy. For such an idea there is not an
iota of a reason. It is true that the Japanese are ambitious to become the leaders
and teachers of Korea, China, and Siam;191 but it is for the purpose of leading
and teaching them in civilization. Japan has turned her back, whether for good or
for ill, upon Oriental civilization, and has turned her face, whether for good or
ill, toward Occidental civilization. By this is not meant, either that she will throw
away all things Oriental, or that she will accept all things Occidental. But it is
simply meant, as before pointed out,192 that she will be the true reconciler
between East and West, and will develop that which is good and useful in both
civilizations. It is her purpose, therefore, not to array the East against the West,
but to bring them closer together in various bonds of unity. It would be
absolutely impossible for her to take any backward step in the path which she
has begun to tread, and in which she is striving earnestly and succeeding rapidly
in catching up with Western nations. Japan represents in the Far East the ideals
of Western civilization more than does Russia. The immense empire of China
with its teeming population under Russian domination or only under Russian
influence would constitute a real “Yellow Peril,” or “Muscovite Menace,”
terrible to contemplate. But Japanese leadership or hegemony in Korean and
Chinese affairs constitutes a guarantee of peace and prosperity, of the “open
door,” of the spread of true civilization, in the Far East.
The real policy of Japan in this war has been clearly set forth in various ways,
of which one case follows:
On May 16 there was held in Tōkyō a most significant mass meeting of
representatives of all kinds and shades of philosophies, cults, and religions. The
thousand persons present included foreign missionaries, American and British,
and Japanese Shintōists, Buddhists, Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, and
Protestants of various denominations, besides probably many free-thinkers.
There was a small number of women, both Japanese and foreign, in attendance.
There were several speakers, all of whom dwelt upon the necessity of union in
the present crisis in the history of Japan. From the “Japan Mail” we extract the
following paragraphs in summary of some of the addresses:—
“Mr. Ōuchi, the representative of Buddhism, declared that the Japanese do not
constitute the Yellow Peril. The Mongols constitute it, and, above all, the
Russians, who are Mongols. Napoleon had well said that a Russian has a white
skin over a yellow heart. Japan has a yellow skin over a white heart. The whole
practice of Russia, her boundless aggressions, her despotism and intolerance,
mark her as the true Yellow Peril of the era.”
“Mr. Shibata, representing Shintō, said that the pity of Buddhism, the charity
(love) of Christianity, and the pure heart of Shintō are all one and the same thing
under different names.”
“Dr. Imbrie (representative of Christianity) adduced as proofs that religion and
race have nothing to do with the present war: first, the fact that one of the
belligerents, Japan, has a constitution guaranteeing freedom of conscience;
secondly, the meeting now assembled, where all creeds and all races united in a
common cause. He believed that the heart of the nation was with them in this
matter, and that such an assembly might be convened in any part of Japan. He
believed also that the victory in the war would be with Japan for the sake of the
principles she represented.”
The meeting unanimously adopted the following resolution:—
“The war now existing between Japan and Russia has for its object, on the
part of Japan, the security of the empire and the permanent peace of the East. It
is carried on in the interests of justice, humanity, and the civilization of the
world. With differences between races or religions it has nothing whatever to do.
We, therefore, meeting together without distinction of race or religion, agree that
we will endeavor to publish to the world, each in a manner accordant with the
methods observed in the religious body to which he belongs, the real purpose of
the present war, as now described. We also express a most earnest desire for the
speedy accomplishment of an honorable peace.”
The significance of this meeting can scarcely be overestimated. It is a
perfectly conclusive answer to the attempts made in various quarters “to foment
an anti-Japanese crusade on the ground of racial and religious prejudices.” Japan
stands before the world as a champion of “the equality and fraternity of all
races.” The so-called “Yellow Peril” is a myth, a fantasy, a delusion; the reality
is to be found in the “Golden Opportunity” to win the Orient for Christ through
Japan’s leadership.
H. E. Count Katsura, in his official capacity as Prime Minister and speaking in
the name of His Majesty the Emperor, has given assurances that the “Yellow
Peril” is a myth, and that the religious liberty guaranteed in the Japanese
constitution is to be enforced. He has stated most emphatically that “Japan
stands for religious freedom.” The leading statesmen of Japan, whether in or out
of office, assert most positively that Japan’s interests in the Far East are
practically identical with those of Great Britain and the United States, and that
she desires to work in harmony with those nations.193
The cause of Christian civilization in Japan has been indirectly benefited by
this war. The people, with minds broadened by the responsibilities of their
country, and with hearts touched by the practical sympathy of Christian nations,
are listening with deeper interest to the presentation of Christian truths. The
noble work of the Young Men’s Christian Association at Antung proved so
successful that the military authorities soon requested its extension to other
portions of Manchuria. The Japanese have felt that though their nation is
nominally non-Christian, yet it is fighting the battle of Christian civilization
against a nation nominally Christian. The war has been one of the most
momentous in history, and decides whether the Far East is to be dominated by
conservative, despotic Russia or directed by progressive, liberal Japan.
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

Feb. 5, 1904. Severance of diplomatic relations.

8-9. Japanese naval victories at Fort Arthur and Chemulpo.
9.Russian declaration of war.
10.Japanese declaration of war.
23.Treaty of Japan with Korea.
24.First attempt to block Port Arthur.
March13.Marquis Ito starts on special mission to Korea.
Imperial Diet passed War Budget. Second attempt to block Port
27.
Arthur.
31.Fiftieth anniversary of Perry’s treaty with Japan.
April13.“Petropavlovsk” sunk by Japanese mine.
25.Transport “Kinshiu Maru” sunk by Russians.
May 1.Battle of the Yalu River.
3.Third attempt to block Port Arthur.
15.“Hatsuse” and “Yoshino” sunk.
16.Pan-Religion Mass Meeting, Tōkyō.
25, 26. Battle of Nanshan.
27.Occupation of Dalny.
June15.“Hitachi Maru” (transport) sunk. Battle of Telissu.
23.Naval battle off Port Arthur.
27.Japanese capture Ta, Motien, and Fenshui Passes.
July 6-9. Battle of Kaiping.
21-30. Vladivostok Squadron in Pacific Ocean.
24.Battle of Tashikiao.
31.Japanese capture Simucheng.
Aug. 10.Russian fleet made unsuccessful sortie from Fort Arthur.
14.Vladivostok fleet defeated.
20.“Novik” sunk in Korsakoff Harbor.
Aug. 23-Sept. 4. Battle of Liaoyang.
Oct. 10-15. Battle of the Shaho River.
30.General assault on Port Arthur.
Nov.30.Japanese capture 203-metre Hill, P. A.
Dec. 3-11. Destruction Port Arthur Squadron.
 30. Togo and Kamimura reach Tōkyō.
Jan. 1, 1905. Surrender of Port Arthur.
25-29. Battle of Heikeutai.
Feb. 24-March 10. Battle of Mukden.
Feb. 24. Japanese occupied Ching-ho-cheng.
March 9. Japanese occupied Fushun.
10. Japanese occupied Mukden.
16. Japanese occupied Tiehling.
19. Japanese occupied Kaiyuan.
20. Japanese occupied Fakuman.
21. Japanese occupied Changtu.
May27, 28. Battle of the Japan Sea.
June 2. President Roosevelt broached subject of peace.
16. Japanese occupied Kangping.
18. Japanese occupied Liaoyangwopeng.
July 8. Sakhalin in hands of Japanese.
18. Vladivostok isolated.
Aug. 9. Peace envoys convene at Portsmouth, N. H.
29. Terms of treaty of peace settled.
 SUMMARY

A brief summary of the war shows that at the close of the 570 days which it lasted Russia had 629,614
men in the field in Manchuria, to which Japan was able to oppose 912,730, with 1116 Russian cannon to
1030 Japanese. The Japanese captured 67,701 Russians, losing only 646 prisoners themselves. The total
casualty list on land shows 294,779 Russians killed and wounded to 113,086 Japanese. The total loss to
Russia in ships is estimated at $155,560,000, including twelve battleships, five armored cruisers, one coast
defense vessel, six cruisers, fourteen converted cruisers, and nineteen destroyers sunk, and two battleships,
two coast defense vessels, one converted cruiser, and two destroyers captured, nineteen other naval vessels
being driven into internment. Japan’s naval loss includes two battleships, four cruisers, as many converted
cruisers, and two torpedo boat destroyers sunk, which were valued at $24,720,000, none being captured or
interned. On the sea Russia lost 8100 in killed and wounded to Japan’s 3670. The total cost of war is figured
at $2,000,000,000, of which Russia spent $1,200,000,000, borrowing $870,000,000, and Japan spent
$800,000,000, borrowing $650,000,000.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
George Kennan’s articles in “The Outlook” are superior. Of the books which have been issued, the best
are “With Kuroki in Manchuria,” by Frederick Palmer, and “From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the
Japanese,” by Major Louis L. Seaman. A very thorough, scholarly, and quite impartial presentation of the
causes and issues of the war is found in “The Russo-Japanese Conflict” (Asakawa), from which one can
understand completely the situation in the Far East. “The White Peril in the Far East” (Gulick) is also
valuable in this connection; and “The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura) throws light on Japan’s aims and
ideals. “As the Hague Ordains” (Miss Scidmore) throws a great deal of light upon the ideas of many of the
chief actors in the bloody drama. “Human Bullets” (Sakurai) relates most simply but vividly the
experiences of a Japanese officer, especially at the terrible siege of Port Arthur. “The Tragedy of Russia”
(McCormick) is most valuable.
GREATER JAPAN
 H. I. M. THE EMPEROR
THE Treaty of Portsmouth, which closed the Russo-Japanese War, made Japan
one of the great powers of the world; therefore, this chapter is entitled “Greater
Japan.” This is not so much because Japan became larger, although she added
half of Sakhalin, obtained Russia’s lease of part of Manchuria, and has annexed
Korea, but it is because she has become truly greater in many senses of the word.
This will appear more evident as one reads carefully the following record of the
principal events of the past seven years (1905-1912).
It is, perhaps, not strange that the Japanese nation was, on the whole,
disappointed with the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. They had borne heavy
financial burdens, and had confidently anticipated at least a partial compensation
in the shape of an indemnity and the re-acquisition of Sakhalin, of which they
considered themselves cheated by Russia, in 1875. To get only half of Sakhalin
was not so much of a loss, because it was the better half; but to get not a single
sen of indemnity was the bitterest kind of a pill, without even a coat of sugar.
And, although most of the Japanese people, as is usual, quickly swallowed their
disappointment, it is not strange that agitators utilized the occasion to stir up the
rowdy element to break out in riots in Tōkyō early in September, 1905. And,
after the destruction of considerable property, the city was placed under martial
law until the excitement subsided.
The wisdom of the Japanese envoys in bringing the war to a close, even on
unpopular terms, was fully justified when it soon became evident that the
northern section of the main island, in the region about Sendai, was threatened
with a famine, due to the partial or entire failure of crops. But the energy which
had been spent on the prosecution of the war was at once transferred to the task
of relieving the suffering. To the appeals for assistance a hearty response was
made, not only by Japanese and foreigners in Japan, but also by other peoples,
East and West.
Another compensation for the unpopular peace was found in September, 1905,
when it became known that, in August, even before the Treaty of Portsmouth
had been signed, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance had been renewed for a term of
ten years.
Therefore, by the beginning of November, the feeling of disappointment had
so far subsided that the Emperor’s birthday (November 3) was celebrated in
Tōkyō with unusual éclat by a grand triumphal military review, followed later by
a grand triumphal naval review at Yokosuka.
 The Katsura Ministry, however, being held responsible for the unpopular
terms of peace, resigned in December,194 and was succeeded in January, 1906,
by a Cabinet under Marquis Saionji, the leader of the Seiyukwai, without special
change of policy.
In the meantime, in accordance with a Convention between Japan and Korea,
the former established in the latter a Residency-General in Seoul, with
Residencies in several parts of the country. And to the most important post of
Resident-General the Emperor of Japan appointed [then] Marquis Ito. And by
this Convention the control of Korea’s foreign affairs passed to the Residency-
General.
 MARQUIS SAIONJI
The Twenty-second Session of the Imperial Diet (December 28, 1905-March
27, 1906) is worthy of special notice because it passed, with slight amendments,
the government bill for the nationalization of the railways of the Empire. The
original bill contemplated the purchase by the government of all the railroads:
but the Diet amended the bill, while accepting the principle, by exempting a few
small railways of no great strategic importance, and applying the principle to
seventeen large and important lines. In the same year, the railways in Korea
passed under the management of the Japanese Government.
Another event worthy of notice is the organization in 1906 of the Japan Peace
Society, composed of men and women of several nationalities and of many
shades of political and religious belief. And in 1909 this society was honored
and strengthened by Count Okuma’s acceptance of the position of President.
The year 1907 was marked by the negotiation of several “Agreements” of
prime importance in the maintenance of peace in the Far East. In the first place,
the Russo-Japanese Convention (July) “consolidating peace and good neighborly
relations,” proved that the Portsmouth Treaty was not merely a sort of truce but a
desire to “preserve the peace permanently.” The Franco-Japanese Agreement
(June) evinced the strong “desire to strengthen the relations of amity existing
between” the two peoples. A new Japan-Korea Agreement (July) gave Japan the
control of the internal administrative affairs of Korea and especially established
a “clear differentiation” of the Executive and Judicial departments of State. This
separation of the judiciary from executive and official interference was further
emphasized by the appointment of an earnest Japanese Christian, Judge
Watanabe, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in Korea. Meantime, the
Emperor, whose corrupt rule had brought his country to its deplorable condition,
abdicated, and his son succeeded to the throne, while the new Crown Prince
went over to Japan to be educated and was granted a suitable domicile in Tōkyō.
Moreover, the Crown Prince of Japan made a visit to Korea—the first instance of
a Japanese Crown Prince leaving his native land—and succeeded in conquering
prejudices and winning hearts.
The year 1907 was also memorable for some important events in the Christian
movement in Japan. In April, the World’s Student Christian Federation,
composed of 625 delegates from 25 nations, in all parts of the world, convened
in Tōkyō, and, in an inspiring session of several days, exemplified the practical
application of their motto, ut omnes unum sint.
 The late General Booth, of the Salvation Army, made a visit to Japan (April
16-May 24), received a most cordial welcome, was honored by an audience with
the Emperor, and held a remarkable series of meetings in the principal cities.
The National Sunday-school Association, which was organized in May, was
another application of the principle of Christian unity. And the First Conference
of the (union) Methodist Church of Japan, meeting in Tōkyō (May 22-June 7),
on June 1, elected as its first bishop Rev. Y. Honda, D.D., the first native to be
elected to such an important ecclesiastical position in the Far East.
The short stop-over made in Japan by Hon. William H. Taft, then United
States Secretary of War, on his way to Manila, was one which truly warranted
his additional title of “Secretary of Peace.” In a speech on October 1, at a
banquet given in his honor in Tōkyō, he made a profound impression when he
said: “War between Japan and the United States would be a crime against
modern civilization.” And 116 representative missionaries, residing in all
sections of Japan, and representing 20 American Christian organizations, besides
Independents, signed a series of resolutions expressing their hope “that local and
spasmodic misunderstandings may not be allowed to affect in the slightest
degree the natural and historic friendship of the two neighbors on opposite sides
of the Pacific,” and that all “efforts to maintain peace and good-will may be
supported by all patriotic citizens and may be crowned with success.”
And, although the immigration question at one time was a fruitful source of
agitation, yet the authorities in Japan, Canada, and the United States dealt with
the question in a considerate and statesmanlike manner and came to a
satisfactory settlement.
The friendly relations between Japan and the United States were further
consolidated, on May 5, 1908, by an Arbitration Treaty, the first which Japan
had ever negotiated. This was only one more strong evidence that the two
countries do not wish to find a casus belli.
In October of the same year came the first visit of a company of American
business men to Japan and the visit of the American fleet, both of which
received a most cordial welcome. The business men were given every
opportunity to ascertain industrial conditions in Japan, and acknowledged that
the visit was an eye-opener. In welcoming the fleet, the “Kokumin Shimbun”
said, among other good things, “The sixteen battleships, representative of the
noble traditions of American justice, come to our shores as heralds of peace.”
And, most significantly, it added that “the time was ripe for an Americo-
Japanese camaraderie, which is already so strong as to be tantamount to an
unwritten alliance.” This utterance was significant because it was followed so
closely by the Americo-Japanese Entente, dated November 30, 1908. This is a
document195 of immense importance, which must stand as a perpetual reminder
that a war between Japan and the United States would be a crime.
In July, 1908, the Saionji Ministry resigned, ostensibly on account of the
Premier’s illness, and Marquis Katsura was again called upon to form a Cabinet.
Inasmuch as the great prosperity which immediately followed the Russo-
Japanese War had led to some extravagance and reckless speculation, the
Emperor felt impelled to issue in October, 1908, an edict of warning to the
people.
One more important event of this year should be chronicled—the completion
of the railway which runs the length of the island of Formosa. This is facilitating
greatly the development of the resources of that “Beautiful Isle.”
In June, 1909, Prince Itō resigned his position as Resident-General in Korea,
and was succeeded by Viscount Sone, who had been Vice-Resident-General. In
July, the administration of justice and prisons was transferred to the Resident-
General. In October, Prince Itō was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic;
and, in December, an unsuccessful attempt was made at Seoul upon the life of
the Korean Prime Minister by another fanatic. Prince Itō, as the greatest
statesman of Modern Japan, was especially honored with a most elaborate state
funeral.
The year 1909 was also marked by a Semi-Centennial Conference, held in
Tōkyō, October 5-10, to commemorate the beginning of Christian missions in
New Japan. It was “the first national conference in which the Japanese and
missionaries coöperated on an equal footing”; it marked “the emergence of the
Japanese Church from infancy to youth; from the stigma of being an alien
parasite to the acknowledged status of an indigenous institution”; and marked
the waning of missionary domination and the rapid assumption of control by
Japanese Christians. Thus it was a real epoch-making event in the history of the
Christian movement in Japan.
 STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
MARQUIS KATSURA AND PRINCE ITŌ
A large party of representative Japanese business men started in the fall of
1909 for a trip to the United States, and returned in the spring of 1910. The
courteous treatment and generous hospitality extended to them in their hurried
tour across the country were highly appreciated. The trip afforded an excellent
opportunity to ascertain that the true sentiments of the best Americans are
friendly to Japan.
Viscount Sone, Resident-General in Korea, having been compelled, on
account of dangerous illness, to return to Japan, resigned his post, and died
September 13, 1910. He was succeeded by General Viscount Terauchi, Minister
of War, who carried through the plan of annexation, which was formally
announced on August 29, 1910. This “passing of Korea” is a truly unfortunate
but inevitable occurrence. It was a practical impossibility for Korea, in her
peculiar geographical position, to maintain political independence. The “Poland
of the Far East” was destined, not to partition, but to absorption by Russia, or
China, or Japan; and she has fallen to the lot of the one best able to improve her
condition.
The year 1910 was also marked by the discovery of an anarchist plot against
the sacred person of the Emperor. Several were arrested as conspirators, of
whom a few were acquitted, a few were condemned to imprisonment for terms
of years, but twelve were condemned to death and executed (in 1911).
It was in July, 1911, that the term of the revised treaties (which had gone into
effect in 1899) expired, and entirely new treaties were negotiated with all the
powers. As these treaties included no limitations upon the commercial autonomy
of Japan, they marked the “end of her extra-territorial embarrassments.” And, in
particular, the new treaty with the United States omitted the objectionable
provision of the old treaty (see Appendix), in accordance with which it was
permissible for the United States to limit the immigration of Japanese. This
delicate question was left to a “gentleman’s agreement,” whereby the Japanese
Government would exercise the utmost care concerning granting passports to
Japanese to travel to the United States.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was again revised in 1911 and renewed for a
term of ten years. The most significant point in this revision was a provision
inserted, in view of the probability at that time of an Anglo-American
Arbitration Treaty, that nothing should entail upon either “contracting party an
obligation to go to war with the Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in
force.” This was accomplished before the death of Marquis Komura, who thus
lived long enough to see this increased influence of that alliance in the original
negotiation of which he played a most important part.
That year was also distinguished by the generous Imperial donation of
1,500,000 yen to start a fund for the relief of the sick poor. This contribution was
supplemented by gifts from all over the Empire, until the fund has reached a
total of about 25,000,000 yen. And to administer properly this large amount, a
society called “Saiseikwai” has been organized, with an Imperial Prince as
Honorary President.
The year 1911 is likewise a red-letter year in the political history of Japan,
because, when the Katsura Cabinet resigned, the duty of organizing a new
Ministry was bestowed upon Marquis Saionji (the leader of the Seiyukai), who
made up what is practically a party administration.
 VISCOUNT SONE
One of the most significant events of the year 1912 was what is known as the
“Tri-Religion Conference” (in March). It was called by Mr. Tokonami, Vice-
Minister of Home Affairs, and consisted of about fifty Shinto, Buddhist, and
Christian representatives. It was no attempt to amalgamate the three faiths; it
was merely a means of bringing those representatives together for better
acquaintance with each other, for more earnest work in behalf of social and
moral amelioration, and for greater emphasis upon the spiritual needs of the
nation. The most significant point, however, was the fact that the conference was
practically an official recognition of Christianity on the same footing with Shinto
and Buddhism.
As the trial of a large number of Korean Christians on a charge of conspiring
to assassinate Governor-General Terauchi is still sub judice, it is proper at
present merely to mention the fact. It is, however, only right to add, that much of
the criticism of the case arises from the fact that Japanese judicial processes
follow European rather than American models and are not in accord with Anglo-
Saxon ideas of justice.
The most prominent events of 1912 were, of course, the death of the Emperor
Mutsuhito, the accession of the Crown Prince Yoshihito, and the close of the
marvellous Meiji Era with the beginning of a new era, called Taisho (Great
Righteousness). The limits of space forbid more than the mention of the
wonderful scenes, especially in front of the Palace, when the prayers of all
classes of people, of all religious beliefs and of no belief, were mingled together
during the days just preceding July 30. Mutsuhito and Meiji: these two names
are practically synchronous and synonymous; the reign of Mutsuhito was the
Enlightened Rule of Meiji.196 It was, therefore, most appropriate that the
deceased Emperor was given the posthumous title of Meiji Tenno. And the
Imperial funeral was a most elaborate affair, an interesting combination of the
Old and the New, in which the former predominated; for it was a Shinto
ceremony with some modern Occidental attachments. And the tragic suicide of
General Count Nogi and the Countess at eight o’clock in the evening of
September 13, just as the Imperial cortège was leaving the Palace, was in
accordance with the old idea of following one’s master in death. But, while it
was not in accord with Christian ideas of life and duty, my tongue of criticism is
silenced.
A governmental crisis led to the resignation of Premier Saionji and his cabinet
in December, and Prince Katsura for the third time was called to the place.
Popular opposition to an increase of the army and military expenses, demand for
reduction of taxes, belief that Premier Katsura was in sympathy with the military
party, that he might influence the Emperor, and that democratic tendencies were
likely to be checked, led to an uprising in opposition to him and his ministry.
February 5, 1913, a resolution was adopted in Parliament expressing lack of
confidence. Rioting in Tōkyō and elsewhere was followed by the resignation of
Prince Katsura and his cabinet February 11, and on the 12th, by the direction of
the Emperor, Count Yamamoto formed a new ministry.
Mention should be made of some matters which do not fit well into these
chronological annals. The fact that Japanese educational authorities are obtaining
Christian young men as English teachers through the Young Men’s Christian
Association is interesting. It should also be noted that the number of Chinese
students resorting to Japan for education increased rapidly, until it was estimated
at 15,000 to 20,000. But, as the great mass of these were mere adventurers, there
came a natural but heavy reduction, so that only about 5,000 remained by 1910.
And, in that year, almost all of these returned to China to participate in the
Revolution. There are also several hundred Korean students, whose numbers will
probably increase, besides many Indians and a few Siamese and Philippinos.
And these Oriental students return home imbued with progressive ideas.
This is a summary of the principal events which have made a “Greater Japan.”
Dai Nippon (Great Japan) has been enlarged in seven years by the acquisition of
considerable territory. She is no longer merely insular, but continental. She is
greater in her resources and in her potentialities. She has increased her wealth
and her productive capacity; she has enlarged her industrial enterprise; she has
expanded her trade and commerce. She has a bigger army and navy to protect
herself from aggression. Her educational facilities are greater, and her moral and
spiritual development has been enhanced through Christianity. Japan enjoys
greater power and influence in the world’s councils, and she is also weighted
with much greater responsibilities. New Japan, in 1913 sixty years old, is a truly
“Greater Japan.”
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“Corea, the Hermit Nation” (7th edition) (Griffis); “Korea and her Neighbors” (Mrs. Bird-Bishop);
“Korean Sketches” and “Korea in Transition” (Gale); “The Passing of Korea” (Hulbert); “The Tragedy of
Korea” (McKenzie); “With Marquis Itō in Korea” (Ladd); “China and the Far East” (Clark University
Lectures); “American Japanese Relations” (Kawakami); “The Japanese Nation” (Nitobe).

JAPAN
MAIN ISLANDS.
APPENDIX
GENERAL VISCOUNT TERAUCHI.
APPENDIX
 PROVINCES AND PREFECTURES

THE following list gives in detail the divisions of Japan into Provinces (Kuni),
according to “Circuits”:—
Go-Kinai (Five Home Provinces). Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi (or Senshiu), Settsu (or Sesshiu).
Tōkaidō (Eastern Sea Road). Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Tōtōmi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi,
Awa (or Bōshiu), Kazusa, Shimōsa, Hitachi.
Tōsandō (Eastern Mountain Road). Ōmi, Mino, Hida, Shinano (or Shinshiu), Kōzuke (or Jōshiu),
Shimozuke, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Rikuchū, Mutsu, Uzen, Ugo.
Hokurikudō (North Land Road). Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchū, Echigo, Sado Island.
Sanindō (Mountain Shade Road). Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki Islands.
Sanyōdō (Mountain Sunlight Road). Harima (or Banshiu), Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchū, Bingo, Aki, Suwō,
Nagata (or Chōshiu).
Nankaidō (Southern Sea Road). Kii (or Kishiu), Awaji Island, Awa, Sanuki, Iyo, Tosa (or Toshiu), of which
the last four are in the island of Shikoku.
Saikaidō (Western Sea Road). Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, Satsuma (or
Sasshiu), Iki Island, Tsushima Island, of which all except the last two are on the island of Kyūshiu.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE OF JAPAN197

(25 YEARS) CENTRAL METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY (1876-1900)
35° 41´ N. Lat., 139° 46´ E. Long. Height, 70 feet. Inches and Fahrenheit
degrees.
JAN. FEB. MAR. APRIL.
Mean temperature 36.9 38.4 44.2 54.3
Mean max. temperature 46.8 47.5 53.4 62.9
Mean min. temperature 28.6 30.4 35.3 45.6
Absolute max. temp. 97.9 (July 14, 1891)
Absolute min. temp. 15.4 (Jan. 13, 1876)
Mean rainfall 2.14 3.03 4.32 5.04
No. rainy days 7.2 9.1 12.4 14.8
Days with snow 4.0 4.5 2.8 0.1
Mean barometer
29.96 29.97 29.95 29.94
(reduced freez. point)
Mean direction of wind N.22°W. N.16°W. N.8°W. N.51°E.

MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUG.

Mean temperature 61.9 68.8 75.8 78.2
Mean max. temperature 70.2 76.1 83.0 86.0
Mean min. temperature 53.5 62.2 69.6 71.8
Absolute max. temp.
Absolute min. temp.
Mean rainfall 5.91 6.52 5.01 4.37
No. rainy days 13.3 14.4 14.1 11.8
Days with snow ... ... ... ...
Mean barometer
29.84 29.77 29.77 29.79
(reduced freez. point)
Mean direction of wind S.44°E. S.39°E. S.20°E. S.21°E.

SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.

Mean temperature 71.6 60.3 50.1 41.3
Mean max. temperature 78.9 68.9 60.1 52.0
Mean min. temperature 65.5 53.1 41.7 32.4
Absolute max. temp.
Absolute min. temp.
Mean rainfall 8.12 7.07 4.35 2.02
No. rainy days 16.2 13.1 9.0 6.3
Days with snow ... ... 0.2 1.2
Mean barometer
29.87 29.98 29.99 29.95
(reduced freez. point)
Mean direction of wind N.47°E. N.4°W. N.14°W. N.25°W.

YEAR.
Mean temperature 56.8
Mean max. temperature 65.5
Mean min. temperature 49.1
Absolute max. temp.
Absolute min. temp.
Mean rainfall 57.90
No. rainy days 141.6
Days with snow 12.8
Mean barometer
29.90
(reduced freez. point)
Mean direction of wind N.1°W.
Hokkaidō (Northern Sea Road). Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Hitaka,
Tokachi, Teshiwo, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami (all on the island of Yezo), and
Chishima, or the Kurile Islands.
Ryūkyū (Loo Choo) Islands. This group constituted one, the 85th, Kuni.

The following is the list of Japanese Prefectures (Ken and Fu):—

The Fu number three: Tōkyō, Kyōto, and Ōsaka.
The Ken number forty-three: Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Tochigi,
Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui,
Ishikawa, Toyama, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate,
Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyōgo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi,
Shimane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kōchi, Nagasaki, Saga,
Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Ōita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa (Ryūkyū
Islands).
Hokkaidō and Formosa are at present administered as “territories” by the
Imperial Government, although the former has recently been granted a small
measure of local self-government.
 TABLES OF JAPANESE MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE198

Length (Sashi). Japanese Weights and Measures.

As the use of the Japanese weights and measures is becoming more and more
frequent in reports and books from the Far East, the following tables will be
found useful to all persons who wish to ascertain the equivalents of the Japanese
terms in similar terms in use in the United States and in England:—

LONG MEASURE (SASHI)

1 Mō (0.0001 Shaku) 0.000099 foot.
1 Rin (10 Mō) 0.00099 foot.
1 Bu (10 Rin) 1.4317 lines.
1 Sun (10 Bu) 1.1931 inches.
1 Shaku (10 Sun) 11.9305 inches.
1 Ken (6 Shaku) 1.9884 yards.
1 Jō (10 Shaku) 3.3140 yards.
1 Chō (60 Ken) 5.4229 chains (1.15 m.).
1 Ri (36 Chō) 2.4403 miles (2½ m.).
1 Kai-Ri (Marine Ri) 1.1507 miles.

DRY GOODS MEASURE (KUJIRA-JAKU)

1 Sun (0.1 Shaku) 1.4913 inches.
1 Shaku (10 Sun) 14.9130 inches.
1 Tan (about) 11 yards.
1 Hiki (about) 22 yards.

WEIGHT (HAKARI)
1 Mō 0.000008 pound (avoirdupois).
1 Rin (10 Mō) 0.000083 pound „
1 Fun (10 Rin) 5.7972 grains „
1 Momme (10 Fun) 2.12 drams „
1 Kin (160 Momme) 1.3251 pounds „
 1 Kwan (1,000 Momme) 8.2817 pounds „

CAPACITY (MASU)
1 Shaku (10 Sai) 0.00397 gallon.
1 Gō (10 Shaku) 1.2706 gills; 0.0199 peck.
1 Shō (10 Gō) 1.5881 quarts; 0.1985 peck.
1 To (10 Shō) 3.9703 gallons; 1.9851 pecks.
1 Koku (10 To) 39.7033 gallons; 4.9629 bushels.

SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU)

1 Square Shaku about 1 square foot.
1 Tsubo (36 Square Shaku) 3.9538 square yards.
1 Se (30 Tsubo) about 119 square yards.
1 Tan (10 Se) 0.2451 acre.
1 Chō (10 Tan) 2.4507 acres.
1 Square Ki 5.9552 square miles.

MONEY
1 yen $0.4935
1 sen one-half cent.

Money, Weight, and Measure of Various Countries in Terms of those

of Japanese

MONEY
English pound (20 shillings) 9.763 yen.
Shilling (12 pennies) 0.4881 „
Penny (4 farthings) 0.0407 „
Hong Kong dollar 0.949 „
American dollar (100 cents) 2.006 „
Cent 0.02 „
German mark 0.478 „
 French franc 0.387 „
Chinese tael 1.298 „
Manila dollar 0.985 „
Mexican dollar 0.965 „

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LENGTH

Mile (1,760 yards) 14 chō and 49 ken.
Yard (3 feet) 3 shaku.
Foot (12 inches) 1 shaku.
Inch 8 bu and 4 rin.

GERMAN, FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, AND ITALIAN LENGTH

Metre 3 shaku and 3 sun.
Centimetre (1-100 metre) 3 bu and 3 rin.
Millimetre (1-1000 metre) 3 rin and 3 mō.

ENGLISH CAPACITY
Gallon (liquid) 2 shō, 5 gō, and 2 shaku.
Bushel (wheat) 2 to and 1 gō.

AMERICAN CAPACITY
Gallon (liquid) 2shō and 1 gō.
Bushel (wheat) 1 to, 9 shō, and 5 gō.

Weight

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN (HEAVYWEIGHTS)

Ton (20 hundredweight, or 2,240 pounds) about 270 kwan and 946 momme.
Short ton (2,000 pounds) 241 kwan and 916 momme.
Hundredweight (112 pounds) 13 kwan and 547 momme.
Pound (16 ounces) 121 momme.
Ounce about 8 momme.

LIGHT WEIGHT
Pound 99 momme and 5 bu.
Ounce 8 momme and 3 bu.
Grain 1 rin and 7 mō.

Area

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH

Acre 4 tan and 24 ho.
 ARABLE LAND IN JAPAN199

The “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” argues that the real question for the Japanese to
consider is development of agriculture, not a paltry lightening of the fiscal
burden now imposed on agriculturists. When the area of cultivated land in the
various countries of the world is compared with the total areas of those
countries, startling figures result.

Ratio of Area of Cultivated Land to Total Area of Country

Belgium 53.9
Prussia 50.3
France 50.2
Germany 43.4
Denmark 42.5
Italy 39.9
Hungary 37.7
Austria 36.7
Spain 35.7
Holland 27.3
England 27.9
Portugal 24.9
European Russia 16.4
Japan 13.8
Japanese habitually plead that their extraordinarily low place on this list is the
result, not of want of industry, but of natural obstacles, much of the surface of
their islands consisting of mountains and hills which cannot be made arable. The
“Nichi Nichi” alleges that such an excuse is merely partial, and that a little
energy and resolution would soon change the situation. At any rate, the
opposition offered by politicians to the present land tax is not in the genuine
interests of agriculture, but in the interests of political popularity.

Mr. Megata, an official of the Finance Department and an expert statistician,

has figured out that in 1901 more than 15,000,000 acres were in cultivation.

The actual yield of rice for ten years (1900-1909) is indicated in the following
table:—
KOKU.
1900 41,466,422
1901 46,914,434
1902 36,932,266
1903 46,473,298
1904 51,430,321
1905 38,172,560
1906 46,302,530
1907 49,052,065
1908 51,932,893
1909 52,437,662
Average 46,114,451
 FRUIT-GROWING IN JAPAN200

Fruits originally cultivated, and probably native in Japan, include the orange,
pear, peach, sour plum, almond, grape, persimmon, loquat, pomegranate, ginko
or salisburia, and fig. The mikan, or Japanese sweet orange, is smaller, sweeter,
and less juicy than the oranges raised in America, and the thin membrane
separating the sections of the fruit is tougher; it has a very pleasant flavor, and is
much used for food by both natives and foreigners. It is cultivated all through the
warmer regions of Japan, and is the most plentiful of the fruits raised there,
being found in the markets from early autumn until late the following spring.
The persimmon comes next to the orange in the number produced, and is a
favorite with the natives, but its season is comparatively short. It closely
resembles the persimmon of America’s Southern States. The sour plum is
extensively cultivated and yields a good crop, but the other fruits named above,
though more or less widely grown, are produced in much smaller quantities—the
fig being most abundant and most valued of the less important fruits. The
government has introduced peaches, pears, and grapes from Europe and
America, and has found the soil and climate well adapted to their production, so
that these are now cultivated in addition to the native varieties of the same fruits.
Of the fruits wholly unknown in Japan until introduced from abroad, the apple
has proved most successful, and it has become a chief product of some districts
in the Hokkaidō, or northern island. The apples are of fine appearance and
excellent flavor, and the trees yield a profit very encouraging to the cultivator, so
that the area of their production is being increased. The natives eat fruit chiefly
fresh, and its use as a table diet is not general, although increasing. The
processes of drying and canning fruits are beginning to come into use, but only
as a means of preserving the fruit for home consumption, not for export.
 FACTORIES IN JAPAN201

NO. OF FACTORIES
NO. OF AGGREGATE
WITHOUT MOTOR
FACTORIES. HORSE POWER.
POWER.
1895 2,758 61,252 4,396
1896 3,037 64,429 4,603
1897 2,910 63,434 4,377
1898 2,964 79,016 4,131
1899 2,305 76,885 4,394
1900 2,388 95,392 4,896
1909 6,723 554,571 8,703

Factories with Motor Power

NO. OF HORSE NO. OF
FACTORIES. POWER. OPERATIVES.
1,046 9,362 112,887202
Silk reeling { 1,722 6,631 102,071
117 12,523 56,417
Cotton and silk spinning{ 112 20,463 80,107
155 2,577 16,654
Ships, machines, etc. { 198 4,190 18,131
25 3,005 7,924
Weaving { 56 2,596 9,588
251 1,099 2,712
Cement { 37 1,825 3,554
30 246 3,233
Printing { 15 531 5,224
11 3,097 1,761
Paper-mills { 18 3,398 2,909

Factories without Motor Power

NO. OF NO. OF
 FACTORIES. OPERATIVES.
636 17,614
Silk reeling { 496 14,077
2 38
Cotton and silk spinning {
21 542
188 4,512
Ships, machines, etc. { 99 3,195
1,025 28,900
Weaving { 1,245 34,965
136 5,099
Cement { 119 2,870
103 2,784
Printing { 95 2,617
 CLEARING-HOUSES OF JAPAN

The following table shows the development of the clearing-house business in

the two largest centres:—
TOTAL OF CHECKS AND BILLS CLEARED.
FIRST HALF-YEAR
OF
TŌKYŌ ŌSAKA.
Yen. Yen.
1895 131,600,000 34,500,000
1896 184,800,000 65,700,000
1897 250,300,000 72,200,000
1898 383,400,000 97,300,000
1899 433,800,000 161,600,000
1900 675,400,000 255,500,000
1901 565,000,000 263,700,000
1902 614,700,000 298,700,000
1903 756,100,000 395,900,000
1908 (whole year) 2,962,973,000 1,418,941,000
1910 (whole year) 3,841,380,000 2,028,605,000
 SHIP-BUILDING IN JAPAN203

Recent orders which have been placed in the hands of the Nagasaki Dockyard
and Engine Works and the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited, by the
Nippon Yūsen Kaisha and the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha, serve to remind the
resident of the rapid development of the ship-building industry in this country,
while at the same time affording evidence of the growth of the country’s
mercantile marine. The order placed with the first-named yard is for four large
steamers of 6,000, 5,400, 2,500, and 1,900 tons, respectively, the largest vessels
being intended for the Japan Mail Steamship Company’s European and
Australian lines. Nor is the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha in a different position. This
enterprising company also has found it necessary to order new vessels, and has
found it economical to order them in Japan instead of from abroad. The fact is
worthy of note, for it is the first time in the history of the country that orders for
eight ocean-going steamers have been in hand at one time. This may, we trust, be
held to indicate that the shipping and ship-building industries are in a healthy
and prosperous state.
The contrast between the condition of the local ship-building trade now and
that of a few years back is a striking one. Perhaps the first real impetus given to
private ship-building here was due to the enterprise of the late Mr. E. C. Kirby, at
whose yard at Onohama—the plant of which was subsequently removed to Kure
—one large cruiser and several smaller gunboats and steamers were successfully
launched. Since then, the yards at Kawasaki, Ōsaka, Ishikawajima, Uraga, and
Nagasaki have taken up the work vigorously, and demonstrated beyond
possibility of cavil their ability to turn out ocean-going craft, and large river
steamers of the highest standard. With the productions of Ōsaka and Kōbe ship-
building establishments trading regularly on the Yangtze, and 6,000-ton liners
from the Nagasaki Shipbuilding Engine Works, making record voyages between
Seattle and the Orient, and others running regularly between home ports and
London, there is no longer room for surprise in viewing Japan-built steamers.
There is no doubt that with the opening up of additional lines in the China and
Japan seas, sufficient work for local ship-builders will be forthcoming for some
years to come, and it is therefore unlikely that they will enter into serious
competition in the near future with ship-building yards in Shanghai, Hongkong,
and Singapore. The home demand seems likely to engage their activities for
some years yet, though the presence of a 700-ton steamer for the Shanghai
customs on the stocks at Kawasaki may be held to belie the prediction....
Although Japanese ship-builders may have quite enough to do in the near future
to meet the home demand, a young rival has entered the lists against the great
ship-building concerns of the West; and this in itself is no small credit to the
nation, which is already able to plume itself upon having accomplished more in a
generation than any other people in Asia or in the South Seas, and as much,
relatively, as the American and English peoples whose homes are on the Pacific
slope.
 THE ŌSAKA EXHIBITION204

Considering that as recently as 1873 Japan had no such institution as a factory,

and knew nothing whatever of iron foundries or machine shops, the Japanese-
made machinery display at the exhibition at Ōsaka was astonishing. There we
found silk-weaving and mat-making machines, electrical motors and generators,
gas and oil engines, locomotives, electrical fittings, tools, beltings, match-
making machine, lemonade-making machine, distilling machine, fire-brigade
appliances, rice-cleaning machines, huge steam navvy, oil tanks, soap-making
machines, printing machines, massive hoisting engine, tea-refining machinery,
heavy mining machinery, and many other smaller machines, all of Japanese
manufacture, admirably made and efficient.
In general manufactures the empire made a good showing. Straw braid;
shibori, a beautiful stuff, making pretty dress material; woollen serges and
woven silks, particularly a delicate fabric of mixed silk and cotton (the output of
this fabric exceeding $1,500,000 per annum); cheap and good cotton blankets,
Japanese towels, artistic designs in tiles and roofing materials, drainpipes,
fireproof bricks. In drinkables, also of home manufacture, there was beer by the
carload; sake, the famous native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an army.
One of the best exhibits was in clocks; some of them very handsome and very
cheap, made by one or other of the twelve Japanese clock companies. The
porcelain exhibition was good, consisting of beautiful vases, artistic porcelain
trays, basins, teacups, etc. The exhibit of Japanese-made shoes was quite
creditable. Other native manufactures exhibited were bamboo furniture,
whatnots, over-mantels, fire screens, shell buttons, paper lanterns, fine silken
rugs, shawls, paper, camphor, oils, soap, all kinds of sauces and relishes, silks of
every hue and description, silk lace, gold and silver thread, linen, duck, tent
cloths, ivory work, bronzes, lacquer and silver work, surgical instruments,
pianos, organs, and other musical instruments, bicycles, gymnastic and athletic
goods, microscopes, cameras, barometers, and almost every kind of educational
apparatus.
The natural products of the country were exhibited to good advantage. Rice,
tobacco (manufactured and un-manufactured), silkworms, various varieties of
silk cocoons, tea, huge oranges, sugar, furs, woods, pearls, coral, fish (dried and
salted). Mushrooms were a special exhibit of one prefecture, tea of another, and
so on. The whole section of the agricultural experiment station was complete and
admirable in every way.
In the foreign section we found weaving-machines (only introduced October,
1902, and already largely sold), German shoe-making and cigarette-making
machines, and searchlights from Nuremberg, match and matchbox-making
machines, rifles, wire samples, chemicals, perfumes, British-made electrical
appliances, timber, paints, varnishes, gas and oil engines, steam-engines
(British), a turbo-alternator (electric) from Newcastle-on-Tyne, rubber and steel
goods from England, Maxim’s famous guns, fountain pens, typewriters, Indian
cotton, American bone goods, American motor cars and bicycles, meat extracts,
American provisions, American lighting and heating apparatus for railway
carriages and street cars, refrigerator cars, Boston pile-sinking outfits, New York
pumps, marine gasolene engine, and sewing-machines.
Canada also made a good exhibit of the cereals and food products of the
Dominion, with the Canadian system of cold storage, and of pulp woods,
furniture, and iron work.
 COST OF LIVING IN JAPAN

How Laborers Live

The following tables are from “The Labor World” for July 1, 1898. The editor
sent a form to be filled out by the laborers themselves, to get accurate statistics
of their lives and work. A few samples throw light upon the inner life of
Japanese laborers:—
No. 1.—House, two rooms; a family,—man (30), wife (23), mother (53), two sisters (14 and 11);
occupation, blacksmith.
Working days in a month 26
Working hours in a day 12
Daily wages $0.52
Monthly income 13.83
Monthly expenses 13.65
House rent, one month 0.96
Rice 5.76
Fuel and light 1.08
Vegetables. 0.87
Fish 0.96
Sake (rice beer) 0.24
Soy (Japanese sauce) 0.73
Tobacco 0.20
Hair cutting and dressing 0.83
Bath 0.88
Pin money 0.25
Sundries 0.89
No. 55.—House, two rooms, with kitchen; a family,—man (27), wife (25), boy (6), girl (2); business, iron
worker.

Daily wages $0.25

Overtime income for one month 1.50
Monthly income 8.28
Monthly income 8.28
Monthly expense 9.44
House rent 0.75
Rice 3.25
 Fuel and light 0.41
Vegetables 0.60
Fish 0.60
Soy and miso 0.23
Tobacco 0.25
Hair cutting and dressing 0.18
Bath 0.20
Pin money 0.60
Sundries, including interest on debt 2.37
Increase in Living Expense
The following interesting comparison between the cost of living in 1889 and
1899 is from “The Miyako”:
(Calculated monthly expenditure of a family of six members—a married couple, a parent, two children,
and one servant—living with strict economy.)

1889. 1899.
yen. yen.
House rent (a house containing the furnished rooms of 6,
4½, and 2 mats, respectively 2.50 5.00
Cleaned rice (at the rate of 2 shō per day) 4.50 7.00
(1 to 3 shō (8 shō 5 gō
per yen.) per yen.)
Soy 0.45 0.75
Salt and miso (including 1½ gō of salt and some miso) 0.40 0.70
Oils (3 shō of kerosene and 5 gō of vegetable oil) 0.45 0.69
Sugar 0.60 0.90
Milk (1 gō per day) 0.90 1.10
Newspaper (only 1) 0.25 0.35
School expenses (for 2 children) 0.80 0.90
Stationery expenditure (for the children) 0.60 0.90
Hair dressing 0.34 0.69
Price of bath (every other day for the family) 0.90 1.50
Vegetables 0.90 1.50
Fish food (9 messes for the family) 1.08 1.80
Beef (6 messes for the family, about 2/3 of 1 pound) 0.60 1.20
Tsukudani and other auxiliary foods (6 messes) 0.24 0.42
Tea 0.40 0.50
Fuel 1.00 1.80
Total 17.21 28.20
Security money for rent 7.00 15.00
These include necessaries, but if other petty expenses are taken into
calculation, a family of 6 members as mentioned above will require a monthly
income of at least 35 yen on which to maintain themselves decently.
Wages of Japanese Workmen
Following is a table of the average wages:—
1902. 1911.
yen. yen.
Carpenter per day .775 1.063
Plasterer „ .863 1.150
Painter „ .860 1.238
Tile Roofer „ .613 1.225
Roofer „ .913 1.213
Bricklayer „ .900 1.250
Furniture Maker „ .800 .988
Stone Mason „ .925 1.250
Gardener „ .600 .838
Paper Hanger „ .825 1.025
Matting Setter „ .900 1.175
Sawyer „ .863 1.088
Compositor „ .575 .750
Printer „ .400 .650
Wooden Clog Maker „ .638 .625
Cooper „ .700 .528
Fireman „ .550 .813
Coolie „ .450 .575
Jeweller „ .650 .650
Tailor, Jap. clothes „ .688 .738
205Cabinet Maker „ .550 .888
205Lacquerer „ .513 .600
205Shoemaker „ .750 1.038
205Harness Maker „ .675 1.038
205Cart Maker „ .550 .588
205Founder „ .813 .700
205Blacksmith „ .813 1.075
205Rice Pounder „ .375 .483
205Dyer per month 8.875 8.375
205Washerman „ 10.000 7.750
205Jap. Sock Maker „ 6.000 9.500
205Eur. Confectioner „ 9.75013.000
205Male Servant „ 2.625 4.000
205Female Servant „ 2.000 3.250
205Tailor, Eur. clothes „ 17.62530.000
 RAILWAYS IN JAPAN

The report on railway development shows that since the government

constructed its first line of eighteen miles from Yokohama to Tōkyō in 1872, a
great trunk line of 1,200 miles has been built, and the total mileage in the
country increased to 6,042, which in 1910 handled 153,088,066 passengers and
25,815,000 tons of freight. Of this entire mileage, 506 miles are owned by
private corporations, and 5,536 by the government, which was the pioneer in the
movement to give the country modern land transportation. No private
construction was done until 1883, when the government had 181 miles of
railway under operation; and it was not until 1889 that private enterprise for a
time led the governmental effort. The state railways to August, 1905, cost the
sum of 85,573,511 yen, while the private systems represented a cost for
construction to the same date of 191,230,291 yen. In 1910 the grand total had
reached almost 577,000,000 yen.

MILITARY REVIEW, HIMEJI

According to the reports made on the railways at the end of the year 1910 the
gross earnings of both state and private railways for that year were 89,000,000
yen, the gross expenditures 46,796,000 yen, and the net profit over 43,700,000
yen.
The government has arranged plans for railway construction and development
which involve an outlay of 174,523,365 yen, the construction to extend through
eight years, and the improvements through twelve.
The line from Nagoya to Haichioji, near Tōkyō, opened to traffic in 1911, is
about 224 miles long. The construction represents the best engineering skill, and
an outlay of $17,500,000. It has ninety-five tunnels and 350 bridges.
The people of the country opposed the construction of the first line from
Yokohama to Tokyo as a dangerous thing, and it was several years before public
opposition to the innovation was entirely removed. Bond issues for railway
construction were opposed, but the government insisted on its policy and finally
won the people to its general support, so that by the end of the year 1908 on all
lines there were 2,156 locomotives, 5,951 passenger coaches, and 34,045 freight
cars in use.
 POSTAL SAVINGS IN JAPAN206

It must be admitted at the outset that the system of postal savings in Japan
cannot boast of any particularly brilliant record. The study of it reveals, however,
a state of things which is not without some encouraging features. We give below
the amounts of the deposits and some other items for every third year since the
inauguration of the institution:—
DEPOSITS AT THE END
AMOUNT PER DEPOSITOR.
YEAR. OF THE YEAR. NO. OF DEPOSITORS.
Yen.
Yen.
1875 15,000 1,800 8
1878 286,000 14,100 20
1881 821,000 38,900 21
1884 5,260,000 141,200 37
1887 18,213,000 568,800 31
1890 19,197,000 833,700 25
1893 26,155,000 1,060,200 24
1896 28,251,000 1,273,300 21
1899 23,455,000 1,397,600 16
1902 28,536,000 2,707,500 10
1905 54,754,096 5,858,560 9
1908 92,389,473 7,886,279 12
1911 200,000,000 12,000,000 17
The sudden drop between the years 1896 and 1902 is owing to the fact that the
extraordinarily high interest offered by the ordinary banks during that period of
monetary stringency diverted deposits from the Post Offices. The gradual fall in
the general rates of interest since then has already begun to turn the tide back in
favor of the Post Offices, as shown by the figures for late years. What is
particularly satisfactory is the increase in the number of depositors, the increase
in this respect being far more remarkable than the increase in the amount of the
deposits, as shown by the decreasing amount per depositor. This means, if it
means anything, that the advantages offered by the Postal Savings Bank are
more and more extensively appreciated by the poorer classes.
The amount of deposits at the Postal Savings Bank seems to be steadily
increasing, as is shown by the table. The figures for 1909, not given there, show
9,717,236 depositors, and 122,098,101 yen deposits.
Not altogether unsatisfactory as is this result of the official efforts to
encourage the saving habit among the people, it must be noted that we are in this
respect far behind some of the European countries. Consulting the statistics for
the year 1898, we find the postal savings reached in that year to £120,000,000 in
England, £33,000,000 in France, £21,000,000 in Belgium, £4,800,000 in
Austria, £1,000,000 in Hungary, £2,700,000 in Holland, and £3,400,000 in
Sweden. In spite of the great improvement effected in the system of late years,
especially in the way of simplifying the official procedure connected with the
acceptance and repayment of the deposits, much still remains to be done in order
to bring the facilities provided by it within easy reach of the people by increasing
the number of the Post Offices authorized to receive deposits throughout the
country.
While speaking of savings, it may not be uninteresting to mention a few
figures on the state of the deposits at the ordinary banks. We do not happen to
have at hand the statistics covering all the banking concerns in the country. The
“Ginkō Tsushin-Roku,” however, supplies us with reliable statistics up to
February, 1902, so far as the principal banking centres are concerned. We find,
then, that the total amount of deposits at the banks belonging to the clearing-
houses of Tōkyō, Ōsaka, Kyōto, Nagoya, Yokohama, and Kōbe, stood at the end
of February at 308,289,000 yen, made up as follows, not including the deposits
at the Bank of Japan:
Yen.
Tōkyō 119,268,000
Ōsaka 75,824,000
Yokohama 49,280,000
Kōbe 23,423,000
Kyōto 22,616,000
Nagoya 17,878,000
In June, 1910, the Bank of Japan had a paid-up capital of 37,600,000 yen; in
1909 the deposits were 220,101,784 yen. At that time the Industrial Bank of
Japan had deposits of 8,930,050 yen. The deposits in all the Japanese banks in
1909 amounted to 1,617,873,711 yen.
 THE OIL INDUSTRY IN JAPAN207

