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VECTORS Notes

The document discusses vectors and scalars, defining them and their properties. It describes how to represent vectors graphically and analytically, and how to perform vector addition and multiplication. It also covers vector and scalar fields, rectangular and unit vectors, and the dot product of vectors.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
48 views22 pages

VECTORS Notes

The document discusses vectors and scalars, defining them and their properties. It describes how to represent vectors graphically and analytically, and how to perform vector addition and multiplication. It also covers vector and scalar fields, rectangular and unit vectors, and the dot product of vectors.

Uploaded by

webstarwekesa88
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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VECTORS AND SCALARS

A VECTOR is a quantity having both magnitude and direction such as displacement,


velocity, force and acceleration. Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP
(Fig.l) defining the direction, the magnitude of the vector being indicated by the
length of the arrow. The tail end 0 of the arrow is called the origin or initial point of the
vector, and the head P is called the terminal point or terminus.
Analytically a vector is represented by a letter with an arrow over it, as → in Fig.1,
and its magnitude is denoted by | |or A. In printed works, bold faced type, such as A,
is used to indicate the vector A while| |or A indicates its magnitude.. The vector OP
is also indicated as → or OP; in such case we shall denote its magnitude
by| | ̅̅̅̅̅ |→ |

A SCALAR is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, e.g mass, length, time and
temperature Scalars are indicated by letters in ordinary type as in elementary algebra. Operations
with scalars follow the same rules as in elementary algebra.

VECTOR ALGEBRA The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the
algebra of numbers or scalars are, with suitable definition, capable of extension
to algebra of vectors. The following definitions are fundamental

1. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction
regardless of the position of their initial points. Thus A= B
2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector A but having the same
magnitude is denoted by –A
3. The sum or resultant of vectors A and B is a vector C formed by placing the initial
point of B on the terminal point of A and then joining the initial point of A to the
terminal point of B This sum is written A+B, i.e. C = A+B. The parallelogram law
for vector addition

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4. The difference of vectors A and B, represented by A -B, is that vector C which
added to B yields vector A. Equivalently, A- B can be defined as the sum A +
(-B).
If A = B, then A-B is defined as the null or zero vector and is represented by
the symbol 0 or simply 0. It has zero magnitude and no specific direction. A
vector which is not null is a proper vector.
5. The product of a vector A by a scalar m is a vector mA with magnitude| | times the
magnitude of A and with direction the same as or opposite to that of A, according as
m is positive or negative. If m = 0, mA is the null vector.
LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA. If A, B and C are vectors and m and n are
scalars, then
1. A+ B = B + A Commutative Law for Addition
2. A+ (B+C) _ (A+B) + C Associative Law for Addition
3. mA = Am Commutative Law for Multiplication
4. m (nA) _ (mn) A Associative Law for Multiplication
5. (m+ n) A = mA + nA Distributive Law
6. m (A+ B) = mA + mB Distributive Law
 These laws only multiplication of a vector by one or more scalars is used.
 These laws enable us to treat vector equations in the same way as ordinary
algebraic equations.For example, if A+B = C then by transposing A = C - B .

A UNIT VECTOR is a vector having unit magnitude, if A is a vector with magnitude


,then A/A is a unit vector having the same direction as A. Any vector A can be represented by
a unit vector a in the direction of A multiplied by the magnitude of A. In symbols, A = Aa.

THE RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTORS i, j, k. An important set of unit vectors are those
having the directions of the positive x, y, and z axes of a three dimensional rectangular
coordinate system, and are denoted respectively by i, j, and k . We use right-handed
rectangular coordinate systems unless otherwise stated.

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR. Any vector A in 3 dimensions can a represented with


initial point at the origin 0 of a rectangular coordinate system (Fig.). Let (Al, A2, A3) be the
rectangular coordinates of the terminal point of vector A with initial point at 0.