Japan’s oil industry has a brilliant future before it. The use of kerosene in the
country has grown at a wonderfully rapid pace. In the first year of Meiji the
amount of oil imported was 639 koku. In 1901 it had reached 1,300,000 koku.
The value of the oil imported in 1868 was only 7,236 yen; that imported in 1901
was 14 million yen.208 The following table shows the rate at which the import of
kerosene into Japan increased:—
VALUE.
YEARS. Koku.
Yen.
1868 639 7,236
1872 8,936 160,608
1877 53,645 605,598
1882 413,644 2,320,905
1887 421,177 1,871,428
1892 653,785 3,328,398
1897 1,221,164 7,667,350
1900 1,356,846 14,162,652
1901 1,379,927 14,943,400
Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from abroad, of late years the
demand for the Echigo oil has gone on increasing, as shown in the subjoined
table, which covers seven years.
Koku OF CRUDE
YEARS. VALUE. Yen.
PETROLEUM.
1895 158,334 526,976
1896 207,470 619,333
1897 257,614 668,677
1898 355,006 670,308
1899 544,583 1,450,904
1900 836,628 2,142,003
1901 1,115,807 2,345,916
It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of this crude petroleum was
used for lighting purposes. It would seem, then, that Echigo supplied 3/10 of the
total amount of oil used for lighting in Japan during the seven years, and that the
remaining 7/10 came from abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude
petroleum being 2,345,916 yen, it is estimated that when refined this amount of
petroleum would fetch not less than 4 million yen. But the fact remains that the
proportion of oil imported is still very large, so that there is room for a further
great development of the business.
In 1908 Japan’s output of petroleum was 1,872,592 U. S. barrels. Echigo is by
no means worked out: new fields are constantly being discovered in that
province. Then petroleum has been found in Hokkaidō and in the Yamagata and
Shizuoka prefectures. So that among Japan’s modern industries her oil trade may
be pronounced to be full of promise. How the quality of the Japanese oil
compares with the American and Russian brands, we are not told by the Jiji, but
from other sources we gather that when properly refined Japanese petroleum is
equal to the best American and Russian oils.
 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

The following table shows the national development in population, finance,

trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency, during the 30 years
from 1872 to 1902.
POPULATION. STATE EXPENDITURE. TRADE. RAILWAY.
YEAR.
(IN THOUSAND) Yen. Yen. MILES.
1872 33,210 57,730,025 43,204,462 18
1873 33,300 62,678,601 49,742,830 18
1874 33,625 82,269,528 42,779,120 38
1875 33,997 69,203,242 48,586,738 38
1876 34,338 59,308,956 51,676,296 65
1877 (unknown) 48,428,324 50,769,424 66
1878 „ 60,911,336 58,862,974 68
1879 35,768 60,317,578 61,128,772 73
1880 35,929 63,140,896 65,021,987 98
1881 36,358 71,460,321 62,250,133 122
1882 36,700 73,480,667 67,168,344 170
1883 37,017 83,106,859 64,712,861 244
1884 37,451 76,663,108 63,544,112 262
1885 37,868 61,115,313 66,503,659 353
1886 38,507 83,223,960 84,044,745 430
1887 39,069 79,453,036 96,711,932 593
1888 39,607 81,504,024 131,160,744 912
1889 40,072 79,713,671 136,164,472 1,136
1890 40,453 82,125,403 138,332,086 1,339
1891 40,718 83,558,891 142,454,540 1,716
1892 41,089 76,734,740 162,428,833 1,870
1893 41,388 84,581,872 177,970,036 1,938
1894 41,813 78,128,643 230,028,141 2,118
1895 42,270 85,317,179 265,372,756 2,290
1896 42,706 168,856,509 289,517,234 2,507
1897 43,228 223,678,844 382,435,848 2,948
1898 43,763 219,757,568 443,255,909 3,120
1899 44,260 254,165,537 435,331,802 3,638
1900 .... 292,726,996 491,691,839 3,855
1901 .... 266,856,824 508,166,187 4,026
1902 .... 275,751,194
TELEGRAPHIC MONEY IN
VESSELS. SAVINGS.
YEAR. LINES. CIRCULATION.
TON. Yen.
Ri. Yen
1872 22,364 87 .... 132,611,498
1873 26,988 806 .... 159,423,361
1874 26,120 1,758 .... 157,660,830
1875 42,304 1,833 15,224 154,931,596
1876 40,248 2,156 41,845 163,692,344
1877 49,105 2,876 100,138 175,432,023
1878 43,899 3,512 286,289 221,994,874
1879 42,763 3,842 494,114 215,912,239
1880 41,215 4,489 662,091 203,994,171
1881 41,044 5,078 821,938 195,742,688
1882 42,107 5,477 1,058,225 186,376,681
1883 45,350 5,871 2,298,502 182,625,317
1884 49,845 6,122 5,260,484 177,978,053
1885 59,613 6,283 9,050,255 181,433,916
1886 63,314 6,353 15,462,054 198,557,838
1887 72,322 6,818 18,417,022 200,157,163
1888 81,066 7,588 20,142,169 207,825,609
1889 88,816 8,191 19,976,419 220,748,343
1890 93,812 9,250 19,197,942 205,408,438
1891 95,588 9,113 26,424,174 210,872,584
1892 102,301 9,920 30,031,483 219,848,385
1893 110,205 10,230 32,199.954 244,847,437
1894 169,414 11,502 32,772,652 256,088,534
1895 213,221 12,212 41,143,695 291,665,016
1896 227,841 15,431 46,693,884 307,461,803
1897 426,624 18,360 51,550,536 330,470,142
1898 464,246 20,561 52,532,992 285,589,698
1899 498,376 24,342 68,829,712 332,702,090
1900 534,239 27,390 72,897,286 318,280,814
1901 .... .... .... 306,315,006
 1902
NOTE.—In expenditure, the figures from 1872 up to 1898 are taken from the
settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901 from the actual account. 1902
is from the Budget. In railways, the figures show the mileages of the lines
belonging to the government as well as those belonging to private firms opened
to traffic at the end of the respective years. The tonnage of vessels shown in the
table is that of steamers. Before 1896, the figures represented the aggregate
amount of both registered and unregistered tonnage, while from that year up to
1902, the figures only represented registered tonnage. In savings, the figures
show the total amount saved in the post offices as well in the savings banks at
the end of the respective years. The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate, however,
the amounts of the postal savings only.
From the “Tōyō Keizai Shimpō” (Oriental Economist).
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN

From the official statistics we give a table of Japan’s foreign trade each year
from 1868 to 1901, and for 1909.
EXPORTS. IMPORTS. TOTAL.
Yen. Yen. Yen.
1868 15,553,472 870 10,693,071 790 26,246,544 660
1869 12,908,977 990 20,783,633 090 33,692,611 080
1870 14,543,012 510 33,741,637 360 48,284,649 870
1871 17,968,608 660 21,916,727 650 39,885,336 310
1872 17,026,647 220 26,174,814 930 43,201,462 150
1873 21,635,440 850 28,107,390 030 49,742,830 880
1874 19,317,306 090 23,461,814 400 42,779,120 490
1875 18,611,110 610 29,975,627 620 48,586,738 230
1876 27,711,527 500 29,964,678 960 51,676,206 460
1877 23,348,521 600 27,420,902 950 50,769,424 650
1878 25,988,140 280 32,874,834 170 58,862,974 450
1879 28,175,770 190 32,953,002 390 61,128,772 580
1880 28,395,386 660 36,626,601 000 65,021,987 660
1881 31,058,887 930 31,191,246 020 62,250,133 950
1882 37,721,750 570 29,446,593 980 67,168,344 550
1883 36,268,019 590 28,444,841 780 64,712,861 370
1884 33,871,465 500 29,672,647 450 63,544,112 950
1885 37,146,691 430 29,356,967 920 66,503,659 350
1886 48,876,312 790 32,168,432 260 81,044,745 050
1887 52,407,681 150 44,304,251 690 96,711,932 840
1888 65,705,510 210 65,455,234 010 131,160,744 220
1889 70,060,705 820 66,103,766 600 136,164,472 420
1890 56,603,506 030 81,728,580 500 138,332,086 530
1891 79,527,272 340 62,927,268 380 142,454,540 720
1892 91,102,753 630 71,326,079 500 162,428,833 130
1893 89,712,864 590 88,257,171 710 177,970,036 300
1894 113,246,086 150 117,481,955 460 230,728,041 610
1895 136,112,177 920 129,260,578 280 265,372,756 200
1896 177,842,700 620 171,674,474 250 289,517,234 870
1897 163,135,077 320 219,300,771 640 382,435,848 960
1898 165,753,752 880 277,502,156 510 443,255,909 390
1899 214,929,894 310 220,401,925 990 435,331,820 300
1900 204,429,998 980 287,261,845 680 491,691,839 560
1901 252,349,542 100 255,816,644 700 508,166,187 800
1909 413,112,511 .. 394,198,843 .. 807,311,354
IMPORTS COMPARED WITH EXPORTS.
INCREASE. DECREASE.
Yen. Yen.
1868 ....... .. 4,860,401 080
1869 7,874,655
1870 19,198,624 850
1871 3,948,118 990
1872 9,148,167 710
1873 6,471,949 180
1874 4,144,508 310
1875 11,364,517 010
1876 ....... .. 3,746,848 540
1877 4,072,381 850
1878 6,886,693 890
1879 4,777,232 200
1880 8,231,214 340
1881 132,358 090
1882 ...... .. 8,275,156 590
1883 ...... .. 7,823,177 810
1884 ...... .. 4,198,818 050
1885 ...... .. 7,789,723 510
1886 ...... .. 16,707,880 530
1887 ...... .. 8,103,429 460
1888 ...... .. 250,276 200
1889 ...... .. 3,966,939 220
1890 25,125,074 470
1891 ...... .. 16,600,003 960
1892 ...... .. 19,776,674 130
1893 ...... .. 1,455,692 880
 1894 4,235,869 310
1895 ...... .. 6,851,599 640
1896 53,831,713 680
1897 56,165,694 320
1898 111,748,403 630
1899 5,472,031 680
1900 82,831,851 600
1901 3,467,101 600
=1909=
 THE WEALTH OF JAPAN

The following estimate gives an idea of the wealth of Japan and its
distribution:—
Land 7,000 millions yen.
Mines 500 „ „
Live-stock 80 „ „
Buildings 1,900 „ „
Furniture 400 „ „
Railroads 350 „ „
Warships and merchant-ships 250 „ „
Specie 200 „ „
Miscellaneous 300 „ „
Goods and other products 800 „ „
Total 11,080 „ „

The output of gold in 1908 was 168,883 ounces.

On the position Japanese occupy as regards the acquisition of wealth Mr. Kure
Bunso, the well-known statistician, writes in the “Shakaigaku Zasshi” as
follows: There are only two men in Japan who pay an income tax on over
250,000 yen. There are only 13 men in the whole country who pay on 39,000
yen, being in the proportion of 4 persons to every 100,000 inhabitants; only 67
who pay on 24,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2 persons to every 10,000
inhabitants; 96 persons who pay on 17,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2.8
persons to every 10,000 inhabitants; those who pay on 11,000 yen number 140,
being in the proportion of 4 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every
1,000 inhabitants there are only 7 persons who make 2,700 yen a year. Thus it is
seen that when compared with the French and the English the Japanese are
extremely poor. The Germans seem to be rich to the Japanese, though when
compared with the French and English they are poor. General Grant, when in
Japan nearly twenty years ago, remarked that Japan was fortunate in having such
an equality among all classes of the people. He said that the gulf between the
rich and the poor did not exist here. Equality may be all very well in its way, but,
says Mr. Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people hardly have
enough to live on is anything but desirable.209

The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tōkyō is constructed upon steel
frames, and is the only one of its kind in the East. The Mitsui Bank is the oldest
banking establishment in Japan, more than 200 years old. The building area is
2,600 square yards on a site covering 2½ acres.
 JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS

It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year periods do not regularly
correspond with the reigns of the Emperors, because “a new one was chosen
whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a
malign event.” But hereafter the era will correspond with the reign of an
Emperor. The names of some of these eras are quite famous, like the Elizabethan
or the Victorian Era in English history. As the first era was a time of great
reforms, it is known as the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era, in the tenth
century, is celebrated for important legislation; the Genroku Era, in the
seventeenth century, was “a period of great activity in various arts”; and the
Tempō Era, of recent days, was “the last brilliant period of feudalism before its
fall.” This name was also given to the large 8 rin piece coined in that era. The
Wadō Era, in the fourteenth century, was so named on account of the discovery
of copper; and the second era, Hakuchi, commemorates a “white pheasant,”
presented to the Emperor.
 LIST OF JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS.210

JAPANESE CHRISTIAN
NAME.
ERA.211 ERA.
Taikwa 1305 645
Hakuchi 1310 650
(Blank) 1315-1331 655-671
Sujaku 1332 672
Hakuhō 1332 672
Shuchō 1346 686
(Blank) 1347-1360 687-700
Daihō [Taihō] 1361 701
Keiun 1364 704
Wadō 1368 708
Reiki 1375 715
Yōrō 1377 717
Jinki [Shinki] 1384 724
Tembiō 1389 729
Tembiō shōhō 1409 749
Tembiō hoji 1417 757
Tembiō jingo 1425 765
Jingo keiun 1427 767
Hōki 1430 770
Tenō 1441 781
Enriaku 1442 782
Daidō 1466 806
Kōnin 1470 810
Tenchō 1484 824
Jōwa [Shōwa] 1494 834
Kajō [Kashō] 1508 848
Ninju 1511 851
Saikō 1514 854
Tenan 1517 857
Jōgwan [Jōkwan] 1519 859
Gwangiō [Genkei] 1537 877
Ninna [Ninwa] 1545 885
Kwampei 1549 889
Shōtai 1558 898
Engi 1561 901
Enchō 1583 923
Jōhei [Shōhei] 1591 931
Tengiō [Tenkei] 1598 938
Tenriaku 1607 947
Tentoku 1617 957
Ōwa 1621 961
Kōhō 1624 964
Anna 1628 968
Tenroku 1630 970
Ten-en 1633 973
Jōgen 1636 976
Tengen 1638 978
Eikwan 1643 983
Kwanna 1645 985
Eien 1647 987
Eiso [Eisho] 1649 989
Shōriaku 1650 990
Chōtoku 1655 995
Chōhō 1659 999
Kwankō 1664 1004
Chōwa 1672 1012
Kwannin 1677 1017
Ji-an 1681 1021
Manju 1684 1024
Chōgen 1688 1028
Chōriaku 1697 1037
Chōkiū 1700 1040
Kwantoku 1704 1044
Eijō [Eishō] 1706 1046
Tengi [Tenki] 1713 1053
Kōhei 1718 1058
Jiriaku 1725 1065
Enkiū 1729 1069
Jōhō [Shōhō] 1734 1074
Jōriaku [Shōreki] 1737 1077
Eiho 1741 1081
Otoku 1744 1084
Kwanji 1747 1087
Kahō 1754 1094
Eichō 1756 1096
Jōtoku [Shōtoku] 1757 1097
Kōwa 1759 1099
Chōji 1764 1104
Kajō [Kashō] 1766 1106
Tennin 1768 1108
Tenei 1770 1110
Eikiū 1773 1113
Genei 1778 1118
Hōan 1780 1120
Tenji 1784 1124
Daiji 1786 1126
Tenjō [Tenshō] 1791 1131
Chōjō [Chōshō] 1792 1132
Hōen 1795 1135
Eiji 1801 1141
Kōji 1802 1142
Tenyō 1804 1144
Kiū-an 1805 1145
Nimbiō 1811 1151
Kiūju 1814 1154
Hōgen 1816 1156
Heiji 1819 1159
Eiriaku 1820 1160
Ōhō 1821 1161
Chōkwan 1823 1163
Eiman 1825 1165
Ninan 1826 1166
Ka-ō 1829 1169
Jō-an [Shōan] 1831 1171
Angen 1835 1175
Jishō 1837 1177
Yōwa 1841 1181
Ju-ei 1842 1182
Genriaku 1844 1184
Bunji 1845 1185
Kenkiū 1850 1190
Shōji 1859 1199
Kennin 1861 1201
Genkiū 1864 1204
Kenei 1866 1206
Jōgen [Shōgen] 1867 1207
Kenriaku 1871 1211
Kempō 1873 1213
Jōkiū [Shōkiū] 1879 1219
Jō-ō 1882 1222
Gennin 1884 1224
Karoku 1885 1225
Antei 1887 1227
Kwangi 1889 1229
Jō-ei 1892 1232
Tempuku 1893 1233
Bunriaku 1894 1234
Katei 1895 1235
Riakunin 1898 1238
En-o 1899 1239
Ninji 1900 1240
Kwangen 1903 1243
Hōji 1907 1247
Kenchō 1909 1249
Kōgen 1916 1256
Shōka 1917 1257
Shōgen 1919 1259
Bunō 1920 1260
Kōchō 1921 1261
Bunei 1924 1264
Kenji 1935 1275
Kōan 1938 1278
Shō-ō 1948 1288
Einin 1953 1293
Shōan 1959 1299
Kengen 1962 1302
Kagen 1963 1303
Tokuji 1966 1306
Enkiō [En-kei] 1968 1308
Ōchō 1971 1311
Shōwa 1972 1312
Bumpō 1977 1317
Gen-ō 1979 1319
Genkō 1981 1321
Shōchū 1984 1324
Kariaku 1986 1326
Gentoku 1989 1329
Shōkiō [Shōkei] 1992 1332
Kemmu 1994 1334
Rekiō 1998 1338212
Kōei 2002 1342212
Jōwa 2005 1345212
Kwanō 2010 1350212
Bunna 2012 1352212
Embun 2016 1356212
Kōan 2021 1361212
Jōji 2022 1362212
Ōan 2028 1368212
Eiwa 2035 1375212
Kōreki 2039 1379212
Eitoku 2041 1381212
Shitoku 2044 1384212
Kakei 2047 1387212
Koō 2049 1389212
Engen 1996 1336213
Kōkoku 2000 1340213
Shōhei 2006 1346213
Kentoku 2030 1370213
Bunchū 2032 1372213
Tenju 2035 1375213
Kōwa 2041 1381213
Genchū 2044 1384213
Meitoku 2050 1390
Ō-ei 2054 1394
Shōchō 2088 1428
Eikiō 2089 1429
Kakitsu 2101 1441
Bunan 2104 1444
Hōtoku 2109 1449
Kōtoku 2112 1452
Kōshō 2115 1455
Chōroku 2117 1457
Kwanshō 2120 1460
Bunshō 2126 1466
Ōnin 2127 1467
Bummei 2129 1469
Chōkō 2147 1487
Entoku 2149 1489
Mei-ō 2152 1492
Bunki 2161 1501
Eishō 2164 1504
Dai-ei [Taiei] 2181 1521
Kōroku 2188 1528
Tembun 2192 1532
Kōji 2215 1555
Eiroku 2218 1558
Genki 2230 1570
Tenshō 2233 1573
Bunroku 2252 1592
Keichō 2256 1596
Genna 2275 1615
Kwanei 2284 1624
Shōhō 2304 1644
Kei-an 2308 1648
Jō-ō [Shō-ō] 2312 1652
Meireki 2315 1655
Manji 2318 1658
Kwambun 2321 1661
Empō 2333 1673
Tenna 2341 1681
Jōkiō 2344 1684
Genroku 2348 1688
Hō-ei 2364 1704
Shōtōku 2371 1711
Kiōhō 2376 1716
Gembun 2396 1736
Kwampō 2401 1741
Enkiō 2404 1744
Kwannen 2408 1748
Hōreki 2411 1751
Meiwa 2424 1764
Anei 2432 1772
Temmei 2441 1781
Kwansei 2449 1789
Kiōwa 2461 1801
Bunkwa 2464 1804
Bunsei 2478 1818
Tempō 2490 1830
Kōkwa 2504 1844
Ka-ei 2508 1848
Ansei 2514 1854
Manen 2520 1860
Bunkiū 2521 1861
Genji 2524 1864
Kei-ō 2525 1865
Meiji 2528 1868
Taishō 2572 1912
The names of these periods are made by the various combinations of 68
Chinese words of good omen.

There are, moreover, other expressions which more closely resemble such
common Occidental phrases as the Victorian Era, the Elizabethan Era, the Age
of Pericles, except that in the impersonal Orient such expressions are named
more often from places. In Japanese history, for instance, it is very common to
read of the Nara Epoch, the Heian Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the Kamakura
Period, the Yedo Era, the Tōkyō Period (Modern Japan). Personal names are
applied, however, in such cases as the Hōjō Era, the Ashikaga Period, the
Tokugawa Era, the Fujiwara Period.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES.214
1.Jimmu (660-585 B. C.)
2.Suizei (581-549)
3.Annei (548-511)
4.Itoku (510-477)
5.Kōshō (475-393)
6.Kōan (392-291)
7.Kōrei (290-215)
8.Kōgen (214-158)
9.Kaikwa (157-98)
10.Sujin (97-30)
11. Suinin (29 B. C.-70 A. D.)
12.Keikō (71-130 A. D.)
13.Seimu (131-190)
14.Chūai-(192-200)
[15. Jingō214 (201-269)]
16.Ōjin (270-310)
17.Nintoku (313-399)
18.Richū (400-405)
19.Hanzei (406-411)
20.Ingyō (412-453)
21.Ankō (454-456)
22.Yūryaku (457-479)
23.Seinei (480-484)
24.Kensō (485-487)
25.Ninken (488-498)
26.Muretsu (499-506)
27.Keitai (507-531)
28.Ankan (534-535)
29.Senkwa (536-539)
30.Kimmei (540-571)
31.Bidatsu (572-585)
32.Yōmei (586-587)
33.Sujun (588-592)
34.Suiko (593-628)
35.Jomei (629-641)
36.Kōgyoku (642-645)
37.Kōtoku (645-654)
38.Saimei (655-661)
39.Tenchi (668-671)
40.Kōbun (672)
41.Temmu (673-686)
42.Jitō (690-696)
43.Mommu (697-707)
44.Gemmyō (708-715)
45.Genshō (715-723)
46.Shōmu (724-748)
47.Kōken (749-758)
48.Junnin (758-764)
49.Shōtoku (765-770)
50.Kōnin (770-781)
51.Kwammu (782-806)
52.Heizei (806-809)
53.Saga (809-823)
54.Junna (823-833)
55.Nimmyō (833-850)
56.Montoku (850-858)
57.Seiwa (859-876)
58.Yōzei (877-884)
59.Kōkō (884-887)
60.Uda (888-897)
61.Daigo (897-930)
62.Sujaku (931-946)
63.Murakami (946-967)
64.Reizei (968-969)
65.Enyū (970-984)
66.Kwazan (985-986)
67.Ichijō (987-1011)
68.Sanjō (1012-1016)
69. Go-Ichijō215 (1016-1036)
70.Go-Sujaku (1037-1045)
71.Go-Reizei (1045-1068)
72.Go-Sanjō (1068-1072)
73.Shirakawa (1073-10861
74.Horikawa (1087-1107)
75.Toba (1108-1123)
76.Sutoku (1123-1141)
77.Konoye (1142-1155)
78.Go-Shirakawa (1155-1158)
79.Nijō (1159-1165)
80.Rokujō (1165-1168)
81.Takakura (1168-1180)
82.Antoku (1180-1185)
83.Go-Toba (1186-1198)
84.Tsuchimikado (1198-1210)
85.Juntoku (1211-1221)
86.Chūkyō (1221)
87.Go-Horikawa (1221-1232)
88.Shijō (1233-1242)
89.Go-Saga (1242-1246)
90.Go-Fukakusa (1246-1259)
91.Kameyama (1260-1274)
 92.Go-Uda (1274-1287)
93.Fushimi (1288-1298)
94.Go-Fushimi (1298-1301)
95.Go-Nijo (1301-1308)
96.Hanazono (1308-1318)
97.Go-Daigo (1318-1338)
98.Go-Murakami (1339-1368)
[99.Chōkei (1368-1372)]
100.Go-Kameyama (1373-1392)
101.Go-Komatsu (1392-1412)
102.Shōkō (1412-1428)
103.Go-Hanazono (1428-1464)
104.Go-Tsuchimikado (1464-1500)
105.Go-Kashiwabara (1500-1526)
106.Go-Nara (1526-1557)
107.Ogimachi (1567-1586)
108.Go-Yōzei (1587-1611)
109.Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629)
110. Myōshō (1630-1643)
111.Go-Kōmyō (1643-1654)
112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663)
113. Reigen (1663-1687)
114. Higashiyama (1687-1709)
115. Nakano-mikado (1709-1735)
116. Sakuramachi (1735-1747)
117. Momozono (1747-1762)
118. Go-Sakuramachi (1762-1770)
119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779)
120.Kōkaku (1779-1817)
121.Ninkō (1817-1846)
122.Kōmei (1846-1867)
123.Mutsuhito (1867-1912)
124.Yoshihito (1912- )
N.B.—Nos. 36 and 38 were the same empress; likewise Nos. 47 and 49.
We append also a list of the sovereigns of the “Northern Court” during the
separation, as follows:
1.Kōgon (1331-1333)
2.Kōmyō (1336-1348)
3.Sukō (1349-1352)
4.Go-Kōgon (1352-1371)
5.Go-Enyu (1371-1382)
6.Go-Komatsu (1383-1392)
In 1392 Go-Komatsu became emperor over the reunited empire.
 MINISTERIAL CHANGES IN JAPAN

The following table shows the Cabinet changes that have taken place since
constitutional government was instituted:
PREMIER. TERM OF OFFICE. YRS. MOS.
Yamagata Dec. ’89-Apr. ’91 1 4
Matsukata May ’91-July ’92 1 2
Itō Aug. ’92-Aug. ’96 4 0
Matsukata Sept. ’96-Dec. ’97 1 3
Ito Jan. ’98-June ’98 0 5
Okuma-Itagaki June ’98-Oct. ’98 0 4
Yamagata Nov. ’98-Sept. ’00 1 10
Itō Oct. ’00-May ’01 0 7
Katsura June ’01-Dec. ’05 4 6
Saionji Jan. ’06-July ’08 2 6
Katsura July ’08-Aug. ’11 3 2
Saionji Sept. ’11-Dec. ’12 1 3
Katsura Dec. ’12-Feb. ’13 0 2
Yamamoto Feb. ’13-
In connection with this table, we wish to call attention to the fact that the
average duration of eleven Ministries is less than two years; and that the average
was considerably raised by the unusual length of the two Ministries which
covered the periods of the wars with China and Russia, when political rivalries
were buried. It is quite probable that, if foreign wars had not occurred to unify
the nation, those Ministries would not have had a duration so greatly in excess of
the average, especially as, at the outbreak of the wars, party feeling was running
very high. In that case the general average would have been reduced by an
increase in the number of cabinets. It should also be noticed that three of these
Ministries (both Matsukata and the second Itō) came to an end on account of
collision with the Diet, and that four Ministries (the Kuroda, the first and third
Itō, and the first party Cabinet of Ōkuma and Itagaki) were broken up by internal
dissensions; and the last Katsura (February, 1913) was forced out by popular
revolt.
 JAPAN’S HOUSE OF PEERS

Among its 373 members only 57 sit by hereditary right; namely, 14 Princes of
the Blood, 13 Princes, and 30 Marquises. Among the remaining members, 150
are elected by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons, 121 are Imperial nominees,—
that is to say, men who have earned distinction by eminent services or
attainments,—and 45 represent the highest tax-payers in the prefectures.
 THE POLITICAL PARTIES OF JAPAN216

The idea of popular representation in the government of Japan may be said to

have had its birth with the Restoration, although some thoughtful men had been
turning their minds in that direction at an earlier date. His Imperial Majesty the
present Emperor, in his oath on the occasion of his succession to the throne,
made known his enlightened desire that men should meet in council from all
parts of the country and all affairs of state be determined in accordance with
public opinion. This pronouncement may be regarded as the starting-point of the
movement for parliamentary representation. The germ of the present House of
Peers and House of Representatives is found in the Gi-sei, a department of the
government which was organized as early as June, 1868. The Kō-gi-jō, which
was opened in the following year, was representative, not of the people, but of
the governing authorities in the various localities. The members of the Sa-In,
which replaced the Kō-gi-jō (or Shūgi-in) in September, 1871, were nominated
by the Emperor and the council of state.
The history of political parties in Japan may conveniently be divided into four
periods: (1) From the Restoration up to 1882, while as yet they were in embryo;
(2) from the year 1882, when they for the first time took actual shape, until
1888; (3) from the organization of the Daidō-Danketsu in 1887 until 1898; (4)
the period since the amalgamation of the two strongest parties to form the
constitutional party in 1898.
During the early seventies discussion went on regarding the advisability of the
formation of a popular assembly. In 1874 was formed the first political society,
the Aikoku-tō, or patriotic society, from which later sprang the Liberal Party
(Jiyu-tō). In the previous year a division had taken place in the ranks of the
higher officials of the government. The one party was composed of those who
desired rapid progress in domestic matters and a vigorous foreign policy; the
other desired steady progress at home and conciliation abroad. The latter party
retained control of the government, and the former went into opposition. Among
the most important of the radical party was Itagaki of Kōchi Prefecture. He
organized the first local society, and devoted himself constantly to the attainment
of his end of bringing about parliamentary institutions in the country. We thus
have Kōchi, and later on Hizen, working for the extension of the power of the
people, while the government was in the main conducted by Satsuma and
Chōshū men.
 The agitation for popular representation, although checked for a time by the
Satsuma Rebellion, gained strength in 1879 and 1880, and the government
became convinced that the question could not longer be postponed. On the 12th
of October, 1881, the Emperor promulgated the famous ordinance in which the
promise was given that a parliament should actually be established in 1890. As a
preparatory measure, Itō, in company with a number of junior officials, was
despatched to Europe early in 1882 to study the political systems of the West.
The promise of a parliament served to give a more definite purpose to the
various political associations, and the year 1882 saw the formal organization of
the three parties which, under various names, have continued almost
uninterruptedly to occupy the field until the present time. The Jiyu-tō was the
first organized, although not the first to be properly registered as a political
association.
It is noticeable that the utterances of the various political parties when they
first came into existence present in the main no features of a distinctive nature.
All put forth excellent doctrines, but usually of extreme vagueness. The same
characteristic has been noticeable throughout their history except when some
temporary question of urgency has arisen. This is no doubt the reason why the
grouping has constantly changed, one merging into another, and secessions
occurring without apparent cause. 1883 and the following years saw a falling off
in the interest in political parties,—doubtless a natural result of the over
excitement which had just preceded, and of the apparent certainty of a
parliament after 1890. The interest in politics and in parties revived, however, as
the date assigned for the granting of the constitution approached.
Since the opening of the first Diet, the efforts of the parties have in general
been directed towards the securing of control of the administration,—the
establishment of parliamentary government. Except during the period of the war
with China, when all party differences were for the time set aside, the parties
have all been in more or less constant opposition to the government. Until within
the last year or two, however, no party has possessed for any considerable length
of time an absolute majority of the membership of the Lower House, sufficient
to enable it to control the votes of that body. Political parties have now become a
distinct power in the land which no statesman can afford entirely to neglect.
From small and unruly beginnings, they have gradually progressed in influence
and in organization. As by degrees they have been getting rid of their unruly and
dangerous elements, and learning to a greater extent the lesson of responsibility,
they have more and more gained the popular confidence. Possessing practically
the power of the purse,—for in the Diet the House of Representatives has the
first say as to the details of the budget presented by the government,—they have
always to be reckoned with....
That there have been no distinct and well-defined party issues may be traced
to the fact that feudalism gave place so suddenly to a modern state of society.
The leaders of thought and those who have taken up the work of national
rejuvenation have all been men of progressive tendencies. That the parties have
frequently opposed the government in cases where opposition for its own sake
has been the only recognizable principle cannot be denied. It must be
remembered that they have all along been struggling for a share in the
administration. The political parties have well illustrated the intensely
democratic character of the Japanese people side by side with marked reverence
for the Emperor. The desire for equality and the revolt against the controlling
influence of a narrow coterie has all along been exhibited....
I217 may perhaps take this opportunity to mention two characteristics of
Japanese political parties which have impressed themselves upon me in the
course of my own, as yet comparatively slight, study of the politics of this
country. As in so many other aspects of Japanese life, so also in politics, I think
we can see a curious blending of Old Japan with the very latest and most
advanced which the West has to offer. It was a remark of the most influential, if
not the greatest, English political philosopher of the nineteenth century, John
Stuart Mill, that, even if we could be assured that an autocrat, an all-powerful
individual ruler, would govern more wisely than a popular government, we
ought, nevertheless, to prefer the popular government for the educative effect
which the effort to govern produces upon the people.
Now it will be found that there has been very much conscious or unconscious
following of this idea in the progress of popular government in Japan. In marked
contrast to the history of popular government in the West, where parliaments
have been forced on the government from below for the protection of popular
rights, popular representation has been granted from above in this country, and
the people have grown up to it, or are in process of growing. The truth of this is
not affected by the fact that contest between rival clans has been an ever
controlling factor in the domestic politics of the country since Restoration days.
The agitation of the parties has been not so much directed against the measures
of the government as against the fact that the government is not controlled by the
representatives of the people.
The element of Old Japan in the political parties is seen in the nature of
political allegiance. What holds the parties together is men rather than measures.
In Old Japan personal allegiance to one’s feudal lord was one of the strongest
feelings of the individual, and sufficed to give a distinct character to the life of
the time. The most important elements of feudalism, the political and economic
organization of the society which was founded upon it, have passed away, but
the sentimental part remains in the personal allegiance of men to their party
leaders of to-day. What would the Seiyukai have been without Prince Itō, or the
Progressive party without Count Ōkuma? No doubt other leaders would be
forthcoming if these were not present, the names of the parties might be retained,
but the membership would almost certainly undergo enormous changes.
 ARMY STATISTICS OF JAPAN218

Surgeon-Major Koike, in a lecture delivered before the Medical Union in the

salon of the Musical College in Uyeno, gave some interesting figures relating to
the casualties in the North-China campaign as compared with the China-Japan
war of 1894-1895. These will be most easily understood by putting them into
tabular form.
Total number of patients in the North-China campaign 22,080
Total number of deaths out of the above aggregate 1,137
(This, of course, is exclusive of those killed in the field; it shows only the sick
and wounded.)
NORTH- CHINA-
CHINA JAPAN
CAMPAIGN. WAR.
Percentage of deaths 5.1 8.1
Number of sick to each wounded man 5.5 4.1
Number of deaths from sickness to each death from
wounds 2.3 9.7
Percentage of deaths among wounded men 3.2 3.9
Percentage of deaths among diseased men 4.2 8.4

Return of the Hiroshima Reserve Hospital

NORTH-CHINA
CAMPAIGN.
Percentage of deaths among wounded men 2.1
Percentage of deaths among sick men 3.3
Comparative Figures (General)
Total percentage of deaths among wounded men:
Satsuma Rebellion 17.0
China-Japan War 9.7
North-China Campaign 4.6
Comparative Figures Showing the Percentage of Sick during the Occupation
 of Peking in the Winter
Russian troops 8.75 (typhoid, dysentery, syphilis).
French troops 5.42 (typhoid, syphilis).
German troops 5.33 (typhoid, syphilis, dysentery).
British troops 5.22 (sunstroke, diarrhœa, dysentery, and typhoid).
American troops 4.18 (dysentery, sunstroke, and syphilis).
Japanese troops 2.51 (kakke and typhoid).
STATISTICS OF RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.219
(Feb., 1904—May, 1905.)
Killed on field 43,892
Wounded with colors 145,527
Died of those wounds 9,054
Sick, including wounds, accidents, etc., not received on firing-line 162,556
Died of sickness and disease 7,433
Contagious diseases 10,565
Died of contagious diseases 4,557
Killed and died from wounds 52,946
Died from all diseases 11,992
 JAPANESE NAVAL INCREMENT220

Writing about naval increment, the “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” notes the increase
of the Japanese Navy during recent years as follows:—
TOTAL TONNAGE.
1897 100,000
1898 134,000
1899 154,000
1900 204,000
1901 232,000
In the immediate future, the total tonnage will be raised to the post-bellum figure
of 250,000 tons.221 Everybody agrees that Japan must not rest there. She has to
keep up with the rapid additions made by other countries to their naval forces.
That is not a matter of serious difficulty so far as ships are concerned: they can
always be bought with money. But the men to man them is another problem.
After the Restoration any number of recruits were obtainable for the army, as
was natural in a country where a military feudalism had existed for centuries.
The navy, however, could not be so easily supplied, maritime enterprise having
been effectually checked under the Tokugawa rule. Difficulties about seamen
may now be said to have been overcome. But that is not true of officers. Our
contemporary here gives the following table:—
NUMBER OF OFFICERS AND MEN ACTUALLY TOTAL FORCE, INCLUDING
YEAR.
SERVING. RESERVES.
1895 14,463 17,140
1900 28,308 32,981
This shows an increment of only 100 per cent, whereas the increase of tonnage
in the same time was 400 per cent.222 The great difficulty is to get a supply of
officers for the lower ranks—midshipmen and lieutenants. The only college for
educating these officers is at Edajima, where not more than 600 cadets can be
accommodated. There, then, a change must be effected. It will probably take the
form of organizing another naval college at Yokosuka, and making arrangements
that the preliminary education of candidates shall be effected in the middle
schools.
 JAPAN’S MERCANTILE MARINE223

The “Tōkyō Keizai” publishes some interesting statistics bearing on the

development of our mercantile marine. It was 1870 or thereabouts that the
Japanese began to turn their attention to the carrying trade in the modern sense
of the term, but its growth was slow until the Chinese War of 1894-1895. The
following table gives the figures for the eleven years from 1892 to 1902
inclusive:
YEAR. TONS.
1892 214,000
1893 325,000
1894 320,000
1895 386,000
1896 417,000
1897 486,000
1898 648,000
1899 796,000
1900 863,000
1901 917,000
1902 934,000224
From the comparative statistics published by our contemporary, it is noticed
that, while in 1892 our mercantile fleet was the thirteenth in the world in point of
tonnage, it had risen by 1901 to the eighth position. It is interesting to observe
that it is rapidly coming up to the same relative status as that occupied by our
naval fleet whose position is the seventh among the navies of the world.225
 “SHIKISHIMA” IN NAVAL REVIEW, KŌBE
TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
Signed at Washington, 22nd day of the 11th month, 27th year of Meiji. Ratifications exchanged at that
City, 21st day of the 3rd month, 28th year of Meiji.

His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the President of the United States of
America being equally desirous of maintaining the relations of good
understanding which happily exist between them, by extending and increasing
the intercourse between their respective States, and being convinced that this
object cannot better be accomplished than by revising the Treaties hitherto
existing between the two countries, have resolved to complete such a revision,
based upon principles of equity and mutual benefit, and, for that purpose, have
named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: His Majesty the Emperor of
Japan, Jushii Shinichiro Kurino, of the Order of the Sacred Treasure of the
Fourth Class, and the President of the United States of America, Walter Q.
Gresham, Secretary of State of the United States; who, after having
communicated to each other their full powers, found to be in good and due form,
have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles:—
ART. I.—The subjects or citizens of each of the two High Contracting Parties
shall have full liberty to enter, travel, or reside in any part of the territories of the
other Contracting Party, and shall enjoy full and perfect protection for their
persons and property.
They shall have free access to the Courts of Justice in pursuit and defence of
their rights; they shall be at liberty equally with native subjects or citizens to
choose and employ lawyers, advocates, and representatives to pursue and defend
their rights before such Courts, and in all other matters connected with the
administration of justice they shall enjoy all the rights and privileges enjoyed by
native subjects or citizens.
In whatever relates to rights of residence and travel; to the possession of
goods and effects of any kind; to the succession to personal estate, by will or
otherwise, and the disposal of property of any sort and in any manner
whatsoever which they may lawfully acquire, the subjects or citizens of each
Contracting Party shall enjoy in the territories of the other the same privileges,
liberties, and rights, and shall be subject to no higher imposts or charges in those
respects than native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most
favoured nation. The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting Parties shall
enjoy in the territories of the other entire liberty of conscience, and, subject to
the laws, ordinances, and regulations, shall enjoy the right of private or public
exercise of their worship, and also the right of burying their respective
countrymen according to their religious customs, in such suitable and convenient
places as may be established and maintained for that purpose.
They shall not be compelled, under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any
charges or taxes other or higher than those that are, or may be, paid by native
subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.
The subjects or citizens of either of the Contracting Parties residing in the
territories of the other shall be exempted from all compulsory military service
whatsoever, whether in the army, navy, national guard, or militia; from all
contribution imposed in lieu of personal service; and from all forced loans or
military exactions or contributions.
ART. II.—There shall be reciprocal freedom of commerce and navigation
between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting Parties may trade in any
part of the territories of the other by wholesale or retail in all kinds of produce,
manufactures, and merchandize of lawful commerce, either in person or by
agents, singly or in partnerships with foreigners or native subjects or citizens;
and they may there own or hire and occupy houses, manufactories, warehouses,
shops, and premises which may be necessary for them, and lease land for
residential and commercial purposes, conforming themselves to the laws, police
and customs regulations of the country like native subjects or citizens.
They shall have liberty freely to come with their ships and cargoes to all
places, ports, and rivers in the territories of the other, which are or may be
opened to foreign commerce, and shall enjoy, respectively, the same treatment in
matters of commerce and navigation as native subjects or citizens, or subjects or
citizens of the most favoured nation without having to pay taxes, imposts, or
duties, of whatever nature or under whatever denomination levied in the name or
for the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private individuals,
corporations, or establishments of any kind, other or greater than those paid by
native subjects or citizens or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.
It is, however, understood that the stipulations contained in this and the
preceding Article do not in any way affect the laws, ordinances, and regulations
with regard to trade, the immigration of labourers, police and public security
which are in force or which may hereafter be enacted in either of the two
countries.
ART. III.—The dwellings, manufactories, warehouses, and shops of the
subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties in the territories of
the other, and all premises appertaining thereto destined for purposes of
residence or commerce, shall be respected.
It shall not be allowable to proceed to make a search of, or a domiciliary visit
to, such dwellings and premises, or to examine or inspect books, papers, or
accounts, except under the conditions and with the forms prescribed by the laws,
ordinances, and regulations for subjects or citizens of the country.
ART. IV.—No other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into
the territories of the United States of any article, the produce or manufacture of
the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, from whatever place
arriving; and no other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into
the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan of any article, the produce or
manufacture of the United States, from whatever place arriving than on the like
article produced or manufactured in any other foreign country; nor shall any
prohibition be maintained or imposed on the importation of any article, the
produce or manufacture of the territories of either of the High Contracting
Parties, into the territories of the other, from whatever place arriving, which shall
not equally extend to the importation of the like article, being the produce or
manufacture of any other country. This last provision is not applicable to the
sanitary and other prohibitions occasioned by the necessity of protecting the
safety of persons, or of cattle, or plants useful to agriculture.
ART. V.—No other or higher duties or charges shall be imposed in the
territories of either of the High Contracting Parties on the exportation of any
article to the territories of the other than such as are, or may be, payable on the
exportation of the like article to any other foreign country; nor shall any
prohibition be imposed on the exportation of any article from the territories of
either of the two High Contracting Parties to the territories of the other which
shall not equally extend to the exportation of the like article to any other country.
ART. VI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties
shall enjoy in the territories of the other exemption from all transit duties, and a
perfect equality of treatment with native subjects or citizens in all that relates to
warehousing, bounties, and drawbacks.
ART. VII.—All articles which are or may be legally imported into the ports of
the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan in Japanese vessels may
likewise be imported into those ports in vessels of the United States, without
being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination
than if such articles were imported in Japanese vessels; and, reciprocally, all
articles which are, or may be, legally imported into the ports of the territories of
the United States in vessels of the United States may likewise be imported into
those ports in Japanese vessels, without being liable to any other or higher duties
or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in
vessels of the United States. Such reciprocal equality of treatment shall take
effect without distinction, whether such articles come directly from the place of
origin or from any other place.
In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality of treatment in regard to
exportation, so that the same export duties shall be paid, and the same bounties
and drawbacks allowed, in the territories of either of the High Contracting
Parties on the exportation of any article which is or may be legally exported
therefrom, whether such exportation shall take place in Japanese vessels or in
vessels of the United States, and whatever may be the place of destination,
whether a port of either of the High Contracting Parties or of any third Power.
ART. VIII.—No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage, lighthouse, quarantine, or
other similar or corresponding duties of whatever nature, or under whatever
denomination levied in the name or for the profit of Government, public
functionaries, private individuals, corporations, or establishments of any kind,
shall be imposed in the ports of the territories of either country upon the vessels
of the other country which shall not equally and under the same conditions be
imposed in the like cases on national vessels in general or vessels of the most
favoured nation. Such equality of treatment shall apply reciprocally to the
respective vessels, from whatever port or place they may arrive, and whatever
may be their place of destination.
ART. IX.—In all that regards the stationing, loading, and unloading of vessels
in the ports, basins, docks, roadsteads, harbours, or rivers of the territories of the
two countries, no privilege shall be granted to national vessels which shall not be
equally granted to vessels of the other country; the intention of the High
Contracting Parties being that in this respect also the respective vessels shall be
treated on the footing of perfect equality.
ART. X.—The coasting trade of both the High Contracting Parties is excepted
from the provisions of the present Treaty, and shall be regulated according to the
laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan and of the United States, respectively.
It is, however, understood that Japanese subjects in the territories of the United
States and citizens of the United States in the territories of His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan shall enjoy in this respect the rights which are, or may be,
granted under such laws, ordinances, and regulations to the subjects or citizens
of any other country.
A Japanese vessel laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for two or
more ports in the territories of the United States and a vessel of the United States
laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for two or more ports in the
territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, may discharge a portion of her
cargo at one port, and continue her voyage to the other port or ports of
destination where foreign trade is permitted, for the purpose of landing the
remainder of her original cargo there, subject always to the laws and custom-
house regulations of the two countries.
The Japanese Government, however, agrees to allow vessels of the United
States to continue, as heretofore, for the period of the duration of this Treaty, to
carry cargo between the existing open ports of the Empire, excepting to or from
the ports of Ōsaka, Niigata, and Ebisuminato.
ART. XI.—Any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of either of the High
Contracting Parties which may be compelled by stress of weather, or by reason
of any other distress, to take shelter in a port of the other, shall be at liberty to
refit therein, to procure all necessary supplies, and to put to sea again, without
paying any dues other than such as would be payable by national vessels. In
case, however, the master of a merchant vessel should be under the necessity of
disposing of a part of his cargo in order to defray the expenses, she shall be
bound to conform to the regulations and tariffs of the place to which he may
have come.
If any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of one of the High Contracting Parties
should run aground or be wrecked upon the coasts of the other, the local
authorities shall inform the Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular
Agent of the district of occurrence, or, if there be no such Consular officers, they
shall inform the Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent of the
nearest district.
All proceedings relative to the salvage of Japanese vessels wrecked or cast on
shore in the territorial waters of the United States shall take place in accordance
with the laws of the United States; and, reciprocally, all measures of salvage
relative to vessels of the United States wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial
waters of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall take place in accordance with
the laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan.
Such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, and all parts thereof, and all
furnitures and appurtenances belonging thereunto, and all goods and
merchandize saved therefrom, including those which may have been cast into the
sea, or the proceeds thereof, if sold, as well as all papers found on board such
stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, shall be given up to the owners or their
agents, when claimed by them. If such owners or agents are not on the spot, the
same shall be delivered to the respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-
Consuls, or Consular Agents upon being claimed by them within the period
fixed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations of the country, and such Consular
officers, owners, or agents shall pay only the expenses incurred in the
preservation of the property, together with the salvage or other expenses which
would have been payable in the case of a wreck of a national vessel.
The goods and merchandize saved from the wreck shall be exempt from all
the duties of the Customs unless cleared for consumption, in which case they
shall pay the ordinary duties.
When a ship or vessel belonging to the subjects or citizens of one of the High
Contracting Parties is stranded or wrecked in the territories of the other, the
respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, and Consular Agents shall
be authorized, in case the owner or master, or other agent of the owner, is not
present, to lend their official assistance in order to afford the necessary
assistance to the subjects or citizens of the respective States. The same rule shall
apply in case the owner, master, or other agent is present, but requires such
assistance to be given.
ART. XII.—All vessels which, according to Japanese law, are to be deemed
Japanese vessels, and all vessels which, according to United States law, are to be
deemed vessels of the United States, shall, for the purposes of this Treaty, be
deemed Japanese vessels and vessels of the United States, respectively.
ART. XIII.—The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consular Agents of each of
the High Contracting Parties, residing in the territories of the other, shall receive
from the local authorities such assistance as can by law be given to them for the
recovery of deserters from the vessels of their respective countries.
It is understood that this stipulation shall not apply to the subjects or citizens
of the country where the desertion takes place.
ART. XIV.—The High Contracting Parties agree that, in all that concerns
commerce and navigation any privilege, favour, or immunity which either High
Contracting Party has actually granted, or may hereafter grant, to the
Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of any other State, shall be extended to
the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of the other High Contracting Party,
gratuitously, if the concession in favour of that other State shall have been
gratuitous, and on the same or equivalent conditions if the concession shall have
been conditional; it being their intention that the trade and navigation of each
country shall be placed, in all respects, by the other on the footing of the most
favoured nation.
ART. XV.—Each of the High Contracting Parties may appoint Consuls-
General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular Agents, in all the
ports, cities, and places of the other except in those where it may not be
convenient to recognize such officers.
This exception, however, shall not be made in regard to one of the High
Contracting Parties without being made likewise in regard to every other Power.
The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular
Agents may exercise all functions, and shall enjoy all privileges, exemptions,
and immunities which are, or may hereafter be, granted to Consular officers of
the most favoured nation.
ART. XVI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties
shall enjoy in the territories of the other the same protection as native subjects or
citizens in regard to patents, trademarks, and designs, upon fulfilment of the
formalities prescribed by law.
ART. XVII.—The High Contracting Parties agree to the following
arrangement:—
The several Foreign Settlements in Japan shall, from the date this Treaty
comes into force, be incorporated with the respective Japanese communes, and
shall thenceforth form part of the general municipal system of Japan. The
competent Japanese authorities shall thereupon assume all municipal obligations
and duties in respect thereof, and the common funds and property, if any,
belonging to such Settlements shall at the same time be transferred to the said
Japanese authorities.
When such incorporation takes place, existing leases in perpetuity upon which
property is now held in the said Settlements shall be confirmed, and no
conditions whatever other than those contained in such existing leases shall be
imposed in respect of such property. It is, however, understood that the Consular
Authorities mentioned in the same are in all cases to be replaced by the Japanese
Authorities. All lands which may previously have been granted by the Japanese
Government free of rent for the public purposes of the said Settlements shall,
subject to the right of eminent domain, be permanently reserved free of all taxes
and charges for the public purposes for which they were originally set apart.
ART. XVIII.—The present Treaty shall, from the date it comes into force, be
substituted in place of the Treaty of Peace and Amity concluded on the 3rd day
of the 3rd month of the 7th year of Kayei corresponding to the 31st day of
March, 1854; the Treaty of Amity and Commerce concluded on the 19th day of
the 6th month of the 5th year of Ansei, corresponding to the 29th day of July,
1858; the Tariff Convention concluded on the 13th day of the 5th month of the
2nd year of Keio, corresponding to the 25th day of June, 1866; the Convention
concluded on the 25th day of the 7th month of the 11th year of Meiji,
corresponding to the 25th day of July, 1878, and all Arrangements and
Agreements subsidiary thereto concluded or existing between the High
Contracting Parties, and from the same date such Treaties, Conventions,
Arrangements, and Agreements shall cease to be binding, and in consequence,
the jurisdiction then exercised by Courts of the United States in Japan and all the
exceptional privileges, exemptions, and immunities then enjoyed by citizens of
the United States as a part of, or appurtenant to, such jurisdiction, shall
absolutely and without notice cease and determine, and thereafter all such
jurisdiction shall be assumed and exercised by Japanese Courts.
ART. XIX.—This Treaty shall go into operation on the 17th day of July, 1899,
and shall remain in force for the period of twelve years from that date.
Either High Contracting Party shall have the right, at any time after eleven
years shall have elapsed from the date it goes into operation, to give notice to the
other of its intention to terminate the same, and at the expiration of twelve
months after such notice is given this Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.
ART. XX.—This Treaty shall be ratified and the ratifications thereof shall be
exchanged at Tokyo or Washington as soon as possible, and not later than six
months after its signature.
In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present
Treaty in duplicate and have thereunto affixed their seals.
Done at the City of Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the 27th
year of Meiji, corresponding to the 22nd day of November in the eighteen
hundred and ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)

[Amendment to the Foregoing Treaty Proposed by the Government of the United States of America and
Ratified with the Treaty.]