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The vectors Ali, A2j, and A3k are called the rectangular component vectors or simply
component vectors of A in the x, y and z directions respectively. A1, A2 and A3 are called the
rectangular components or simply components of A in the x, y and z directions respectively.
The sum or resultant of Ali, A2j, and A3k vector A so that we can writeA = A 1i + A2 j + A3 k

The magnitude of A is

In particular, the position vector or radius vector r from 0 to the point (x,y,z) is written

r = xi + yj + zk and has magnitude r

SCALAR FIELD. If to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space there corresponds a number
or scalar ( )then is called a scalar function of position or scalar point function and we
say that a scalar field φ has been defined in R. Example. The temperature at any point within
or on the earth's surface at a certain time defines a scalar field: ( )

 A scalar field which is independent of time is called a stationary or steady-state scalar


field

VECTOR FIELD. If to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space there corresponds a vector
V(x,y,z), then V is called a vector function of position or vector point function and we say
that a vector field V has been defined in R. Examples. if the velocity at any point (x,y,z)
within a moving fluid is known at a certain time, then a vector field is defined
V(x,y,z) = xy2i - 2yz3j + x2zk defines a vector field

 A vector field which is independent of time is called a stationary or steady-state vector


field
EXAMPLES
1. An automobile travels 3 miles due north, then 5 miles northeast. Represent these
displacements graphically and determine the resultant displacement (a) graphically,
(b) analytically.

Vector OP or A represents displacement of 3 mi due north. Vector PQ or B represents


displacement of 5 mi north east.

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Vector OQ or C represents the resultant displacement or sum of vectors A and B, i.e.
C = A+B. This, is the triangle law of vector addition.The resultant vector OQ can also be
obtained by constructing the diagonal of the parallelogram OPQR having vectors OP =A and
OR (equal to vector PQ or B) as sides. This is the parallelogram law of vector addition.

(a) Graphical Determination of Resultant. Lay off the 1 mile unit on vector OQ to find
the magnitude 7.4 mi (approximately).Angle EOQ=61.5°, using a protractor. Then vector OQ
has magnitude 7.4 mi and direction 61.5 ° north of east.

(b) Analytical Determination of Resultant. From triangle OPQ, denoting the magnitudes
of A, B. C by A, B, C, we have by the law of cosines

C 2 = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos OPQ = 32 + 52 - 2(3)(5) cos 135 ° = 34 + 15√ = 55.21

and C = 7.43 (approximately)

By the law of sines,

2. If r1 = 2i- j + k, r2 = i + 3j - 2k, r3 = -21+j--3k and r4= 3i+ 2j +5k, find scalars a,b,c
such that r4 = ar1+ br2 + cr3 .

We require 3i +2j + 5k = a(2i -j + k) + b(i + 3j -2k) + c(-2i +j -3k)

(2a +b -2c)i + (-a +3b +c)j + (a -2b -3c)k.

Since i, j, k are non-coplanar: 2a + b - 2c = 3, -a + 3b + c = 2, a -2b-3c = 5.

Solving, a = -2, b = 1, c = -3 and r4 = -2r1 + r 2- 3r3 .

The vector r4 is said to be linearly dependent on r1, r2,and r3 ; in other words r1, r2, r3 and r4
constitute a linearly dependent set of vectors. On the other hand any three (or fewer) of these
vectors are linearly independent.

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3. Find a unit vector parallel to the resultant of vectors r1 = 2i + 4j - 5k, r2 = i + 2j + 3k

4. Graph the vector fields defined by:


(a) V(x, y) = xi + yj , (b) V(x, y) = -xi – yj (c) V(x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk

(a) At each point (x, y), except (0, 0), of the xy plane there is defined a unique vector xi + yj
of magnitude having direction passing through the origin and outward from it. To
simplify graphing procedures, note that all vectors associated with points on the circles
x2+y2 = a2 a > 0 have magnitude a. The field therefore appears as in Figure (a) where
an appropriate scale is used.

(b) Here each vector is equal to but opposite in direction to the corresponding one in (a).
The field therefore appears as in Fig.(b).In Fig.(a) the field has the appearance of a fluid
emerging from a point source 0 and flowing in the directions indicated. For this reason
the field is called a source field and 0 is a source.
In Fig.(b) the field seems to be flowing toward 0, and the field is therefore called a sink
field and 0is a sink.
In three dimensions the corresponding interpretation is that a fluid is emerging
radially from (or proceeding radially toward) a line source (or line sink).
The vector field is called two dimensional since it is independent of z.
(b) Since the magnitude of each vector is x2 + y2 + z2 , all points on the sphere x2
+ y2 + z2 = a2, a > 0 have vectors of magnitude a associated with them. The field

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therefore takes on the appearance of that of a fluid emerging from source 0 and
proceeding in all directions in space. This is a three dimensional source field.

THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT


THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT of two vectors A and B, denoted by A dot B), is
defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine
of the angle ϴ between them. In symbols, A.B=AB cos ϴ
Note 'that A. B is a scalar and not a vector.
The following laws are valid:
1. A .B = B .A Commutative Law for Dot Products
2. A. (B + C) = A. B + A. C Distributive Law
3. m(A .B) = (mA). B = A .(mB) = (A .B)m, where m is a scalar.
4. i.i=j.j=k.k = 1, i.j=j.k=k.i = 0
5. If A = Ali + A2j + A3k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k, then
A.B=A1B1+A2B2+A3B3
A.A=A2 = A12+A22+A32
B . B = B2 = B12+ B2 2+ B32
5. If A.B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT of A and B is a vector C = AxB (read A


cross B). The magnitude of A x B is defined as the product of the magnitudes of
A and B and the sine of the angle 6between them. The direction of the vector C = A x
B is perpendicular to the plane of A and B and such that A, B and C form a right-
handed system. In symbols, AxB = ABsin ϴ u, 0≤ϴ ≤π where u is a unit vector
indicating the direction of A x B.
o If A = B, or if A is parallel to B, then sinϴ =0 and we define A xB = 0 .
The following laws are valid:
1. AXB= -BXA ( Commutative Law for Cross Products Fails.)
2. Ax (B + C) = AxB + Ax C Distributive Law
3. m(Ax B) = (mA) x B = Ax (mB) = (Ax B)m, where m is a scalar.
4. ixi = jxj = kxk = 0, ixj=k, jxk=i, kxi=j
5. If A = Ali + A2j + A3k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k, then

| |

6.The magnitude of AxB is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and
B
7. If Ax B = 0, and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.

EXAMPLES
1. Find the projection of the vector A = i - 2j + k on the vector B = 4i - 4j + 7k .

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2. Find the work done in moving an object along a vector r = 3i + 2j - 5k if the applied force
is F = 2i - j – k

3. Find an equation for the plane perpendicular to the vector A = 2i +3j + 6k and passing
through the terminal point of the vector B = i + 5j + 3k (see Fig.).

Let r be the position vector of point P, and Q the terminal point of B.


Since PQ = B -r is perpendicular to A, (B- r) .A = 0 or r .A = B .A is the required
equation of the plane in vector form. In rectangular form this becomes

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4. In question 3 above find the distance from the origin to the plane.

5. If A = 2i - 3j - k and B = i + 4j - 2k, find A x B

6. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A = 2i - 6j - 3k and B = 4i + 3j - k .

A x B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B .

7. A rigid body rotates about an axis through point 0 with angular speed ω. Prove that the
linear velocity v of a point P of the body with position vector r is given by v = , ω x r,
where ω is the vector with magnitude w whose direction is that in which a right-handed
screw would advance under the given rotation.

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8. A solid sphere is rotating with an angular velocity 30 r.p.m. about a fixed axis MN.
Position vectors of the points M and N of the sphere are i+2j+3k and 4i+5j+6k
respectively. There is an insect at a point 2i-2j+5k on the surface of the sphere. Calculate
the speed of the insect.

Angular velocity ω is an axial vector. Let it be along MN .

N-M=(4i+5j+6k)- (i+2j+3k)=3i+3j+3k

Position vector of the point P with respect to point M is r =P-M

(2i-2j+5k )-(i+2j+3k)=i-4j+2k

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Linear velocity of P is

VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION

A scalar or vector function of u is called differentiable of order n if its nth derivative exists. A
function which is differentiable is necessarily continuous but the converse is not true. Unless
otherwise stated we assume that all functions considered are differentiable to any order
needed in a particular discussion.

 Differentials of vectors follow rules similar to those of elementary calculus


Examples
1.

2.

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3.

4.

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Examples

1.

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2.

3.

4.
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In the given figure the point P acts as source

This is the continuity


equation for an incompressible fluid. Since fluid is neither created nor destroyed at any
point, it is said to have no sources or sinks

Examples
1.

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2.

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3.

THE CURL

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EXAMPLES
1.

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2. A vector V is called irrotational if curl V = 0 . Find constants a,b,c so that

b) Show that V can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function.

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