ART. XIX.—Clause 2, after the word “time” insert the word “thereafter” and
strike out all after the word “time” down to and including the word “operation,”
so that the clause will read: “Either High Contracting Party shall have the right,
at any time thereafter, to give notice to the other of its intention to terminate the
same, and at the expiration of twelve months after such notice is given this
Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.”
Protocol
The Government of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the Government of
the United States of America, deeming it advisable in the interests of both
Countries to regulate certain special matters of mutual concern, apart from the
Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day, have, through their
respective Plenipotentiaries, agreed upon the following stipulations:—
1.—It is agreed by the Contracting Parties that one month after the exchange
of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day,
the Import Tariff now in operation in Japan in respect of goods and merchandize
imported into Japan by the citizens of the United States shall cease to be binding.
From the same date the General Statutory Tariff of Japan, shall, subject to the
provisions of Article IX. of the Treaty of March 31, 1854, at present subsisting
between the Contracting Parties, so long as said Treaty remains in force, and
thereafter, subject to the provisions of Article IV. and Article XIV., of the Treaty
signed this day, be applicable to goods and merchandize, being the growth,
produce, or manufacture of the territories of the United States upon importation
into Japan.
But nothing contained in this Protocol shall be held to limit or qualify the right
of the Japanese Government to restrict or to prohibit the importation of
adulterated drugs, medicines, food, or beverages; indecent or obscene prints,
paintings, books, cards, lithographic or other engravings, photographs or any
other indecent or obscene articles; articles in violation of patent, trademark, or
copyright laws of Japan; or any other article which for sanitary reasons or in
view of public security or morals, might offer any danger.
2.—The Japanese Government, pending the opening of the country to citizens
of the United States, agrees to extend the existing passport system in such a
manner as to allow citizens of the United States, on the production of a
certificate of recommendation from the Representative of the United States at
Tōkiō, or from any of the Consuls of the United States at the open ports in Japan,
to obtain upon application passports available for any part of the country and for
any period not exceeding twelve months, from the Imperial Japanese Foreign
Office in Tōkiō, or from the Chief Authorities in the Prefecture in which an open
port is situated, it being understood that the existing Rules and Regulations
governing citizens of the United States who visit the interior of the Empire are to
be maintained.
3.—The undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed that this Protocol shall be
submitted to the two High Contracting Parties at the same time as the Treaty of
Commerce and Navigation signed this day, and that when the said Treaty is
ratified the agreements contained in the Protocol shall also equally be considered
as approved, without the necessity of a further formal ratification.
It is agreed that this Protocol shall terminate at the same time the said Treaty
ceases to be binding.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same and
have affixed thereto their seals.
 Done at Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the 27th year of Meiji,
corresponding to the 22nd November, in the eighteen hundred and ninety-fourth
year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)

IMPERIAL RESCRIPT ON THE NEW TREATIES

Governing Our realm by the abiding aid of Our ancestors’ achievements,
which have enabled Us to secure the prosperity of Our people at home and to
establish relations of close amity with the nations abroad, it is a source of
heartfelt gratification to Us that, in the sequel of exhaustive planning and
repeated negotiations, an agreement has been come to with the Powers, and the
revision of the Treaties, Our long cherished aim, is to-day on the eve of
becoming an accomplished fact; a result which, while it adds materially to the
responsibilities of Our empire, will greatly strengthen the basis of Our friendship
with foreign countries.
It is Our earnest wish that Our subjects, whose devoted loyalty in the
discharge of their duties is conspicuous, should enter earnestly into Our
sentiments in this matter, and, in compliance with the great policy of opening the
country, should all unite with one heart to associate cordially with the peoples
from afar, thus maintaining the character of the nation and enhancing the
prestige of the empire.
In view of the responsibilities that devolve upon Us in giving effect to the new
Treaties, it is Our will that Our Ministers of State, acting on Our behalf, should
instruct Our officials of all classes to observe the utmost circumspection in the
management of affairs, to the end that subjects and strangers alike may enjoy
equal privileges and advantages, and that, every source of dissatisfaction being
avoided, relations of peace and amity with all nations may be strengthened and
consolidated in perpetuity.
(Imperial Sign Manual.)
(Signatures of all the Cabinet Ministers.)
(Dated) June 30th, 1899.
 SCHOOLS IN JAPAN226

The latest returns compiled by the educational authorities show that education
in Japan is in a satisfactory condition. For instance the percentage of the children
newly admitted to primary schools throughout the country out of every 100 of
those who had attained the school-going age last month [March, 1903] was
93.78 for boys, 81.08 for girls, and 88.05 for boys and girls together, which
show respectively an increase of 3.23, 9.18, and 6.38 against the figures for last
year. Again, the different schools throughout the country totalled 29,335, while
the teachers totalled 110,104, the attendance 5,265,006, and the graduates
911,621, representing respectively an increase of 473; 11,977; 339,333; and
112,737 as compared with the figures for the preceding year. [In 1909-10, these
totals were 34,659; 172,228; 7,170,470; and 899,288.]
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, ETC. IN JAPAN IN 1900-1901.227
By the government establishments are meant all institutions under the control
of the Department of Education.
Statistical items relating to the Higher Normal School for Females are
included among those for the Higher Normal School, and those relating to the
three institutes for the training of technical teachers among those for technical
schools.
NO. OF SCHOOLS.
GOV. PUBLIC. PRIVATE. TOTAL.
Elementary schools 2 26,485 369 26,856
Blind and dumb schools 1 1 9 11
Normal schools .. 52 ... 52
Higher normal schools 2 ... ... 2
Middle schools 1 183 34 218
Higher female schools 1 44 7 52
Higher schools 7 ... ... 7
Imperial universities 2 ... ... 2
Special schools 3 4 41 48
Technical schools 9 265 23 297
Miscellaneous schools .. 122 1,195 1,317
Total 28 27,156 1,678 28,862
 1899 27 27,051 1,639 28,717
1898 22 26,799 1,600 28,421
1897 22 26,753 1,677 28,452
1896 21 26,621 1,762 28,404
INSTRUCTORS AND TEACHERS.
GOV. PUBLIC. PRIVATE. TOTAL.
Elementary schools 31 91,767 1,101 92,899
Blind and dumb schools 15 15 25 55
Normal schools ... 958 ... 958
Higher normal schools 110 ... ... 110
Middle schools 22 3,067 659 3,748
Higher female schools 19 525 114 658
Higher schools 345 ... ... 345
Imperial universities 291 ... ... 291
Special schools 128 81 734 943
Technical schools 238 1,382 137 1,757
Miscellaneous schools ... 90 4,273 4,363
Total 1,199 97,885 7,043 106,127
1899 1,128 92,286 6,692 100,106
1898 983 86,634 5,346 92,963
1897 913 81,632 5,310 87,855
1896 785 77,720 5,509 84,014
STUDENTS AND PUPILS.
GOV. PUBLIC. PRIVATE. TOTAL.
Elementary schools 1,124 4,622,930 59,544 4,683,598
Blind and dumb schools 231 196 194 621
Normal schools ... 15,639 ... 15,639
Higher normal schools 803 ... ... 803
Middle schools 321 64,051 13,943 78,315
Higher female schools 306 9,746 1,932 11,984
Higher schoolS 5,684 ... ... 5,684
Imperial universities 3,240 ... ... 3,240
Special schools 968 1,447 10,985 13,400
Technical schools 1,730 23,599 2,126 27,455
Miscellaneous schools ... 4,817 80,117 84,934
 Total 14,407 4,742,425 168,841 4,925,673
1899 13,230 4,339,490 160,614 4,513,334
1898 11,788 4,086,323 149,230 4,247,341
1897 10,839 4,005,164 152,714 4,168,717
1896 9,321 3,872,794 148,858 4,030,973
GRADUATES.
GOV. PUBLIC. PRIVATE. TOTAL.
Elementary schools 318 736,907 8,580 745,805
Blind and dumb schools 14 8 12 34
Normal schools ... 7,323 ... 7,323
Higher normal schools 180 ... ... 180
Middle schools 40 5,584 2,163 7,787
Higher female schools 91 1,832 637 2,560
Higher schools 1,019 ... ... 1,019
Imperial universities 633 ... ... 633
Special schools 138 210 1,687 2,035
Technical schools 349 4,406 249 5,004
Miscellaneous schools ... 721 15,783 16,504
Total 2,782 756,991 29,111 788,884
1899 2,454 655,112 27,201 684,767
1898 2,129 600,528 23,486 626,143
1897 2,146 550,738 20,912 573,796
1896 1,819 507,969 20,419 530,207

JAPAN’S UNIVERSITY FOR WOMEN228

The most remarkable occurrence in Japan in the opening year of the Twentieth
Century was the establishment of a University for Women. What does this
mean? It means that the Twentieth Century is to be the century for women in
Japan and perhaps in other parts of the Orient, just as the Nineteenth Century
was the century for women in the Occident. This new University will be the
centre of woman’s activity, social, educational, economical (and perhaps
political?), in the future in Japan.
About ten years ago Mr. Naruse began to think about establishing a university
for girls and went to America to inspect female institutions of learning. There he
spent three years going about from place to place, and thus made a thorough
observation and study of colleges for women in the United States of America. In
1894 he was encouraged to start the enterprise, in which his special friends were
such men as Marquis Itō, Marquis Saionji, Counts Ōkuma and Itagaki, and
Baron Utsumi, then Mayor of Ōsaka, now Home Minister.
Among the first promoters of the enterprise were well-to-do persons of Ōsaka,
such as Mr. Dogura and Mrs. Hiroöka (of the Mitsui family). The idea was, and
still is, to secure 300,000 yen, of which half should be used for property and half
for endowment. It was also decided not to begin to build unless at least 100,000
yen had been raised. The money was obtained quite rapidly; and in this Mr.
Naruse’s skill and tact were remarkable. Many not in sympathy with the idea of
higher female education (like Baron Katō, ex-President of the Imperial
University), were won over by Mr. Naruse’s presentation of the cause.
The problem of location was thoroughly discussed in Ōsaka, and at last it was
unanimously agreed that Tōkyō, being the capital, was the most convenient
place, because the institution was not local, for either Ōsaka or Tōkyō alone, but
was national, for all Japan.
The faculty number forty-six in all, among whom are several professors of the
Imperial University. The President is, of course, Mr. Naruse; and the Dean is
Professor S. Aso, a Dōshisha alumnus. There are also several ladies; and it is the
purpose to have as many lady teachers as possible.
There are three departments in the University course:
1. Department of Domestic Science.
2. Department of Japanese Literature.
3. Department of English Literature.
In the first department the greater part of the time is devoted to various
branches of Applied and Domestic Science; in the second and third departments
the largest number of hours is given up to Japanese and English respectively.
Ethics, Sociology, Psychology, Education (including Child-Study) and
Calisthenics are required studies in all departments; and Drawing, Music, and
Science of Teaching, are electives in all cases.
The boarding-department includes seven “Houses,” each with a matron and a
head cook. The girls live just as at home, and take turns in cooking.
This school is not, of course, to be compared with foreign universities, or the
Imperial University; nor is it a copy of other universities; but it is intended to
make this university just suited to the needs of the time and the social conditions
of Japanese women. The standard will be gradually elevated. In the system of
female education, it is a university, at least in germ.
It is the purpose as soon as possible to increase the number of courses; to add,
for instance, pedagogy (including sociology, psychology, etc.), music, science,
art, and calisthenics. It is intended also to extend the preparatory course
downward, so that it shall include, not a Kōtō Gakkō only as at present, but also
a Shō Gakkō (Grammar School) and a kindergarten. Thus the system of female
education will be complete in all its grades: from three to six in the kindergarten;
six years in the grammar school; five years in the secondary school (Kōtō Jō
Gakkō); three years in the university; with a post-graduate course of three years.
Then surely the institution will be worthy to be called a university.
 STATISTICS OF CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN229

Under the title, “The Present State of Christianity,” the “Tōkyō Maishū
Shinshi” publishes a number of statistics culled from the Rev. D. S. Spencer’s
“Tidings from Japan.” Here is the “Maishū Shinshi’s” summary of Mr. Spencer’s
report:
MISSIONS. MISSIONARIES. NATIVE PASTORS AND EVANGELISTS. MEMBERS.230
Protestant 789 494 50,512
Roman Catholic 229 98 55,824
Greek Church 4 152 27,245
These figures, when compared with those of ten years ago, do not, as far as
the Greek Church and the Roman Catholic Church are concerned, indicate
remarkable progress, but to Protestants they are on the whole encouraging. There
are 23 Protestant denominations working in Japan, but the most important sects
are the Congregationalists, the Presbyterians, the Episcopalians, the Methodists,
and the Baptists. The statistics for the 5 principal missions are as follows:—
FOREIGN JAPANESE ADULT INCLUDING BAPTISMS
MISSIONS.
MISSIONARIES. PASTORS. MEMBERS. CHILDREN. LAST YEAR.
Congregational 71 45 10,856 11,548 880
Presbyterian 153 79 10,156 11,651 1,213
Episcopalian 224 47 9,968 10,997 846
Methodist 233 125 9,283 9,711 1,598
Baptist 56 9 2,213 2,213 328
The following table gives other interesting particulars:
SELF-SUPPORTING CHURCH PROPERTY.
MISSIONS. CHURCHES.
CHURCHES. Yen.
Congregational 81 34 125,794
Presbyterian 71 23 218,252
Episcopalian 69 2
Methodist 146 13 225,559
Baptist 30

NATIVE MONEY AMOUNT PER

SUNDAY-SCHOOL
 MISSIONS. SCHOLARS. SUBSCRIBED. MEMBER.
Yen. Yen. Sen.
Congregational 6,880 33,791 3.11
Presbyterian 7,879 29,027 2.86
Episcopalian 5,524 15,827 1.59
Methodist 12,613 30,011 3.24
Baptist 3,775 4,283 1.94
It is calculated that if all the different kinds of property
held by the Protestant Church be included, it is worth over 1,500,000 yen.
The Catholic Church in Japan
A writer signing himself “K. M.” contributes to the “Fukuin Shimpō” an
account of the methods followed by the Roman Catholics and of their work in
Japan, said to have been derived from an interview with L’Abbé E. Ligneul. The
following is a summary of “K. M.’s” article. (1) The revival of Roman
Catholicism in Japan. This began at Nagasaki in 1865, where a church was built
and when the descendants of the old Christians came forward in large numbers
to welcome the arrival of foreign missionaries. Having mentioned the principal
works of reference on the Roman Catholic Missions in Japan, M. Ligneul went
on to speak (2) Of the present state of their churches. The following table gives
the numerical strength of the mission:—
ECCLESIASTICAL JAPANESE JAPANESE FOREIGN MISSIONARIES
CONVERTS.
DISTRICTS. PRIESTS. EVANGELISTS. (MALE).
Tōkyō 9,245 4 20 37
Nagasaki 38,160 27 180 31
Ōsaka 4,273 2 40 27
Hakodate 4,643 1 20 20
Total 56,321 34 260 115
The fact that comparatively little is known of the work being carried on by the
Roman Catholics throughout the country is no accidental affair. It is one of the
principles observed by the whole mission to refrain from the use of the methods
employed by other missions for making their work known to the public
generally.
The Greek Church in Japan
In the issue of the “Tserkovniya Vyedomosti” or “Church Gazette” (the
official organ of the Russian Church) for March 29 (O. S.) there is a long article
taken from the “Moscow Gazette” on the state of the Greek Church in Japan.
The writer says that there are now 260 congregations, one more than last year;
41 clergymen, including 1 bishop, 2 Russian clergymen (who have now left
Japan—Translator), 30 Japanese clergymen, 1 Russian deacon, 7 Japanese
deacons: altogether three more persons than last year; Christians 27,245 (935
more than last year); Catechists 1,214 (643 adults, 571 minors, altogether 305
more than last year); deaths 279 (18 less than last year); marriages 29 (9 more
than last year); churches or preachers’ houses 174. The sum of the offerings
made by the Christians in support of their church totalled 11,870 yen 41.8 sen,
4,505 yen 72.5 sen more than last year. The number of pupils in Mission schools
totalled 152, 12 less than last year.

The annual meeting of clergy (Shinpin Kwaigi) of the Greek Church Mission
was held in the cathedral of that mission in Tōkyō on the 15th inst. It was
reported at the meeting that there were 1,037 converts last year, deaths 320; and
now that the members of the church number 27,956, including 40 clergymen and
146 denkiosha (preachers or unordained evangelists and helpers).
 JAPAN’S NATIONAL SONG231

Few Europeans have learned to detect and enjoy the subtle beauty of Japanese
poetry. Fewer still, perhaps, are acquainted with the delicate charm of the little
poem which, although not a hymn, takes the place in Japanese minds and hearts
of the Briton’s “God Save the King,” or the American’s “My Country, ’tis of
Thee.” It is sung to a native air, the custom being to sing the poem through
thrice, and when thus rendered by a large and enthusiastic company it is often
truly impressive. The poem itself is very old, being found in the “Manyōshiu,”
which dates from about the middle of the eighth century, and its author is
unknown. As originally composed, it was not addressed to the actual ruler, but in
all probability to an Emperor who had gone into retirement. Now, however, it is
exclusively applied to the reigning Sovereign. The poem consists of the usual
number of thirty-one syllables, and runs as follows:—

Kimi ga yo wa
Chiyo ni yachiyo ni
Sazare ishi no
Iwao to narite
Koke no musu made.

So far as we are aware only two English translations have been published. One
of these is by Viscount Fukuba, and, closely following the original, reads as
follows:
“May our Sovereign live for thousands and ten thousands of years, until the tiny pebble becomes a moss-
covered rock.”

The other, by Professor Chamberlain, is more finished but less literal than the
foregoing, and is included in his excellent “Classical Poetry of the Japanese”:—

“A thousand years of happy life be thine!

Live on, My lord, till what are pebbles now,
By age united, to great rocks shall grow,
Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.”

To the above translations may be added a third by the late Dr. Gordon:—

“O Prince upon the throne!

Ten thousand years live on,
Till pebbles shall great rocks become
With moss all overgrown!”
 FLORAL JAPAN

The Japanese are a nature-loving people, and frequently give practical

expression to their feelings by taking a holiday simply for “flower-viewing.” At
the proper season the entire nation, so to speak, takes a day off, and turns out on
a big picnic to see the plum blossoms, or the cherry blossoms, or the maples, or
the chrysanthemums. No utilitarian views of the value of time or miserly
conceptions of the expense of such outings prevail for a moment; for the
Japanese are worshippers of beauty rather than of the “almighty dollar.” A few
pennies on such occasions bring many pleasures; and business interests are
sacrificed at the shrine of beauty. And, as one or more flowers are blooming
every month, because twigs, leaves, grasses, etc., are included in the scope of the
word hana, there is almost a continuous round of such picnics during the year. It
is our purpose, therefore, to arrange a calendar of flowers popular each month.
At the very outset we are confronted with a chronological difficulty in
presenting this subject to Western readers. For the programme of Japanese floral
festivals was originally arranged on the basis of the old lunar calendar so long in
vogue in Japan. By that calendar the New Year came in at varying dates from
about the 21st of January up to the 19th of February; in 1903 it fell on Thursday,
January 29; so that it is from three to seven weeks behind the Occidental solar
calendar. And yet, when Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar, many of these
festivals were transferred to the “New Style” without regard to the awful
anachronism that necessarily followed.
For instance, the following is a floral programme according to the “Old
Style”:—
OLD STYLE. NEW STYLE.
1st month, February Pine.
2d „ March Plum.
3d „ April Cherry.
4th „ May Wistaria.
5th „ June Iris.
6th „ July Tree peony.
7th „ August Lezpedeza.
8th „ September Eularia.
9th „ October Chrysanthemum.
 10th „ November Maple.
11th „ December Willow.
12th „ January Paulownia.
Now, the pine is chosen for the 1st month (O. S.) on account of the prominent
part that it plays in the New Year’s decorations, but when the new year begins
the first of January, that calendar suffers serious dislocation, because all of the
other flowers cannot be moved a whole month.
A similar confusion arises in connection with the great festival of the “autumn
full moon,” in which certain grasses also figured. By the lunar calendar it fell
about the 15th day of the 8th month, which never comes in the Western 8th
month, August. It came in 1902 on September 18; and 1903 it will not come
until early in October! It may now be readily seen how difficult it is in Japan to
run on schedule time!
But, taking all these difficulties into consideration, and harmonizing them so
far as possible, we have been able to construct the following modern Japanese
floral calendar:—
January Pine.
February Plum.
March Peach.
April Cherry.
May Wistaria.
June Iris.
July Morning-glory.
August Lotus.
September “Seven Grasses.”
October Chrysanthemum.
November Maple.
December Camellia.
 JAPAN AND SIAM232

Mr. Inagaki, Japanese Representative in Bangkok, has been making strenuous

efforts to bring about the establishment of a direct line of steamers between
Japan and Siam. He maintains that there cannot be any substantial development
of trade without some improvement of the means of communication. Tōkyō
newspapers report that the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha has been induced to undertake
the extension of its Formosan line to Siam, and that arrangements are now under
discussion with the Formosan officials.
In a lecture delivered by Mr. Inagaki before the Japan Economic Society, he
insisted that Siam could be of the greatest service to Japan in supplying raw
materials and food stuffs. Her production of sugar, hemp, and gum is very large,
and whereas her export of silk ten years ago was only 250,000 yen, it is now 10
millions. The Siamese government has decided to devote a quarter of a million
yen to agricultural experimental stations, and there can be no doubt that if Japan
sent seeds of raw materials to be grown in that country, fine results would be
obtained. It is important that a country like Japan should have a source of supply
which would certainly remain neutral in time of war, and Siam is essentially
such a source. This question of food supply will one day be as important for
Japan as it is already for England, and its solution seems to lie in the direction of
Siam.
 FORMOSA UNDER JAPAN

Concerning Formosa under Japanese rule the following additional items are
worthy of notice. The Governor-General, 1913, is Count Sakuma.
It has been pointed out by the “Japan Mail” that the revenue of the new
territory in the first six years after its cession to Japan has increased by 600 per
cent, as shown in the following table:—
Yen.
18962,710,000
18975,320,000
18988,250,000
189911,750,000
190014,900,000
190116,370,000

The number of the pest patients in Formosa has been decreasing year after
year, as the following returns for the period January 1 to June 17 of the
respective years show:—
CASES. MORTALITY.
1901 3,481 2,619
1902 1,795 1,352
1903 750 606

The government is making strenuous efforts to increase the export trade. It has
subsidized a modern sugar-mill which has commenced operations in South
Formosa, manufacturing brown sugar for refining purposes; it has likewise given
assistance to a white-sugar factory; it has started an experimental paper-factory;
in fact, it has devoted all its energies toward increasing the island’s productions.
Independent Japanese firms have likewise done a good deal, though not as much
as we had reason to anticipate. Two gold-quartz mills, one being of considerable
size, are successfully at work in the Formosan gold fields; two wealthy
companies are engaged in plantation work on a large scale in Southeast and in
North Formosa; and there is a glass-factory in the north, several Japanese-owned
coal-mines, a paper-factory at Kagi, several modern salt farms, and other small
industries, to Japanese credit. In improving transportation, the Japanese have
done much, and are planning to do much more. The Chinese railway line was
handed over to the Japanese in such a condition that it had to be all
reconstructed. We thus have practically a new line to Kelung and another to
Shinchiku (formerly Teckoham). In addition to these, new lines were constructed
from Taihoku to Tamsui, and from Takow to Shinyeisho via Tainan-fu, which
gives a total of 93 miles of rail. The trunk line connecting the north and south is
now in course of construction.233 The Japanese have also built over 200 miles of
narrow gauge for the temporary transport of military supplies, general freight,
and passengers. Nearly a thousand miles of ordinary road have been
constructed.234

Rev. W. Campbell, a Scotch missionary in Formosa, testifies concerning what

Japan has accomplished in the island:—
At the outset it should be remembered that, when they [Japanese] arrived in
1895, instead of being allowed to take quiet possession, they found the people
everywhere up in arms against them, and had literally to fight their way from
north to south before anything like settled government could be established....
Immediately after some measure of peace had been restored, the executive sent
out qualified experts to engage in survey work and to report on the resources of
their newly ceded territory.
A complete census of the population was taken in 1897, 800 miles of roads
were made, and a tramway line laid down from Takow to Sin-tek. This was
followed by construction of the main line of railway from Kelung to Takow,
about one-half of which has already been opened for goods and passenger traffic.
Three cables were also laid down, connecting Formosa with Japan, Foochow,
and the Pescadores, and over the existing 1,500 miles of telegraph and telephone
wires immediate communication has been made possible with every important
inland centre. The post offices recently opened in Formosa number over a
hundred, and letters can now be sent to any part of the empire for two cents each.
Up till the close of 1899, 122 government educational institutions had been
established, only 9 of those being for Japanese, and 113 for natives. There are at
present 10 principal Government hospitals in the island, at which about 60,000
patients are treated gratuitously every year, while sanitary precautions and free
vaccination have become so general that the danger from visitations like small-
pox and plague has been very much reduced.235
 THE AMERICO-JAPANESE ENTENTE

“1. It is the wish of the two Governments to encourage the free and peaceful
development of their commerce on the Pacific Ocean;
“2. The policy of both Governments, uninfluenced by any aggressive
tendencies, is directed to the maintenance of the existing status quo in the region
above mentioned and to the defence of the principle of equal opportunity for
commerce and industry in China;
“3. They are accordingly firmly resolved reciprocally to respect the territorial
possessions belonging to each other in said region;
“4. They are also determined to preserve the common interests of all Powers
in China, by supporting by all pacific means at their disposal, the independence
and integrity of China and the principle of equal opportunity for commerce and
industry of all nations in that Empire;
“5. Should any event occur threatening the status quo as above described, or
the principle of equal opportunity as above defined, it remains for the two
Governments to communicate with each other in order to arrive at an
understanding as to what measures they may consider it useful to take.”
INDEX
 A
Abdication, practice of, 90, 97
Aborigines, 44
Academy of Music, Tōkyō, 217
Acrobats, 66
Actors’ guild, 27
Adams, Will, 91
“Advance Japan,” 15, 28, 59, 117, 132, 158, 208
Agricultural College, 216
Agricultural College in China, 297
Agricultural experiment stations, Siam, 411
Agriculture, 16-22, 216, 350
Ainu, 44, 45
“Ainu Folk-lore,” 45
“Ainu of Japan,” 45
Akashi, 8
Alaska, 15
Alcock, 117
Ale, 56
Aleutian Islands, 15
Almonds, 351
Amaterasu, see Sun-Goddess
America, 2, 3, 7, 14, 20, 21, 28, 34, 37, 61, 106, 112, 140, 145, 189, 213, 219,
220, 237, 268, 270, 271, 281, 285, 290, 292, 299-301
American baby, first, 60;
books, favorite, 204;
fleet visits Japan, 335;
life, 80;
 state legislature, 135
“American Japanese Relations,” 341
“American Journal of Sociology,” 175
“American Missionary in Japan, An,” 190, 269
Americans, 33, 36, 47, 66, 79, 104, 107, 144, 165, 168, 210, 216
Americo-Japanese Entente, the, 335
Amoy, 295
Amusements, 66-69
Anarchists, 337
Ancestors, worship of, 64
“Ancestor-Worship and Japanese Law,” 174, 249
“Ancient Matters, Records of,” 92
Anderson, 235
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 4, 92, 147, 153, 154, 156, 157, 299, 332, 338
Anglo-Saxon influence, 157;
town meeting, 142
Anglo-Saxons, 128, 168, 310
Animals, see names of animals
“Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,” 129
Anti-Christian edicts removed, 91, 111, 112
Anti-foreign reaction, 92, 114, 115
Antimony, 23
Aomori, 17, 32
Aoyama, Dr., 220
Apples, 19
Apricots, 19
Arbitration treaty with United States, 335
Architecture, 51, 91
Area, 5, 7
Arima, 8
Arita ware, 229
Armor, 230
Army, 126, 147-151;
statistics, 381, 382
Arnold, Sir Edwin, 78, 253
Arsenal, 149, 150, 286
“Art Japonais, L’,” 235, 236
Artisans, 48, 82
“Artistic Japan,” 236
“Artist’s Letters from Japan, An,” 236
Arts, fine, 91, 222-236;
mechanical, 24, 25
Aryans, 45
Asahigawa, 149
Asakawa, 328
Asama, 8
Ashikaga period, 98, 99
Ashikaga supremacy, 91
Ashikaga Yoshimasa, 233
Asia, 14, 149, 156, 281, 292, 294, 301
“Asia, the key of,” 4;
Eastern, supremacy of Japan in, 299, 300
“Asiatic Loch Lomond,” 8
Asiatic Society of Japan, Transactions, 20, 22, 43, 54, 61, 62, 71, 83, 89, 92,
101, 132, 133, 145, 159, 174, 199, 208, 231, 249, 255, 259, 261
Aso, Mount, 8
Aso, Prof. S., 402
“As the Hague Ordains,” 328
Aston, W. G., 50, 92, 208, 232, 236, 249
Atami, 8
Athletics, 66
“Atlantic Monthly,” 302
Atsu, Prince, 123
Audsley, G. A., 235, 236
Australasia, 281
Australia, 34, 45
Austria, 85
Automobiles, 31, 34
Autumn, Japanese, 12
“Awakening of the East, The,” 28, 158
“Awakening of Japan, The,” 117, 304, 328
Ayrton, Mrs. Chaplin-, 75

B
Babylon, 300
Bacon, Miss Alice M., 59, 75, 189, 190, 221
Badgers, 13
Baelz, Dr., 46, 47
Baggage, 29
Baggage check system, American, 33
Bakan, 9
Ballard, Miss, 70
Ballard, Walter J., 356
Baltic fleet, Russian, 316, 317-318
Bamboo, 13, 22, 74
Bananas, 19
Bandai, Mount, 8, 113
Bank of Formosa, 38
Bank of Japan, 38, 39, 92, 170;
organized, 113
Banks, national, 38;
see also specific names;
private, 38;
savings, 38, 39;
deposits, 364
Baptists, 264, 272, 404, 405
Barbers’ guild, 27
Barley, 19, 26, 55
Base-ball, 66
Bastiat’s “Science of Finance,” 206
Batchelor, J., 45
Bathing, 58, 59
Battleships, see Warships
Bays, 9
Beans, 19, 37, 55
Bear, 13
Beechey, Capt., 105
Beef, 54
Beer, 56;
brewing, 24
Beets, 19
Beggars, 48;
 guild, 27
Bellows, U. S. Consul, 351
Bettelheim, Dr., 105
Bevan, Paul, 236
Bicycle boats, 85
Bicycles, 31, 34, 280, 281
Biddle, Commodore, 105
Bimetalism, 92, 111
Bing, S., 236
Bird, Miss, see Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird
Birds, 13
Birth and birthdays, 60, 61
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, 15, 43, 45, 341
Biwa Lake, 8
Bizen ware, 229
Black, J. R., 117, 200
Blind, the, 217
“Blossom,” 105
“Blue-Jacket Spirit,” 152
Boar, 13
Boatmen, 30
Boats, 29, 31;
see also Steamboats
Boissonade, M., 161
Bonin Islands, 34
Books, 197, 203-206
Booth, General, 334
Bowes, J. L., 235
Boxer troubles, 115, 146, 153, 308
Bramhall, Mrs., 60, 75, 221
Brick industry, 24
Bricklayers’ guild, 27
Brinkley, Captain, 208, 231-233, 235, 309, 311
British, 7, 66
British Columbia, 14
Brothels, 166, 167, 271
Buckwheat, 19
Buddha, 253-255, 260;
statue of, 228;
birthday, 74
Buddhism, 48, 54, 90, 96, 99, 177, 224, 237, 252-260, 269, 288;
Buddhist ceremonies, 62;
education, 209;
festivals, 63, 65;
periodicals, 203;
philosophy, 198;
priests, 224, 258;
temples, 65, 166, 240, 243, 253, 258
Buffalo, N. Y., 37
Bushidō, 251-252
“Bushidō, the Soul of Japan,” 89, 239, 252, 261
Business ability of Japanese, 39-42, 82-83
“Business men’s party,” 131
Business men, American, visit Japan, 335;
Japanese visit United States, 337
Butter, 37
Button industry, 24
Byron, Lord, 204

C
Cabinet, 124, 125, 130, 143, 340, 375, 376;
reconstruction, 113, 114
California, 5, 14, 37
Camellia, 410;
trees, 12
Campbell, W., 398
Camphor, 37;
trees, 12, 21
Canada, 335
Canadian Pacific steamship line, 3
Candles, 37
Canning industry, 22
Canton river, 14
Capital punishment, 162
Capitals of Japan, 91, 96, 97
Carpenters, wages of, 26, 360;
guild, 27
Carriage, 281
Carrots, 19
Cary, Otis, 89, 249, 259, 276
“Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Museum,” 235
“Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese Pottery,” 235
Cats, 13
Caucasians, 45
Cedar trees, 12
Cemeteries, 258, 259
Central America, 291
Chamberlain, B. H., 15, 22, 45, 58, 75, 86, 92, 152, 161, 192, 197, 199, 208,
222, 236, 252, 256, 408
Chang Chih-tung, Viceroy, 297
Changtu, occupation of, 317
Cha-no-Yu, see Tea-ceremonial
Characteristics of the people, 46-50, 76-89
“Charter Oath,” 91, 110-112, 118
“Chautauquan, The,” 211, 401
Chemulpo, 311
Cherry flowers, 65, 79, 408-410;
trees, 13
Chestnuts, 19
Chicago, 3, 11, 37, 38
Chickens, 13, 54, 56
“Child-Life in Japan,” 75
Children, 66, 181, 182
China, 4, 5, 7, 14, 21, 34, 35, 37, 42, 92, 96, 99, 103, 106, 115, 143, 146, 149,
150, 153, 154, 157, 221, 224, 237, 250, 255, 285, 287, 291, 292, 294-299,
301;
tribute to, 91;
war with, 92, 115, 307, 308;
Japanese influence in, 294-298;
Revolution, 340
“China and the Far East,” 341
Chinese, 7, 85, 94, 100, 105, 143, 144, 178, 198, 281, 297, 298;
Chinese art, 224;
Chinese Empire, 157;
ideographs, 193, 194, 207, 220, 227;
government service, 297;
language, 209;
 literature, 90, 208, 209, 296;
zodiac, 71;
students in Japan, 340
“Chinese Recorder,” 297
Ching-ho-cheng, 317
Cholera, 10
Chop-sticks, 55
Chōshiu, Clan of, 109
Christian home, 177
Christian literature, 265, 266;
periodicals, 203
“Christian Movement in Japan, The,” 276
Christianity, 48, 61, 71, 91, 99, 100, 107, 111, 156-158, 167, 177, 190, 219,
237, 240, 242, 243, 247-249, 253, 256, 259, 276, 286-288;
helped by war, 324, 334, 336, 337;
statistics, 404-406;
see also Anti-Christian
“Christianity in Japan, History of,” 276
“Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Christmas, 66
Chromoxylography, see Color printing
“Chronicle,” Kōbe, 201
“Chronicles of Japan,” 92
Chrysanthemum Festival, 64, 65
Chrysanthemums, 408-410
“Chrysanthemums, War of the,” 91, 99
Church, Japanese, 336
Churches, 91, 110, 111, 267, 268, 287
Chūzenji, Lake, 8
Cire perdue process, 230
Cities, opening of, 91
Citizen (kōmin) 138-140
City Council, 140, 141
“Civil Code, New Japanese, Lectures on,” 174
Civil war, 91, 109, 110
“Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” 236, 408
Clearing-houses, 354
Clement’s “Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Clement’s “Japanese Floral Calendar,” 65
Climate, 5, 6, 11, 12
Cloisonné, 230
Coal, 23, 37, 41, 42, 152, 292, 295, 298
Coast line, 5, 9, 10
Cocoa, 37
Code, Civil, 61, 114-116, 176, 178, 18O-182, 190;
commercial, 38, 114, 115, 161;
criminal, 161;
Napoleon, 161;
penal, 113;
civil procedure, 161;
criminal procedure, 113, 161;
codes, new, 92
Co-education, 211
Coffins, 62
Coins, 39
Collotype, 227
Colonial Bank of Hokkaidō, 38
Color printing, 227
Columbia University, 296
“Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of Japan,” 132
Commerce, 36, 37, 39-43;
Treaty of commerce and navigation, 385-399
Commercial centre, 291
Compulsory school attendance, 212
Conder, Josiah, 54, 236
“Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism,” 275
Confucian education, 209;
influences, 91;
philosophy, 198
Confucianism, 48, 96, 100, 101, 237, 250-252, 260
Congregationalists, 264, 404, 405
Constantine, 248, 275
Constitution, 92, 113, 114, 120-122,124, 127, 128, 132, 150, 273, 287
“Constitutional Development of Japan,” 111, 132, 145
“Constitutional Government in Japan,” 129
Continental influences, 90
Convicts, 162
Cooking, 56
Cooks’, European-style, union, 27
Coolies, 27, 29, 31, 32, 282;
guild, 27
Co-operative stores, 27, 28
Copper, 23, 37, 41
“Corea, the Hermit Nation,” 341
Cornstarch, 37
Corporal punishment, 212
Costumes, see Dress
Cotton, 21, 37;
mills, 21, 286;
spinning, 21;
velvet, 37
Counsel, 163, 164
Couriers, 29, 35, 281
Courts, 163-165
Cream, evaporated, 37
Credit Mobilier, 38
“Creed of Half Japan, The,” 261
Crimes, 162
Criminal law, 160, 161
Criminals, 163
Currency, 39
Curtis, W. E., 28, 43, 56, 66, 132, 174
Curtius, ——, 107
Customs, 60-75

D
Dai Nihon Shi, 101
“Dai Nippon,” 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
Dalny, 295, 309, 313
Damascus, 230
Dancing, 68, 69, 228, 231-233;
dancing-girls, 69
Dan-no-ura, Battle of, 98
Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” 204
Davidson, U. S. Consul, 21, 143, 145, 398
Days, special, lucky or unlucky, 71-75
Deaf, education of, 217
Death, 62
Deer, 13
De Forest, Dr., 276
Deme Jikan, 228
Dening, Prof., 86, 89
Deportation, 162
Development, internal, 104, 113, 114
“Dial, The,” Chicago, 204, 206, 208
“Diamond edition of humanity,” 47
“Diary of a Japanese Convert,” 265
Dickens, F. V., 236, 303
Dickson, Walter, 117
Dining-cars, 33
Diosy, Arthur, 39, 117, 145, 151, 152, 156, 158
Disciples, 264
Divisions, 5, 6
Divorce, 61, 177, 179, 180, 181
Dixon, W. G., 109, 117
Docks, 110, 111, 286;
dockyards, 91
Dogs, 13
Dogura, Mr., 402
Dolls, 66
Dolls’ festival, 61, 64, 65
Dōshisha, 215
Dowie, J. A., 264
Drama, 233
Dress, 56-59, 284
Duarchy, 97
Dumb, education of, 217
Dutch, 91, 100, 105, 106, 210, 281;
books, 285
“Dux Christus,” 276
Dyeing, 24
Dyer, Prof., 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
 E
“Earthquake, The Great,” see Cabinet reconstruction
Earthquakes, 8, 10, 51, 88, 106;
Gifu, 92, 114;
Professor of, 216
Easter, 66
Eastlake, F. W., 117, 158, 283
Ebara, Mr., 274
Editors, 201
Education, 47, 209-221, 285, 341
“Educational Conquest of the Far East, The,” 221
Edwards, Osman, 68
Egg-plants, 19
Eggs, 26, 55, 56, 60
Election, First National, 114;
first under Constitution of 1889, 127
Electoral franchise, extension of, 115, 116
Electric cars, 34, 281;
lights, 31, 36;
railways, 31;
apparatus manufactories, 286
Elgin, Lord, 106, 107
“Elizabethan Age,” Japan’s, 97
Elocution, 195
Embroidery, 24, 231
Emperor Yoshihito, 123, 339
Emperors and Empresses, chronological table, 374-375
Empire, New, 91
Empress Dowager, the, 111, 188, 280
Empress Sada, 123, 188
Enamelling, 230
“Encyclopædia Britannica,” 204
Engine works, 286
Engineering, 23
Engineers, American, 32
England, 37, 61, 85, 93, 300
English, 91, 145
“English-Japanese Dictionary,” 208
“English-Japanese Etymology,” 208
English language, 113, 195, 201, 211, 219, 285, 298
English normal school, 186
Epicureanism, 79, 81
Epidemics, 10
Episcopalians, 264, 272, 404, 405
Eularia, 409
Europe, 3, 34, 112, 156, 189, 213, 237, 281, 290, 292, 299, 301
European books, favorite, 204;
languages, 220
Europeans, 47
Evangelical alliance, 271
“Every Day Japan,” 15, 43, 59, 75, 89, 158, 174, 190, 221, 261
“Evolution of the Japanese, The,” 89
Exports, 36, 37, 298, 368

F
Factories, 352-353
“Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” 70
Family, Japanese, 50, 51
Fan industry, 24
Farming, 16, 17-19;
farmers, 48, 82, 248, 283
Fenollosa, E. F., 235
Festivals, 63-65
“Feudal and Modern Japan,” 59, 89, 101, 132, 208, 249
Feudalism, 91, 110, 112, 119, 133, 134, 370
Figs, 19, 351
Filial piety, 87, 166, 176, 250
Fillmore, Millard, 102, 106
Finck, H. T., 15, 59, 89
Fine Arts School, Tōkyō, 217
Firefly lamp, 285
“Fire-Fly’s Lovers, The,” 70
Fire-Shine and Fire-Fade, Princes, 90
Fish, 13, 22, 23, 26, 55, 56;
fisheries, 294;
considered by Peace commissioners, 319, 320
Fisher’s “Universal History,” 205
Flag, Imperial, 5;
first foreign, officially raised, 107;
flags, feast of the, 61, 64, 65;
red and white, wars of, 91
Florenz, Dr., 249
Flour, 37
Flowers, 408-410;
arrangement, 233, 234;
festivals, 65, 409, 410;
“Flower-viewing,” 394;
 see also specific names
“Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement, The,” 236
Folk-lore, 70
Food, 54-56, 284
Foreign Language School, Tōkyō, 217
Foreign trade, 368
Foreigners, status of, 170-174
Formosa, Island of, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 16, 21, 30, 34, 91, 92, 111, 115, 142-144,
220, 295, 336, 347;
under Japan, 143, 144, 411-413
Formosan Bank, 295
Foxes, 13
France, 37, 85, 164, 278, 290
Franco-Japanese Agreement, 333
Freight, 29, 30;
carts, 30, 31
French language, 211, 285
Friends, 264, 272
Froebel, Friedrich, 214
“From Far Formosa,” 276
“From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the Japanese,” 328
Fruit, see specific names
Fruit-growing, 351-352
Fuchow, 294, 295, 413
Fuji, Mount, 8
Fujiwara bureaucracy, 91;
epoch, 97;
family established in regency, 91
Fukuba, Viscount, 408
Fukuzawa, Mr., 184, 185, 215
Fukwai, 135-138
Funeral ceremonies, 62
Furniture, 52, 53
Fushun, occupation of, 317
“Future of Japan, The,” 304

G
Gale, J. S. 341
Gamblers’ guild, 27
Game, 54
Games, 66
Gardens, 17, 53, 54
Gas, 36
Geisha, see Dancing-girls
Genroku era, 356
German liberals, 264
Germany, 37, 85, 122, 145, 147;
and Japan, 300;
German language, 211, 285
“Geschichte des Japanischen Farbenholzschnitts,” 235
Gifu earthquake, 92, 114
Ginko or Salisburia, 351
Ginza, the, of Tōkyō, 26
“Gist of Japan, The,” 15, 89, 249, 276
Glass-blowing, 24
“Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” 43, 54, 65
Glyptic art, 227
Go, 66
Goats, 13
Goethe’s “Faust,” 204
Goh, ——, 50
Gokinai, 6
Gold, 23, 27, 41, 369;
see Coins;
gold standard, 39, 92, 115, 116
Golownin, Captain, 104
Gonse, Louis, 235, 236
Gordon, Captain, 104
Gordon, Dr., 190, 408
“Gospel ship,” 267, 287
Goto family, 230
Government, Constitutional, 113, 116;
and Liberals, alliance between, 115;
ownership, 33
Governor, 136-138
Governors, assembly of, 91, 111
Græco-Roman mythology, 95
“Grammar of the Japanese Written Language,” 208
Grant, U. S., 113, 369
Grapes, 19, 351
Grave-diggers, 48
Great Britain, 4, 37, 146, 147, 153-157, 308, 310, 317
Greater Japan, 331-341
“Great Righteousness,” Era, 339
Greece, 248, 300
Greek church, 263, 404, 406, 407;
language, 211, 285;
chorus, 68
Greene, D. C., 259
Gregorian calendar, 64, 91, 103, 111, 112, 409
Gribble, Henry, 20
Griffin, Professor, 380
Griffis, Dr., 18, 43, 59, 70, 71, 73, 75, 99, 101, 117, 206, 208, 210, 241, 242,
249, 252, 256, 257, 276, 341
“Grippe, La,” 10
Guam, 299
Guano deposits, 6
Gubbins, J. H., 117, 161, 176, 178, 182
Guilds, 27
Gulf Stream, 11
Gulick, S. L., 89, 117, 304, 328
Gumma Prefecture, Governor of, 138
Gunboat, United States, 23
Guncotton, 85
Gunpowder, smokeless, 85

H
Hachiman, god of war, 90, 96
Hachisuka, Marquis, 188
Hades, God of, 74
Haga, 261
Hakodate, 9, 107
Hakone, 8, 37;
lake, 8
Hakuchi era, 370
Hakuseki, Arai, 210
Ham, 54
Hamaoka, 39
Hamath, 46
Hancock, H. I., 66
“Hand-Book for Japan,” 15
“Hand-Book of Colloquial Japanese,” 208
Hand-carts, 31
Handkerchief industry, 24
Hangchau, China, 297
Happiness of the people, 79
Hara, Mr., 168
Harbors, 9
Hardy, Thomas, 204
Hare, 13
Harris, Townsend, 106, 107, 117
Hartshorne, Miss, 15, 43, 59, 75
Haru, Prince, 92, 113, 115, 123, 188, 211
Harunobu, 227
Harvard University, 307
“Hatsuse,” sinking of, 314
Hawaii, 3, 7, 35, 299
Hayashi, Mr., 312
Hearn, Lafcadio, 43, 54, 65, 75, 77, 89, 190, 238, 249
Hebrew, 285
Heco, Joseph, 200
Heikeutai, battle of, 315
Heine, Heinrich, 204
“Herald,” Kōbe, 201
Herbart, J. F., 205
“Heroic Japan,” 117, 158, 283
Hideyoshi, 91, 99
Hildreth, Richard, 101
Hiroöka, Mrs. Asa, 186, 187, 402
Hirose, Commander, 313
Hiroshima, 148
Hirth, Dr., 296
“Histoire de l’Art du Japan,” 235
History (Old Japan), 90-101
I. Divine Ages, 94
II. Prehistoric Period, 94-96
III. Imperialistic Period, 96-97
IV. Civil Strife, 97-100
V. Tokugawa Feudalism, 100-101
History (New Japan), 102-117
I. Period of Seclusion, 104-106
II. Period of Treaty-Making, 106-107
III. Period of Civil Commotions, 107-110
IV. Period of Reconstruction, 110-112
V. Period of internal Development, 113-114
VI. Period of Constitutional Government, 114-117
Greater Japan, 331-341
History and mythology outline, 90-92
“History of Japan,” 101
“History of Japanese Literature,” 208, 232, 236
“History of Japanese Political Parties,” 132
“History of Protestant Missions in Japan,” 276
“History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects,” 253
“Hitachi Maru,” sinking of, 314
Hittites, 46
Hizen ware, 229
Hoang-Ho river, 14
Hōjō tyranny, 91;
family, 98
Hokkaidō, 5, 6, 9, 11, 42, 142, 143, 292, 347;
see also Yezo
Hokurikudō, 6
Hokusai, 227
Holidays, 63-66
Holland, 37
Holme, Charles, 22
Honda, Y., 334
“Honda the Samurai,” 75
Hondo, 5, 6
Hongkong, 33, 35, 37, 355
Honolulu, 3, 33
Horse-cars, 31, 34, 281
Horses, 13, 24
Hours, 72-73
House, E. H., 117
House of Commons, 119, 126, 130
House of Peers, 126, 128, 130, 376, 377
Houses of Japanese, 51-53, 284
Hozumi, Dr. N., 174, 249
Hugo’s “Les Misérables,” 204
Huish, Marcus, 22, 222, 229, 236
Hulbert, H. B., 341
“Human Bullets,” 328
“Hundred Poems,” 199
Hyōgō, see Kōbe

I
Ice industry, 24
“Ichijiku,” 266
“Ideals of the East, The,” 224
Iga ware, 229
Ii, Prime Minister, assassinated, 107, 108
Ikao, 8
Illinois, 37
Imari ware, 229
Imbrie, Dr., 208, 323
Imitation, Japanese ability for, 41, 85
Immigration, 335, 338
Imperial Court, 278, 296
Imperial Diet, 36, 92, 114, 122, 126-128, 130, 165, 207, 212, 247, 313
Imperial family, 48, 93
Imperial Guard, 149
“Imperial Japanese Navy, The,” 158
Imperial Library, see Library
Imperial Rescripts, 212, 398-399
Imperial University, see University
Imperialism, 91, 96-97, 101, 118-132
Imperialistic period, 90
Imports, 36, 37, 170, 368
“In the Mikado’s Service,” 75
Inagaki, Mr., 410
Inari Sama, 248
Incomes, see Wages and incomes
Indemnity, War, 319
India, 14, 21, 34, 37, 45, 48, 301
Indigo, 17
Industrial and commercial Japan, 17-28, 39-42, 183, 341
Industrial Bank, 38
“Industries of Japan, The,” 28, 231, 235
Inland Sea, 10, 267, 287
Inouye, Jukichi, 74
“Intercourse between the United States and Japan,” 117
International, law, violated by Russia, 317;
Oil Company, 36;
Postal Union, 35
Invention, Japanese ability for, 41, 85
Investment, foreign, 40-42
Iris, 65, 409, 410
Iron, 23, 37, 42, 295;
foundries, 286;
workers’ union, 27
Ise, shrine at, 167, 243
Ishigami, Dr., 220
Ishikari river, 9
Ishikawajima, 355
“Island of Formosa, The,” 21, 143
Itagaki, Count, 119, 131, 402
Italian, 285
Itō, Prince, 40, 120, 131, 132, 332, 336, 381, 402
“Ito, With Marquis, in Korea,” 341
Iwakura Embassy, 110, 112
Iyemochi, Shōgun, 108, 109
Iyenaga, 111, 132, 145
Iyenari, Shōgun, 280
Iyeyasu, Shōgun, 91, 99, 100
Iyeyoshi, Shōgun, 105
Izanagi, 90, 95
Izanami, 90, 95
Izumo, 94; ware, 229

J
Janes, 158
“Japan,” 15, 59, 101, 208, 249
“Japan, An Interpretation,” 89
“Japan: Its History, Arts, and Literature,” 231, 233, 235
“Japan and America,” 39, 42, 356
“Japan and her people,” 15, 43, 59, 190
“Japan and its Art,” 236
“Japan and its Regeneration,” 89, 249, 276
“Japan and its Trade,” 28
“Japan and the Japanese,” 300
“Japan as it Was and Is,” 101
“Japan Daily Advertiser,” 201
“Japan Evangelist,” 276
“Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” 59, 101, 208, 210
“Japan in Transition,” 28, 145, 158, 291
“Japan Mail,” 46, 131, 184, 201, 243, 296, 350, 370, 376, 383, 404, 410, 411
Japan Mail Steamship Company, 34, 92, 113, 114, 139
Japan Society, London, Transactions, 22, 50, 92
“Japan Times,” 24, 130, 131, 188, 201, 204, 362, 381, 384, 399, 404
“Japan To-day,” 15, 43, 158, 261
“Japan Tract Society,” 266
“Japan Year Book,” 28, 43
“Japanese Boy, A,” 75, 221
“Japanese Calendars,” 71, 83
“Japanese Education,” 221
“Japanese Epigrams,” 208
“Japanese Fairy Book,” 70
“Japanese Fairy Tales,” 70
“Japanese Floral Calendar,” 65
“Japanese Girls and Women,” 59, 75, 189, 190, 221
“Japanese Homes,” 51, 54
“Japanese Illustration,” 235
“Japanese, Interior, A,” 59, 190, 221
“Japanese Legal Seal, The,” 174
“Japanese Life in Town and Country,” 59, 75, 89, 261
“Japanese Nation,” 341
“Japanese Odes,” 236
“Japanese Physical Training,” 66
“Japanese Plays,” 68
“Japanese Plays and Playfellows,” 68
“Japanese Rule in Formosa,” 145
“Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut Printing,” 235
“Japanese Wood Engravings,” 235
Java, 45;
 Javanese, 45
Jevon’s “Money,” 206
Ji sect, 254
Jimmu Tennō, Emperor, 63, 90, 93, 95, 121
“Jingles from Japan,” 83
Jingorō, Hidari, 228
Jingu, Empress, 90, 95, 96
Jinrikisha, 31, 32, 281
“Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” 15, 20, 43, 56, 123, 236
“Jinrikisha men,” 32, 203
Jōdo sect, 253, 255
Journalism, 200-202
Judges, 163-165
Julian, 248
Jūmin, see Resident
Justice, 160

K
Kaga ware, 229
Kagi, Formosa, 398
Kago, 30
Kagoshima, 32, 107, 108
“Kaigai Shimbun,” 200
Kaiping, 313
Kaiyuan, 317
Kajima, 186
Kamimura, Admiral, 314, 316
Kanazawa, 215
Kaneko, Baron, 120, 139, 307
Kanin, Prince, 278
Kansas City, 37
Karuizawa, 8
Kataoka, Mr., 274
Katayama Sea, 28
Katō, Baron, 402
Katsura, Prime Minister, 324;
ministry, 331, 332, 336-338, 340
Kawakami, E. E., 132, 341
Kawamura, Count and Countess, 123
Kawasaki, 341
Kegon waterfall, 9
Keiki, Shōgun, 108,109
Keiō-gijiku, 215
Kelung, Formosa, 412, 413
Kenkwai, 135-138
Kennan, George, 328
Kenzan ware, 228
“Keramic Art of Japan,” 235
Keramic wares, 228
Kii, 9
Kikuchi, Dr., 221
Kimotsuki, Admiral, 291
Kinchow, 313
Kindergartens, 210, 213, 214, 269, 403
Kingsley Hall, 28
“Kinse Shiriaku,” 117
Kipling, Rudyard, 204
Kirby, E. C., 341
Kiso river, 9
Kitakami river, 9
Kitasato, Dr., 10, 220
Kites, 66
Kiyomori, 98
Knapp, A. M., 59, 89, 101, 132, 208, 249
Knight, 283
Knox, G. W., 59, 75, 89, 249, 261, 304
Kōbe, 2, 9, 33, 110, 201, 355, 364
“Kōbe Herald,” 407
Koch, Dr., 220
Kodama, Baron, 220, 321
Koike, Major, 381
Kojiki, 241
Kojimachi Ku, 139
Kōkaku, Emperor, 278
“Kokumin Shimbun,” 335
Komagatake, 8
Komatsu II., Emperor, 99
Kōmei, Emperor, 64, 108,109, 122
Kōmin, see Citizen
Komura, Baron, 318
Korea, 4, 5, 7, 14, 32, 34, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 111, 154, 157, 224, 237, 252,
255, 292, 294, 299, 331;
Japanese convention with Japan, 332;
 agreement influence in, 294;
Russia in, 309;
with Japan, 333;
annexed, 337;
Supreme Court in, 334;
Koreans, 85;
students, 341
“Korea and Her Neighbors,” 341
“Korean Sketches,” 341
“Korea in Transition,” 341
“Korea, The Passing of,” 341
“Korea, The Tragedy of,” 341
“Korea, With Marquis Ito in,” 341
See also “Corea the Hermit Nation,” 341
Koriusai, 227
Korsakoff Harbor, Sakhalin, 315
Kublai Khan, 98
Kuchinotsu, 9
Kumamoto, 32, 149, 215
Kure, 150, 355
Kurihama, 102
Kurile Islands, 5, 6, 12, 44, 105, 111
Kuroki, General, 313, 315
Kuropatkin, General, 313, 315
Kuro Shio (Black Stream), 11
Kurozumi-kyō, 259
Kusatsu, 8
Kusunoki, 91, 98
Kyonaga, 227
Kyōto, 19, 91, 97, 109, 215, 230, 278, 280, 282, 350
Kyōto ware, 229
Kyōwa era, 277
Kyūshiu, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 42, 45, 95, 292

L
Labor unions, 27, 28
“Labor World,” 28
Lacquer trees, 12;
lacquer work, 24;
lacquering, 230-231
Ladd, George T., 87, 341
“Ladoga” (American), 105
La Farge, John, 236
Lakes, 8
Lamps, 298
Land, arable, 350, 351;
foreign ownership of, 170, 171
“Land of the Morning,” 109
Landscape-gardening, 54, 234
“Landscape-Gardening in Japan,” 54, 236
Lange, Dr., 208
Language, 191-198, 206, 207, 232
Lanman, Chas., 117
Latin, 211, 285
Latitude, 5
“Lawrence” (American), 105
Laws, 96, 137
Lay, A. H., 132, 376, 380
Lead, 23
Legal Japan, 159-174
Leroy-Beaulieu, A., 28, 158
Lespedeza, 395
Lewis, R. E., 221
Liaotung Peninsula, 307, 308
Liaoyang, 313, 315
Library, Imperial, 203, 220;
Max Müller, 220
“Life of Sir Harry Parkes,” 303
Light-houses, 91, 110
Ligneul, L’Abbé, 391
Literary class, 48
Literature, 70, 100, 198-208
Lithography, 227
Living expenses, 26, 27, 358-360
Lizards, 13
Lloyd, Prof., 15, 59, 75, 89, 158, 174, 190, 221, 259, 261
Loans, war, 313
Local self-government, 113, 114, 116, 120, 133-145
Locomotives, 37
London, 341
Longford, J. H., 101, 174
Lönholm, Dr., 161
Loo Choo (Ryūkyū) Islands, 5, 12, 34, 92, 105, 113
Loquats, 19, 351
Loti, Pierre, 77
“Lotos-Time in Japan,” 15, 59, 89
Lotus, 65, 410
Lotze, R. H., 87
Louisiana, 5
Lowell, Percival, 26, 43, 50, 75, 89, 195, 223, 239, 249, 257
Loyalty, 87
Lucky and unlucky days, 71-75
Lumber, 24
Lunar calendar, 64
Lutherans, 264

M
MacCauley, Clay, 199
McClatchie, T. R., 68
McCormick, Frederick, 328
McDonald, Roland, 105, 106
McKenzie, F. A., 341
Mackay, Dr., 276
Maclay, A. C., 75
Magazines, 202, 285
“Magna Charta of Japanese liberty,” see Constitution
Maize, 19
Maizuru, 150
Makaroff, Admiral, 314
“Maker of the New Orient, A,” 276
Malays, 45, 46, 95
Manchoo Court, 301
Manchuria, China, 30, 32, 295, 308-310, 313, 331
Manila, 33, 35
Manners, see Customs
Manufacturing plants, 286
“Manyōshiu,” 407
Maple, 65, 408, 409
Marcus Island, 6
“Mariner” (British), 105
Marriage, 61, 62, 178-182
Masamune, 230
Mason, W. B., 15
Masujima, Dr., 169, 170, 174
Match industry, 24, 37, 298
Matsukata, Count, 128
Matsumai, Yezo, 105
“Matthew Calbraith Perry,” 117
Matting, 37
“Mayors of the Palace,” 98, 278
Mechanics, 283;
wages of, 26, 358-360
Megata, Mr., 351
Meiji era, 91, 277, 339
Melons, 19
Memorial Day, 65
Men-of-war, American, 23
Mercantile Marine, 384
“Mercator” (American), 105
Merchants, 48, 82, 283
Meredith, George, 204
Merovingians, Japanese, 98
Metal work, 24, 229-230
Meteorological table, 346
Methodist Publishing House, 266, 276
Methodists, 264, 272, 334, 404, 405
Michi, Prince, 123
Migrations, 95
“Mikado’s Empire, The,” 43, 66, 71, 206
Military class, 48
Mill, John Stuart, 380
Miller, ——, a criminal, 165
Millet, 19, 55
Milne, Professor, 15
Minamoto, 98
Mining, 23, 294
Minko, 228
Minnesota, 5
Mint, 39, 91, 110, 111
Miochin family, 230
Mission of Japan, the, 289-304
Mission schools, 211, 219
Missionaries, 107, 157, 173, 177, 218, 245, 263-269, 272, 287
Missionary Conference, First, 110;
at Ōsaka, 92, 113;
at Tōkyō, 92, 115;
at Yokohama, 91
Mississippi valley, 5
Mitake, 8
Mitford, A. B. F., 70, 75, 261
Mito, 54, 60, 67, 280
Mito clan, 100
Mito, Prince of, 149, 286
“Mito Yashiki,” 75
Mitschenko’s cavalry, 315
Mitsu Bishi Company, 23
Mitsui Bank, 370
Miwa, 228
“Miyako-Dori,” 236
Miyanoshita, 8
“Modern Japanese Legal Institutions,” 174
Moji, 9, 32, 187
“Moji no Shirube,” 208
Money, Table of, 347-349;
in circulation, 367;
money-making, 81-82, 408
Mongolians, 45
Monkey, 13
Morals, 48, 257, 271, 287
Mormons, 265
Morning-glory, 65, 410
Morris, John, 15, 28, 117, 132, 158, 208
Morrison, Arthur, 235
“Morrison” Expedition, 105
Morrison, Mt., 8
Morse, E. S., 51, 54, 235
“Moscow Gazette,” 406
Mosquitoes, 10
Mossman, Samuel, 117
Mother-in-law, 176
Mott, John R., 270
Mounsey, A. H., 117
Mountains, 8
Mourning, 62
Mousseline, 37
Mukden, battle of, 317
Mulberry trees, 19
Munichika, 230
Munzinger, Carl, 85
Muramasa, 230
Murata rifle, 149
Murdock, James, 101, 276
Muroran, 9, 150
Murray, David, 15, 59, 94, 97, 101, 132, 263
“Murray’s Hand-Book,” 12, 15
“Muscovite Menace,” 322
Music, 68, 69, 231, 232
“Music and Musical Instruments of Japan, The,” 236
Mutsuhito, Emperor, 108-110, 118, 121, 122, 279;
death of, 339, 340
Mythology, 90, 92-95;
history, outline, 90-92

N
Nachi waterfall, 9
Nagasaki, 9, 23, 32, 104-107, 201, 281, 341, 405, 406
Nagoya, 21, 148, 230, 364
Namikawa, 230
Nanjo, 253
Nankaidō, 6
Nanshan, 313
“Napoleon of Japan,” 91, 99
Nara, 97, 228;
Nara epoch, 90, 97
“Narrative of a Japanese,” 200
Naruse, Jinzō, 187, 188, 402
“Nation, The,” 132, 134, 145
National Assembly, 120
National development, 366, 367
National exhibition in Tōkyō, 111
National song, 407, 408
Nature-worship, 45, 79
Naval increment, 383, 384
Navy, 126, 147-152
Nelson, Lord, 151
Nemoto, Mr., 274
“New Far East, The,” 39, 117, 145, 151, 158
New Year’s Day, 61, 64, 75
New York City, 296
New York State Bar Association, 170
Newchang, 315
Newspaper, first, 91, 110, 111, 200;
newspapers, 200-202, 257, 266, 273, 285;
see also specific names
Nichiren sect, 253, 255-256
Nicolai, Bishop, 263
Nietzche’s “Zarathustra,” 204
Nightingale, 13
Niigata, 9, 110
Niitaka, 8
Nikkō, 8, 9, 185, 228
Ninigi, 90
Ninsei ware, 228
Nippon Electric Company, 38
Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha, see Japan Mail Steamship Company
“Nisshin Shinjishi,” 200
Nitobe, Dr., 45, 89, 117, 239, 252, 261, 341
Nitta, 91, 98
Nō dances, 228, 233
Nobility, new orders of, 92, 113, 114
Nobles’ School, 123, 211
Nobunaga, persecutor of Buddhists, 91, 99
Nodzu, General, 313, 315
Nogi, General, 313, 316, 340
Norimono, see Sedan-chair
Normal schools, 211, 216, 400
Norman, Henry, 56, 57, 69, 152, 158, 174, 202
Noss, Christopher, 208
“Notes on Shippo,” 235
“Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan,” 43
Novik, sinking of, 315
Nunobiki waterfall, 9
Nuts, 55
Nuttall’s “Standard Dictionary,” 205

O
Oak trees, 12
Oatmeal, 37
Occidentalization, 69
“Occult Japan,” 249
Ocean currents, 11, 14
Officials, 26, 48
Ōhashi, Mr., 220
Oil, 23, 36, 41, 42;
industry, 364-365
Ōjin, 90, 96
Okakura, Kakasu, 117, 224, 235, 304, 328
Okayama, 215
Oku, General, 313, 315
Ōkuma, Count, 119, 130, 154, 215, 218, 333, 381, 402
Olcott, Colonel, 253
Omaha, 37
Omnibus, 34
Onions, 19
Onohama, 355
Onsen, 8
Oöka, 159
“Open door,” 310, 322
Opium, 144, 170
Oranges, 19, 351, 352
Orchestras, 67-69
Oregon, 14, 106
“Orient, The Spirit of the,” 304
Oriental Steamship Company, 23, 35
“Ornamental Arts of Japan,” 235
Ōsaka, 9, 21, 39, 92, 110, 148, 149, 186, 355, 364, 402, 406;
“Ōsaka Asahi Shimbun,” 202;
Exhibition, 24, 356-358;
Gas Company, 36;
“Ōsaka Mainichi Shimbun,” 202;
Merchant Steamship Company, 34, 295;
Missionary Conference, Proceedings, 276;
Shōsen Kwaisha, 34, 295
Oshū, 45
Ota ware, 229
“Othello,” 68
Ōuchi, Mr., 322
“Out of the Far East,” 190
Outcasts, 283;
admitted to citizenship, 91, 110, 112
“Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye, An,” 235
“Outlook, The,” 309, 328
Owari ware, 229
Oxen, 13; ox-carts, 29, 31
Ōyama, Marquis, 150, 321
Ozaki, Mme., 70

Pacific Ocean, 1-3, 6, 14, 299, 301

Pack-horses, 29, 31
“Painters of Japan, the,” 235
Painting, 225-227;
collections in America, 225
Palanquin, 30
Palmer, Frederick, 328
Pantomime, 68
Paper-making, 24;
mills, 286
Paper money, 39
“Paradise of the East,” 290
“Party Cabinet,” first, 115
Paulownia, 409
Peace, articles of, 318-320
Peace commissioners, 318;
conference by, 318
“Peace Preservation Act,” 113, 114
Peace Resolutions, 335
Peace Society, 333
Peach trees, 13;
blossoms, 410;
peaches, 19, 351, 352
Peanuts, 19
Pears, 19, 351, 352
Peas, 19, 37
Peeresses’ School, 188, 211
Peery, R. B., 15, 89, 249, 276
Peking, 115, 296, 297, 301
Penal Code, 113
People, 44-59;
see also Characteristics of the people
Perry, Commodore, 102, 103, 105-107, 116;
anniversary of treaty, 314;
Memorial Relief Fund, 314;
expedition, 91, 117
Persimmons, 19, 351
Pescadores Islands, 5, 413
Petroleum, 37, 365
“Petropavlovsk,” sinking of, 314
“Phaethon” (British), 104
Philippine Islands, 3, 14, 15, 291, 299
Phillips, Fs. C., 205
Phœnicia, 300
Physiographical advantages, 291
Physiography, 1-15
Pickles, 37
Pickpockets’ guild, 27
“Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” 235
Piggott, F. T., 22, 236
Pine, 12, 409, 410
Pisciculture, 24
Plague, 10, 413
Plasterers’ guild, 27
Plum trees, 13;
blossoms, 65, 79, 408, 409, 410;
plums, 19, 351, 352
Poetry, 192, 198-200, 225, 226, 231, 232, 407
Policemen, 162, 163
“Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of Chinese,” 296
“Political Development of Japan (1867-1909), The,” 132
“Political Ideas of Modern Japan, The,” 132
Political parties, 113, 114, 130, 376-381
“Political Science Quarterly,” 145
Pomegranate, 351
Population, 7, 366
Porcelain, 24, 37, 228-229
Pork, 54
Port Arthur, 307, 309, 311, 313, 315, 316
Portland, Oregon, 2
Ports, opening of, 91
Portsmouth, N. H., peace conference at, 318
Portuguese, 20, 91, 99
Postage, letter, 35, 36
Postal system, 31, 35, 91, 110, 111;
postal savings, 35, 362-364
Potatoes, 19, 26
Pottery, 24, 228-229;
“Father of Pottery,” 229
Poultry, 24
“Powers, Great,” 146, 307, 308
“Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing,” 208
“Preble” (United States), 105
Prefectural assemblies, 92, 111-114
Prehistoric period, 90
Presbyterians, 264, 272, 404, 405
Presents, 60
Press, freedom of the, 92, 115, 116, 201
Printers’ union, 27
Prison system, 165, 166;
officials, school for, 168;
 treatment of prisoners, 321
Privy council, 92, 113, 124
Professional schools, 218
“Progress of Japan, 1853-1871, The,” 117
Pronunciation, xvii
Prophecy, 288
Proverb, a Japanese, 46
Provinces and Prefectures, 345, 347
Prussian voting system, 141

R
Radicals, dissatisfaction of, 113, 114
Radish, 19
Railroad, first, 91, 110;
fare, 33;
carriages, 37;
engineers’ union, 27;
workmen’s union, 27
Railroads, 31-33, 282, 294, 333, 360-362, 367
Rainy seasons, 11
Ransome, Stafford, 28, 145, 158, 291
Rathgen, Dr. Karl, 17
Rats, 10, 13
“Real Japan, The,” 56, 57, 69, 152, 158, 174, 190, 202
“Real Triumph of Japan, The,” 158
Red Cross Society, 188, 269, 270, 280, 321
Reform School, 168
Reform work, 271
Registration, system of, 168, 169
Rein, J. J., 15, 22, 28, 46, 59, 75, 85, 89, 208, 231, 235, 249
Religion, 172, 173, 237-276
“Religion in Japan, Development of,” 249, 261
Religions, Bureau of, 243
“Religions of Japan, The,” 242, 249, 257, 276
Remmon-kyō, 259
Remsen, Ira, 205
Resanoff, 104
“Rescue homes,” 168
Resident (jūmin), 138, 139
Resources, 41, 42, 340
Restoration, 108, 110, 118, 144, 210, 242
Revolutionary war, 91
Rice, 18, 19, 26, 37, 54, 56, 169, 351
Richardson affair, 91, 107, 108
Rifles, 85
Ritter, H., 276
Rivers, 9
Roman Catholic, 264, 404-406
Roosevelt, President, 318
Rosen, Baron, 318
Roses, War of the, 99
Rowing, 66
“Rurik,” loss of, 314
Russia, 4, 14, 36, 145, 263, 285, 294, 295;
and Japan, 299, 300, 307-328
“Russia, The Tragedy of,” 328
Russian aggressions, 155, 157
Russian Church, 406
Russian epidemic, 10
Russian language, 285
“Russo-Japanese Conflict, The,” 328
Russo-Japanese convention, 333
Russo-Japanese war, 307-327, 331, 332, 336
Ryūkyū Islands, see Loo Choo Islands

S
Sada, Empress, 123, 188, 211
Saga rebellion, 91, 111
Saikaidō, 6
Saionji, Marquis, 402;
cabinet, 332, 336, 340
“Saiseikwai” Society, 338
Sake, 24, 55
Sakhalin traded off for Kurile Islands, 111;
indemnity from Russia, 331
Salisburia, or Ginko, 351
Salt, 23
Salvation Army, 168, 264, 271
Samurai, or Knight, 283
San Diego, 2, 3
San Francisco, 2, 3, 35, 37
Sanindō, 6
Sanskrit, 211, 285
Sanyō Railway Company, 33
Sanyōdō, 6
Sapporo Agricultural College, 216
“Saramang” (British), 105
Saseho, 150, 311
Satin, 37
Satow, Sir Ernest, 22, 117, 241, 249
Satsuma, Prince of, 108
Satsuma rebellion, 91, 111
Satsuma ware, 229
Sawyers’ guilds, 27
Saxons, 93
Scandinavian Alliance, 264
Scherer, J. A. B., 15, 43, 117, 158, 221, 261
Schools, 210-212, 214-218;
statistics, 399-401;
see also Academy of Music, Fine Arts School, Foreign Language School,
Kindergartens, Mission, Nobles’, Normal, Peeresses’, Professional,
and Technical schools, Sapporo Agricultural College, University for
Women, and University, Imperial
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 204
Scidmore, Miss E. R., 15, 20, 43, 56, 75, 123, 236, 328
“Scribner’s Monthly,” 87, 132
Scripture Union, 271
Sculptors, 228
Sea of Japan, battle of, 318
Seaman, Louis L., Major, 158, 328
Seattle, Washington, 2, 35, 355
Seaweed, 55
Second Army, 313
Sedan-chair, 30
Seidlitz, 235
Seifu ware, 228
Sei-i-Tai-Shōgun, 98
Seismology, 15, 216
“Seiyō Kibun,” 210
Sekigahara, 91, 100
Senate, 91, 111, 119
Sendai, 148, 215, 332
Seoul, 311, 312
Seto ware, 229
Setonouchi, see Inland Sea
Setouchi, see Inland Sea
“Seven grasses,” 410
Seventh-Day Adventists, 264
Shaho River, battle of, 315;
skirmishes on, 317
“Shakai Zasshi,” 18
Shanghai, China, 298, 355
Sheep, 13
Shibata, Mr., 323
Shibusawa, Baron, 39, 82
Shigemi, 75, 221
Shikoku, 5, 10, 12
Shimada, Mr., 274
Shimoda 107
Shimonoseki, and Straits of, 32, 91, 107, 108
Shin sect, 253, 255, 256
Shinano river, 9
Shinchiku, Formosa, 412
Shingon sect, 253, 254
“Shinshiu,” 255
Shintō, 48, 50, 62, 68, 94, 177, 224, 237-249, 250, 251, 254, 259, 260, 288,
340;
periodicals, 203;
shrines, 166, 240, 243, 244;
temples, 65, 238
“Shinto: the Way of the Gods,” 249
Shinyeisho, Formosa, 412
Shioya, S., 75, 221
Ship-building, 23, 24, 354-356
Ship-carpenters’ union, 27
Shippō, 230, 235
Shirane, 8
Shirozaemon, 229
Shizuoka, 280
Shōgunate, 91, 98, 99, 108-110
Shops, shopkeepers, shopping, 25-26
Shōtoku Taishi, 90, 96
Shrines, Bureau of, 243
Shunsho, 227
Siam, 4, 299;
and Japan, 298, 410-411
Siberia, 4, 14, 34
Siberia railway, 291, 309
Sick poor, relief of, 338
Silk, 17, 20, 21, 37, 41;
silkworms, 20
Silver, 23, 41, 42
Simmons, Dr., 133
Simplicity of life, 78-81
Singapore, 355
Sin-tek, Formosa, 413
“Sketches of Tōkyō Life,” 74
Sleeping-cars, 33
Smallpox, 10, 220, 413
Smelt-fishing, 22
Smoking, 20
Snakes, 13
Soap, 37
Social evil, 166-168
Social settlement, 28
Socialism, 28
Society, classes of, 48-49, 282, 283
Soldiers, 30, 82, 283
“Solomon, Japanese,” 159
Soma ware, 229
Sone, Viscount, 337
“Soul of the Far East,” 26, 50, 89, 195, 239, 249
Soups, 55
South Pacific Islands, 45
Soy, 24, 55
Spanish, 285
Spencer, D. S., 404
Spencer, Herbert, 206
Spokane Falls, Washington, 37
Spring, Japanese, 12
Springs, hot, mineral, 8, 59
Stage, 31, 34, 281
“Standard, The,” Chicago, 237
Standard Oil Company, 36
Star Vega, Festival of the, 64, 65
Stature of Japanese, 47
Steamboats, 31, 281
Steam-car, 281
Steamers, 37;
companies, 34;
lines, 2, 3;
steamships, 286
Steel, 37
Stevenson, R. L., 204
Stoicism, 81
Stonemasons’ guild, 27
Stores, see Shops
“Story of Japan, The,” 15, 59, 94, 132, 263
“Story of Old Japan, The,” 101
Strange, E. F., 235
Strawberries, 19
Street-car conductors, wages, 26;
drivers, 26
Stroessel, General, 316
Students’ Standard Dictionary, 205
Sugar-raising, 24
Sugawara, 91
Suiko, Empress, 96
“Sūjin, the Civilizer,” 90, 95
Sulphur, 23
Sumac tree, 230
“Summary of Japanese Penal Codes,” 174
Summer, Japanese, 12
Sunday-school, National Association, 334
Sunday-school picnics, 66
Sun-goddess, 90, 95, 248, 259
“Sunrise Kingdom, The,” 5
“Sunrise in the Sunrise Kingdom,” 276
Superiors, obedience to, 49, 50
Superstitions, 70-75
“Superstitious Japan,” 73
Suyematsu, Baron, 120
Swords, 24, 48, 230

T
Tacoma, Washington, 2
Taft, W. H., 334
Taggart’s “Cotton Spinning,” 205
Taihoku, Formosa, 412
Taikwa Reformation, 370
Tainan-fu, Formosa, 412
Taine’s “English Literature,” 206
Taira supremacy, 91, 98
Taisho Era, 339
“Taiyō,” 291, 293, 368
Takahashi, K., 290
Takahira, Minister, 318
Takekoshi, 145
Take-no-uchi, 90, 96
Takow, Formosa, 412, 413
Takushan, 313
“Tales of Old Japan,” 70, 75, 261
Tamsui, Formosa, 412
Tamura, N., 61
Tanners, 48
Tariff, 92, 108, 115, 116, 170
Tartars, 98; armada, 91
Tax, land, 18, 49, 139, 169;
business, 169;
house, 169, 170;
income, 169
Taxation, 48, 142, 150, 169
Tea, 19, 20, 26, 37, 41, 55;
ceremonial, 99, 233
Teachers’ Institutes, 219, 220
Technical schools, 211, 216, 400
Telegraph, 31, 91, 110, 282, 294, 367, 413
Telephone, 31, 33, 34, 282, 413
Telissu, 313
Temperament, 87-89
Tempō era, 370
Tendai sect, 253, 254
Tennis, 66
Tennyson, Alfred, 204
Tenrikyō, 259
Tenryu-gawa, river, 9
Terauchi, Gen., 339
Terry, Prof., 161
Teru, Prince, 123
“Text-book of Colloquial Japanese,” 208
Theatre, 66-68
Thibet, 301
“Things Japanese,” 161, 199, 256
Third Army, 313
“30th year” (of Meiji) rifle, 149
Thomson, Elihu, 205
“Three Provinces,” 310
Tidal wave, 115
“Tidings from Japan,” 404
Tiehling, occupation of, 317
“Time, Land of Approximate,” 83
Tin, 23
Tobacco, 17, 19, 20;
sale of, to minors, prohibited, 271
Togo, Admiral, 311, 315, 316, 318
Tōkaidō, 6
Tokonami, Mr., 339
Tokugawa Dynasty, 91, 100, 101, 110, 280
Tokuno, 235
Tōkyō, 21, 26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 47, 91, 92, 110, 111, 114, 139, 148, 149,
166, 168, 186, 201, 215-217, 220, 230, 270, 276, 280, 282, 285, 286, 322,
334, 336, 360, 361, 364, 370, 402, 406, 410
Tōkyō Bay, 314
Tōkyō Missionary Conference, Proceedings, 276
Toledo blades, 230
Tolstoi, Leo, 204
Tomeoka, 168
Tomotada, 228
Tone river, 9
Torpedo-boats, 311
Tōsandō, 6
Tōyō Kisen Kwaisha, 23, 35
Toyokuni, 227
Trade Unions, 27, 28
Traits, 46-50, 76-89
Transportation, travel, 29-43, 281
Treaties, new, 92;
with foreign nations, 91;
of-alliance between Japan and Korea, 312;
of commerce and navigation between Japan and the United States, 385-
399;
of Portsmouth between Japan and Russia, 331, 333;
new, with United States, 338
Treaty-Making, Period of, 104, 106-107
Tree peony, 409
Trees, see names of trees
Trials, 164
Tri-Religion Conference, 339
Troup, James, 255
Trusteeship, system of, 41
Turnips, 19
“Twain, Mark,” 204
Twentieth Century Japan, 267, 277-288
“203-metre Hill,” 316
Type Foundry, Tsukiji, Tōkyō, 285, 286
Typhoons, 10, 11, 88

U
Uchimura, 265, 300
Uhlhorn, Gerhard, 275
Uji, 19
Ukita, K., 293
Umé Tsuda, Miss, 186
“Unabridged Japanese English Dictionary,” 208
United States, 2, 3, 7, 14, 36, 37, 85, 157, 186, 200, 291, 293, 299, 308, 310,
317, 335, 336, 338;
President of the, 102, 106;
treaties between, and Japan, 338, 385-399
Universalists, 264
University, Imperial, 23, 91, 165, 166;
at Kyōto, 211, 215;
at Tōkyō, 110, 210, 215, 216, 221
University for Women, 186, 188, 211, 401-403
Uraga, 102, 106, 355;
dockyard, 23
Urami waterfall, 9
Uriu, Admiral, 311, 316
Utamaro, 227
Utsumi, Baron, 402
Uychara, G. E., 132
Uyeno, 381

V
Vaccination, 413
Vancouver, 2
“Various impressions,” 45
Vegetables, see names of vegetables
Vehicles, 30
“Verbeck of Japan,” 117, 276
Verestchagin, death of, 314
Vergil, 304
Vessels, 367
Vladivostock, 33, 315;
squadron of, 314
Volcanoes, 8
Von Siebold, Dr., 105

W
Wadō era, 370
Wages and incomes, 26, 27, 358-360
Wakayama, 17
Walker’s “Political Economy,” 206
War indemnity, 319, 331
War, Russo-Japanese, 307-327
Warships, 150, 151, 383
Waseda, 215
Washington, 14; D. C., 157
Watanabe, Viscount, 43, 333
Watson, 304
Wealth of Japan, 369-370
Weasels, 13
Weaving, 24
Webster’s Dictionaries, 205
Weddings, see Marriage
“Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 60, 75, 221
Weight and Measure, Table of, 347-350
Weights, comparative, of Japanese and European men, 47
Weihaiwei, battle of, 150
Wheat, 19; cracked, 37
“When I was a Boy in Japan,” 75, 221
Whistler, J. A. M., 223
“White Peril in the Far East, The,” 117, 304, 328
Wigmore, Prof., 132-134, 145, 159, 160
William II. of Holland, 105
Willow, 409
Wine, 56
Winter, Japanese, 12
Wistaria, 65, 409, 410
“With Kuroki in Manchuria,” 328
Witnesses, 164
Witte, Sergius, Count, 318
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 168, 264, 270, 271
Women, 175-190, 286;
Japanese and American, contrasted, 81;
legal position of, 178-182;
education of, 183, 185, 186, 188, 401-403;
employment for, 183, 188, 270
Wool, 37
Woollen mills, 286
World’s Student Christian Federation, 334
Wrestling, 66;
wrestler’s guild, 27
Writing, art of, introduced, 92, 94, 96
Wuchang, China, 297

X
Xavier, Francis, 91, 99, 262

Y
Yalu, battle of, 150
Yalu River, battle of, 313
Yamada, 117, 158, 283
Yamagata, Isoh, 276
Yamagata, Marquis, 150, 321
Yamaguchi, 215
Yamamoto, Count, 375, 340
Yamath, Yamato, 46
Yamato-Dake, Prince, 90, 95
Yangtze Kiang river, 14, 295
“Yankees of the East, The,” 28, 43, 56, 66, 123, 132, 174, 190
Year Periods, 370-373
Yedo (now Tōkyō), 91, 100, 106, 110, 280, 282; Bay, 102, 104, 105
“Yellow Peril,” 321
Yezo, 5, 9, 12, 16, 32, 44, 104, 106, 110, 162;
see also Hokkaidō
Yinkow, 315
Yi Tchi Yong, Major-General, 312
Yokohama, 2, 3, 9, 14, 28, 91, 107, 165, 166, 201, 360, 361, 364;
Athletic Association, 66;
Specie Bank, 38, 170
Yokosuka, 150
Yoritomo, 91, 98
“Yoshino,” sinking of, 314
Yoshihito, Emperor, 339
Yoshitsune, 91, 98
“Young Japan,” 117, 221
Young Men’s Buddhist Association, 256
Young Men’s Christian Association, 256, 264, 270;
Perry celebration in Tōkyō rooms of, 314;
work at Antung, 324;
providing teachers, 340
Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, 265, 271
Young Women’s Christian Association, 270
Yuzu Nembutsu sect, 254

Z
Zen sect, 253-255
Zola, Émile, 204
 FOOTNOTES:

1 Miss Bacon, in “Japanese Girls and Women.”

2 Fifth edition.
3 Twelfth edition.
4 If any are inclined to delve still more deeply into any of these topics, they will
find farther references in the books in the lists, especially in “Things Japanese.” And
the most complete treatment of this subject is found in Wenckstern’s “Bibliography of
Japan.” Poole’s Index is also valuable.
5 Including half of Sakhalin, but not Korea.
6 Another design shows the sun’s rays shooting out from the sun in the centre.
7 24° 14´-45° 30´ N.
8 There is a Tōkyō Shi, for instance, in Tōkyō Fu. See Appendix for lists of Kuni
and Ken.
9 Except Korea.
10 Niitaka, or Mt. Morrison, in Formosa, is about 13,000 feet high.
11 Kawa, or gawa in composition, means “river.”
12 See also meteorological tables in Appendix.
13 This quotation is from Murray’s “Hand-Book for Japan” by Chamberlain and
Mason. The Introduction of that book contains most valuable practical information for
prospective travellers in Japan.
14 See Appendix.
15 See tables of measurement and coinage, in Appendix.
16 See “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), chap. xiii.
17 The “Shakai Zasshi” has the following on the decrease of farmers: The causes of
the phenomenon, briefly stated, are as below: (1) The current methods of farming
require no intelligence in the farmer. He works very much like an animal in a purely
mechanical fashion. Hence lads with minds are attracted to trade and industry. (2) The
universality of education has increased the number of intelligent men among the lower
classes, and this has made farmers discontented with their lot. (3) City life offers many
attractions to active-minded persons; and hence in Japan, as in the Western world,
there has been a steady flow of country people towards the towns. The statistics
published on this matter show, that, whereas in 1889 the proportion of townspeople to
the total number of inhabitants was 15 in every 100 persons, in 1898 it has risen to 18.
This accounts for the scarcity of farm labor, which has constantly been complained of
in recent years.—Japan Mail.
18 See tables in Appendix.
19 See Appendix.
20 See tables of weights and measures in Appendix.
21 Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chap. xxxv., and Gribble’s paper in
Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xii. pp. 1-33.
 22 Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chaps. xxvi., xxvii.
23 See Davidson’s “Island of Formosa.”
24 See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. i., for an interesting paper by
Charles Holme, and Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxvii., for an elaborate
and finely illustrated paper by Sir Ernest Satow, on “Bamboo.”
25 See Appendix.
26 Japan Times. See also Appendix.
27 See also chapter on “Æsthetic Japan.”
28 Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” pp. 114-117.
29 The Yankees of the East (Curtis), chap. xii. Also see Appendix.
30 “Unlike ordinary laborers jinrikisha men have always to work in the open air,
often in defiance of the elements, and irrespective of day or night. Sometimes they are
covered from head to foot with dust and at other times drenched to the skin with
water. Then again they experience a constant change in their bodily temperature, at
one time perspiring from their arduous exertions, and at another shivering with cold.
No one can doubt that such quick change in bodily temperature will sooner or later tell
on the health of those unfortunate victims. At every street corner they are to be found
on the eager look-out for customers, but exhaustion soon asserts its claim over them,
as they invariably doze whenever and wherever they have the chance.”
31 See Appendix, for important railway statistics.
32 Japan is also in cable communication with the rest of the world via Hongkong,
or Vladivostock, or Manila, or Honolulu; and press rates are available.
33 It should be pronounced Mah-ro͝o, not Mă-roo´.
34 See Appendix.
35 See Appendix.
36 See table in Appendix. In 1912 the exports footed up $262,000,000, and the
imports $309,000,000.
37 See Hamaoka’s pamphlet on “The Bank of Japan.”
38 For tables of currency, weights, measures, etc., see Appendix.
39 See “Japan and America” for June and July, 1903; also consult Diosy’s “New
Far East,” chap. vi.
40 See “Japan and America” for June and July, 1903.
41 “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” by Miss Bird (now Mrs. Bishop), is interesting and
reliable in its treatment of the Ainu of that day. Chamberlain also has written on the
“Ainos.” The best single book is, of course, “The Ainu of Japan,” by Rev. J.
Batchelor, the leading authority, who has also written a book on “Ainu Folk-lore.”
42 “Various Impressions” is the title of an address delivered at a meeting of the
Imperial Education Society by Dr. Nitobe, reported very fully in the Kyōiku Kōhō. Dr.
Nitobe gave an account of his travels in the South Pacific. He visited Java, many other
islands, and Australia. At Java he felt persuaded that an eminent French ethnologist
who not long ago said that, as the result of much investigation, he had come to the
conclusion that the Japanese race was 6/10 Malay, 3/10 Mongolian, and 1/10 mixed,
was right. Among the mixed elements there was an Aryan element, which came from
India, and a negrito element. “Now it is supposed,” says Dr. Nitobe, “that this negrito
element comes from the Javanese. It no longer shows itself in the Japanese in regard
to the form of the nose and that of the cheek-bones, but it is to be seen in the curly hair
of certain inhabitants of Kyūshiu. In Oshū, from which I come, this peculiarity is not
known. During my travels in the South Pacific Islands I was repeatedly struck by the
similarity of Malay customs to our own. In the structure of their houses even this was
very manifest.”—Japan Mail.
43 Dr. Baelz estimates the average stature at about 5 feet.
44 See also subsequent chapter on “Japanese Traits.”
45 His is simply a case of what is called “undeveloped moral consciousness.”
46 See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. ii., papers by Goh and Aston.
47 See Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” chap. ii.
48 Morse’s “Japanese Homes” is the one book on this subject.
49 Besides Morse’s “Japanese Homes,” Conder’s “Landscape-Gardening in Japan”
(Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiv., and in book form, illustrated), is very
valuable. An instructive short description of this subject may be found in chap. xvi.,
vol. ii., of Hearn’s “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”
50 For descriptions of Japanese meals or banquets, see Miss Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha
Days in Japan,” passim; “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), vol. ii. chap. xiv.; and
Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. i.
51 See Norman’s “Real Japan,” pp. 180-195.
52 For instance, “such an attire as Japanese clogs, flannel drawers, swallow-tail
coat, and opera hat” has been seen; and another witness testifies to the “oddest
mixtures of evening dress and bathing suits, naked legs with a blouse and a foreign
hat, high boots with a kimono, legs and head Asiatic with trunk European, or vice
versa, with endless combinations and variations.” There is a great variety, with all
kinds of fits and misfits.
53 Chamberlain.
54 “The Wee Ones of Japan,” by Mae St. John Bramhall, can be recommended.
55 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiii. pp. 114-137; and “A
Japanese Bride,” by Rev. N. Tamura, is admirable.
56 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 507-544.
57 See chap. xx. of Hearn’s “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”
58 See Appendix, and Clement’s “Japanese Floral Calendar.”
59 See chapter on “Children’s Games and Sports” in “The Mikado’s Empire.”
60 See chap. xx. of “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis).
61 See Hancock’s “Japanese Physical Training.”
62 On the subject of the Japanese theatre and drama, see McClatchie’s “Japanese
Plays” and Edwards’s “Japanese Plays and Playfellows.”
63 See Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. ix.
64 The best books on this subject are Mitford’s “Tales of Old Japan,” Miss
Ballard’s “Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” Griffis’s “Fire-Fly’s Lovers,” Mme. Ozaki’s
“Japanese Fairy Book,” and the series of crêpe booklets of “Japanese Fairy Tales,”
published by the Kobunsha, Tōkyō.
65 See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part.
i.
66 The sixty-first year of a person’s life is of special interest, because it is the first
of a second cycle of sixty years.
67 “The vast rice crop is raised on millions of tiny farms; the silk crop in millions
of small, poor homes; the tea crop on countless little patches of soil.”—LAFCADIO
HEARN.
68 The Japanese seem to have no nerves; or, at least, their nervous system is much
less sensitive than ours.
69 See Baron Shibusawa’s opinion, pp. 40-43.
70 But “the peasantry is, in the main, honest.”
71 See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part
i.
THE LAND OF APPROXIMATE TIME.

Here’s to the Land of Approximate Time!

Where nerves are a factor unknown,
Where acting as balm are manners calm,
And seeds of sweet patience are sown.

Where every clock runs as it happens to please,

And they never agree on their strikes;
Where even the sun often joins in the fun,
And rises whenever he likes.

—Jingles from Japan.

72 For particulars on this point, see chapter on “Æsthetic Japan.”
73 See “Scribner’s Monthly” for January, 1895.
74 Chamberlain’s English version is found in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan,
vol. x., Supplement.
75 Aston’s English version is found in Transactions Japan Society, London,
Supplement.
76 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xvi. pp. 39-75.
77 There are, indeed, many striking resemblances between “things Japanese” of
various kinds and the corresponding “things Græco-Roman.” See “Japanesque
Elements in ‘The Last Days of Pompeii’” in the “Arena” for October, 1896.
78 See Appendix, where will also be found a list of the year-periods, or eras.
79 His younger brother, Yoshitsune, was a popular hero.
80 See “The Religions of Japan” (Griffis), chap. xi.
81 Previously Portuguese, English, and others had enjoyed the privilege.
82 For lists of eras and emperors, see Appendix.
83 Or [VII. Cosmopolitanism (1899- )].
 84 Recommending to open Japan to foreign intercourse.
85 The following is what the Japanese themselves stated about this event: “The
letter of the President of the United States of North America, and copy, are hereby
received and delivered to the Emperor. Many times it has been communicated that
business relating to foreign countries cannot be transacted here at Uraga, but in
Nagasaki. Now, it has been observed that the Admiral, in his quality of ambassador of
the President, would be insulted by it; the justice of this has been acknowledged;
consequently, the above-mentioned letter is hereby received, in opposition to the
Japanese law.”
86 Dixon’s “Land of the Morning,” p. 97.
87 Iyenaga’s “Constitutional Development of Japan,” p. 33.
88 See Appendix for New Treaty.
89 Drawn up by the then Count (the late Prince) Itō, Mr., now Viscount, Kaneko
and Mr. Suyematsu (now Viscount), and others.
90 This and following quotations are from the Constitution itself.
91 See Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chaps. xi., xii.
92 See “The Yankees of the East,” chap. iii.
93 For table of Cabinet changes, see Appendix.
94 The number is variable; in 1912, it was 373. See Appendix.
95 The property qualification has since been abolished.
96 Published in the “Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science.”
97 See Appendix.
98 See valuable papers by Simmons and Wigmore in Transactions Asiatic Society
of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 37-270, and vol. xx., Supplement, part i., pp. 41-62.
99 See “Nation,” vol. li. (1890).
100 The sessions are generally very orderly; no smoking or drinking is allowed in
the assembly-room.
101 The principle of local self-government has been most signally upheld in one
instance by the Imperial Japanese government. Recently the Governor of Gumma
Prefecture, in the face of the public opinion of that section, gave permission for the re-
establishment of the system of licensed immorality. Inasmuch as the people of that
prefecture have always taken great pride in the fact that their section was an oasis in
the desert, they raised a great storm, and accused the Governor of having lent himself
to speculators. Whether or not this accusation was true, the Minister of Home Affairs
so far respected local opinion as to revoke the permission granted by the Governor
and to remove the latter from office.
102 Baron Kentarō Kaneko has been elected a member of the City Council (of
Tōkyō) as representative of the first-class tax-payers in Kōjimachi Ku. It may be
added that the Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company) is the only
first-class tax-payer in that ward, and the Baron secured the one vote.
103 See note at bottom of page 139.
104 “The Island of Formosa” (Davidson) is invaluable.
 105 See Appendix.
106 Quotations from Regulations.
107 For statistics and other information concerning the army and the navy, see
Appendix.
108 “The New Far East,” chap. vii.
109 “Any foreign power that should venture to attack Japan in her own waters,
would be strangely advised.”—CHAMBERLAIN.
110 See p. 104.
111 Renewed in 1905 and 1911.
112 “Japan, geographically to the mighty continent of Asia what Great Britain is to
the continent of Europe; Japan, an island people with all the strength, mental and
physical, that is the heritage of a nation cradled on the sea; Japan, by the necessities of
her environment compelled to appreciate the importance of sea-power; Japan, in short,
the Britain of the Orient.”—DIOSY.
113 The first alliance of a white nation and a yellow nation.
114 Several paragraphs are here republished, by permission, from “The Standard,”
Chicago.
115 See his voluminous work in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xx.,
Supplement.
116 These new codes are available in English, as follows: The Civil Code, by
Gubbins; the Civil Code and the Commercial Code, by Lönholm and Terry; the
Commercial Code, the Criminal Code, and the Code of Civil Procedure, in official
translations.
117 See “Japan in the Beginning of the Twentieth Century.”
118 But missionaries, as individuals, are able to unite in organizing a Japanese
corporation.
119 Portions of this chapter are reprinted by permission from the “American
Journal of Sociology,” March, 1903.
120 Chap. iv. on “People, Houses, Food, Dress.”
121 The Japanese mother-in-law is an awful tyrant; but it is always the wife’s
mother-in-law.
122 Since 1882 they have been upon the same basis.
123 These are composed of a large circle of relatives, and exercise autocratic
influence in most important questions.
124 The word “family” is here and hereinafter used in a technical sense, peculiar to
Japan, of a group of the same surname. In Old Japan the family was the social unit.
125 “A Japanese judge has ruled in a certain case that the wife is not obliged ‘to
obey the unreasonable demands of her husband.’ In this particular instance the man of
the house had told the wife to perform some disagreeable manual labor for him; she
refused, and he promptly divorced her. The wife appealed, and her plea was upheld by
the court. A very important precedent has been established, and this decision may lead
to a revolution in Japanese domestic life, in which, thanks to the courage of one
woman and the enlightening effect of American ideals, the Japanese wife need no
longer be her husband’s slave.”—Congregational Work.
126 It is interesting to note that after a marriage ceremony at one of the shrines at
Nikkō, the bridegroom and the bride were presented with a copy of Mr. Fukuzawa’s
work.
127 See Appendix.
128 Chicago Daily Record.
129 “H. M. the Empress gave a donation of 2,000 yen to the Women’s University
established by Mr. Jinzō Naruse. Prince Iwakura and Marquis Hachisuka will call at
the Imperial Palace in a day or two in order to express the gratitude of the university
for this munificent donation.”—Japan Times.
130 Her birthday on May 28 is annually observed by Christian women in special
services.
131 Arranged by the famous Buddhist priest, Kōbō Daishi.
132 Read from top to bottom and from left to right.
133 See “The Soul of the Far East,” pp. 78-109.
134 Translation by Prof. Clay MacCauley, Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan,
vol. xxvii.
135 From Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese.”
136 It is, however, only fair to state that Joseph Heco, who was probably the first
naturalized Japanese citizen of the United States, claims the same honor for his
“Kaigai Shimbun,” published in 1864 to give a summary of foreign news. See his
“Narrative of a Japanese,” vol. ii. pp. 53, 59.
137 See also Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. ii.
138 Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
139 Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
140 Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
141 Or “Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing.”
142 Noss’s Lange’s “Text-book of Colloquial Japanese” (1908) is very valuable.
143 The new “English-Japanese Dictionary of the Spoken Language” (1904) is
indispensable.
144 See chap. xxiii. of “Japan in History, Folk-lore and Art” (Griffis).
145 See “Chautauquan” for April, 1902.
146 For a statistical table of schools in the empire, see Appendix.
147 Official translation, revised.
148 This has recently secured the famous Max Müller Library.
149 “The Soul of the Far East,” p. 121.
 150 While it is possible and even probable that this movement may have begun
before the formal introduction of Buddhism from Korea in the year 552, our present
knowledge of the history of art in Japan anterior to that event is not sufficient to
warrant any definite assertion respecting it.
151 See “The Ideals of the East,” by Kakasu Okakura. London, 1903.
152 The principal collections of Japanese paintings in America are the Fenollosa
collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and that of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of
Detroit. A few fine works are owned by Mr. Henry O. Havemeyer, Mr. Howard
Mansfield, and Mr. C. D. Weldon, of New York; Mr. Denman Ross, Mr. Quincy A.
Shaw, and Mrs. John Gardner, of Boston; Mr. Charles J. Morse, of Uniontown, Pa.;
and Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, of Chicago. In England the most notable collections are
those of the British Museum and Mr. Arthur Morrison, of Loughton. There are also a
number of private collections in France and Germany.
153 A large portion of this chapter is reprinted, by permission, from “The
Standard,” Chicago.
154 “Shintō signifies character in the highest sense,—courage, courtesy, honor, and,
above all things, loyalty. The spirit of Shintō is the spirit of filial piety [Lat. pietas],
the zest of duty, the readiness to surrender life for a principle.... It is the docility of the
child; it is the sweetness of the Japanese woman.... It is religion—but religion
transmuted into hereditary moral impulse—religion transmuted into ethical instinct. It
is the whole emotional life of the race,—the Soul of Japan.”—HEARN.
155 “Shintō is the Japanese conception of the cosmos. It is a combination of the
worship of nature and of their own ancestors.... To the Japanese eye, the universe itself
took on the paternal look. Awe of their parents, which these people could comprehend,
lent explanation to dread of nature, which they could not. Quite cogently, to their
minds, the thunder and the typhoon, the sunshine and the earthquake, were the work
not only of anthropomorphic beings, but of beings ancestrally related to themselves.
In short, Shintō ... is simply the patriarchal principle projected without perspective
into the past, dilating with distance into deity.”
“Shintō is so Japanese it will not down. It is the faith of these people’s birthright,
not of their adoption. Its folk-lore is what they learned at the knee of the race-mother,
not what they were taught from abroad. Buddhist they are by virtue of belief; Shintō
by virtue of being.”—LOWELL, “The Soul of the Far East.”
156 The earliest sacred book. The ancient records.
157 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vols. xiv. and xvii., papers on
“Shinshiu” by Troup.
158 “Things Japanese.”
159 “The Religions of Japan.”
160 “Emotionally its tenets do not at bottom satisfy us Occidentals, flirt with them
as we may. Passivity is not our passion, preach it as we are prone to do each to his
neighbor. Scientifically, pessimism is foolishness, and impersonality a stage in
development from which we are emerging, not one into which we shall ever relapse.
As a dogma it is unfortunate, doing its devotee in the deeper sense no good, but it
becomes positively faulty when it leads to practical ignoring of the mine and thine,
and does other people harm.”—LOWELL.
161 See papers in vol. xxix., Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, by Lloyd and
Greene.
 162 See Cary’s article in “Andover Review,” June, 1889.
163 See Greene’s paper in vol. xxiii., Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan.
164 See Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” pp. 168, 169.
165 “The wicked sect called Christian is strictly prohibited. Suspected persons are
to be reported to the respective officials, and rewards will be given” (1868).
166 See also Murray’s “Story of Japan,” pp. 172-179, 240-268.
167 See Uchimura’s “Diary of a Japanese Convert.”
168 There is now a “Japan Tract Society.”
169 It is unfortunate that there are any missionaries, with more zeal than
knowledge, who seem to forget those wise words of Paul, the courageous, but tactful,
and therefore successful, preacher, in 1 Corinthians ix. 22. But most of the
missionaries, or the best of them, always bear in mind Christ’s own instructions in
Matthew x. 16.
170 It is no small matter for encouragement to Christian workers in Japan that it is
now possible to find among Japanese Christians three generations of believers; so that
the words of Paul in 2 Timothy i. 5 may be applied here: “Having been reminded of
the unfeigned faith that is in thee; which dwelt first in thy grandmother Lois and thy
mother Eunice.” The future of Christianity in Japan is insured when it begins to be
inherited.
171 See “An American Missionary in Japan,” pp. 259-262.
172 There are said to be 17,530 women employed in the factories and workshops of
Tōkyō alone.
173 “Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism.”
174 See “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada).
175 Mr. K. Takahashi, President of the Bank of Japan.
176 Rear-Admiral Kimotsuki in the “Taiyō” (Sun). See also chap. xiii. of “Japan in
Transition” (Ransome).
177 Editorial in the “Taiyō” (Sun).
178 Formerly of the Dōshisha. From the “Taiyō.”
179 Osaka Merchant Steamship Company.
180 “The Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of Chinese.”
181 “Chinese Recorder.”
182 Japan exports chiefly matches, lamps, and coal, and imports principally rice
and cotton-seed.
183 Uchimura’s “Japan and the Japanese.”
184 “Life of Sir Harry Parkes.”
185 Pages 299-300.
186 Baron Kaneko at Harvard University.
187 Captain Brinkley in “The Outlook.”
188 Captain Brinkley.
 189 Official.
190 The following is the authorized English text of the Protocol, signed at Seoul, on
February 23, 1904:—
Mr. Hayashi, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan, and Major-General Yi Tchi Yong, Minister of State for Foreign
Affairs ad interim of His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, being respectively duly
empowered for the purpose, have agreed upon the following Articles:—
ARTICLE I.—For the purpose of maintaining a permanent and solid friendship
between Japan and Korea and firmly establishing peace in the Far East, the Imperial
Government of Korea shall place full confidence in the Imperial Government of Japan
and adopt the advice of the latter in regard to improvements in administration.
ARTICLE II.—The Imperial Government of Japan shall in a spirit of firm friendship
insure the safety and repose of the Imperial House of Korea.
ARTICLE III.—The Imperial Government of Japan definitively guarantees the
independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire.
ARTICLE IV.—In case the welfare of the Imperial House of Korea or the territorial
integrity of Korea is endangered by aggression of a third Power or internal
disturbances, the Imperial Government of Japan shall immediately take such
necessary measures as the circumstances require, and in such cases the Imperial
Government of Korea shall give full facilities to promote the action of the Imperial
Japanese Government.
The Imperial Government of Japan may, for the attainment of the above-mentioned
object, occupy, when the circumstances require it, such places as may be necessary
from strategical points of view.
ARTICLE V.—The Governments of the two countries shall not in future, without
mutual consent, conclude with a third Power such an arrangement as may be contrary
to the principle of the present Protocol.
ARTICLE VI.—Details in connection with the present Protocol shall be arranged as
the circumstances may require, between the Representative of Japan and the Minister
of State for Foreign Affairs of Korea.
191 See Chapter XXI.
192 Pages 14 and 301.
193 Certainly the Japanese enjoy more social freedom and political privileges than
the subjects of the Czar. Intellectual liberty is not repressed in Japan as in Russia, and
freedom of assembly and of the press is permitted in Japan, but not in Russia. The
administration of law and justice in Japan is by far more humane than in Russia with
its Siberian horrors. Again, strongest of all, nominally non-Christian Japan grants
religious liberty, while nominally Christian Russia cruelly persecutes Jews and
Stundists. In fact, in what constitutes true greatness, Japan is superior to Russia.
194 It had established a record by holding office for four and one-half years, the
longest period of any Ministry since the establishment of constitutional government.
195 For text, see end of Appendix.
196 The word “Meiji” means “Enlightened Rule.”
197 From Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese.”
198 From “Japan and America.”
 199 From the “Japan Mail.”
200 From a Report by U. S. Consul-General Bellows, Yokohama.
201 From the “Japan Times.”
202 The first figures in each group represent the end of 1896, and the second
figures the end of 1900.
The grand total of operatives had increased in 1909 to 692,221—240,864 males and
451,357 females.
203 From a Report by U. S. Consul Lyon, Kōbe.
204 From “Japan and America,” by Walter J. Ballard. This account, with a few
changes, is retained because of the impressive witness it bears to the progress of
Japan. (Ed.)
205 With board.
206 From the “Japan Times,” revised.
207 From the “Japan Mail.”
208 In 1910, it was over 14,000,000 yen.
209 From the “Japan Mail.”
210 From official sources.
211 Beginning 660 B. C.
212 Northern Dynasty.
213 Southern Dynasty.
214 Empresses in Italics. Bracketed names (Nos. 15 and 99) are omitted from some
lists.
215 Go is a prefix signifying the second of the name.
216 From summary of “A Brief Sketch of the History of the Political Parties in
Japan,” by A. H. Lay, in the “Japan Mail.”
217 Professor Griffin, in discussion of Mr. Lay’s paper.
218 From the “Japan Times.”
219 From “The Real Triumph of Japan” (Seaman).
220 From the “Japan Mail.”
221 In 1910, it was more than 600,000 tons.
222 In 1908, it was more than 47,000 men.
223 From the “Japan Times.”
224 In 1910, it was more than 1,600,000 tons.
225 See also Elgar’s paper on “Japanese Shipping” in the Transactions Japan
Society, London.
226 From the “Japan Times.”
227 From 28th Annual Report of the Minister of State for Education.
228 Condensed from “The Chautauquan,” April, 1902.
229 From the “Japan Mail” and the “Japan Times.”
 230 Later statistics give respectively 83,638—66,689—32,246.
231 From the “Kōbe Herald.”
232 From the “Japan Mail.”
233 Completed in 1908.
234 U.S. Consul Davidson.
235 For details concerning what the Japanese have accomplished in Formosa, see
Takekoshi’s “Japanese Rule in Formosa.”
 Transcriber’s Notes:

The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the original, except for
apparent typographical errors which have been corrected.

There are references to both:

Woman’s Christian Temperance Union
and
Women’s Christian Temperance Union
These have been left as in the original.

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