Principles of Internet

L.Hemalatha S.Abirami T.Thenmozhi

A.Poornima R.Sandhiya K.Suganya

AN Publications
No: 29,Moorthy Street,Balavinayagar nagar,
Tiruvallur-602001,
Tamilnadu,India
Title: Principles of Internet
ISBN: 978-81-959579-6-5
Authors: Ms.L.Hemalatha, Ms.S.Abirami, Ms.T.Thenmozhi ,Ms.A.Poornima
Ms.R.Sandhiya, Ms.K.Suganya
First published 2022 by AN PUBLICATIONS
No:29,Moorthy street,Balavinayagar Nagar,Tiruvallur-602001
Copyright © AN PUBLICATIONS
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise), without the prior written permission of the publisher.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information. It is sold under
the express understanding that any decisions or actions you take as a result of reading this book
must be based on your judgment and will be at your sole risk. The editor and publications will
not be held responsible for the consequences of any actions and/or decisions taken as a result of
any information given or recommendations made.
 L.Hemalatha
Head & Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science

S.Abirami
Head & Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Applications

T.Thenmozhi
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Applications

A.Poornima
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science

R.Sandhiya
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Applications

K.Suganya
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science
Marudhar Kesari Jain College for Women
Vaniyambadi – 635751, Tamil Nadu, India
 Table of Contents

Chapter -1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is Internet?
1.3 Evolution of Internet
1.4Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet
1.4.1 Advantages of Internet
1.4.2 Disadvantages of Internet
1.5 Information Travels across the Internet
1.6 How Data travels across the Internet?
1.7 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
1.7.1 Introduction
1.7.2 Internet Protocol (IP)
1.7.3 TCP/IP Vs OSI Model
1.8 TCP/IP Model Layers
1.9 Functions of TCP/IP Layers
1.10 Working of TCP/IP Protocol
1.11 Importance of TCP/IP
1.12 Uses of TCP/IP
1.13 Pros and Cons of TCP/IP
1.14 Understanding Internet Addresses and Domains
1.14.1 Introduction
1.14.2 What is IP Addresses?
1.15 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
1.16 Difference between Absolute and Relative URL
1.17 Understanding domains
1.18 Anatomy of Web Connections
1.18.1 Introduction
1.18.2 Internet File Types
1.18.3 Different File Types
1.19 Internet’s Underlying Architecture
1.19.1 Introduction
1.19.2 Domain Name System (DNS)
1.19.3 Domain Name System Architecture
1.19.4 How DNS Working?
1.20 Router
1.20.1 How does Router work?
1.20.2 Features of Router
1.20.3 Applications of Routers
1.20.4 Types of Routers
1.20.5 Benefits of Router
1.21 Difference between Bridge and Router
1.22 Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router
1.23 The Internet Client/Server Architecture
1.23.1 Introduction
1.23.2 Client/Server Architecture
Review Questions

Chapter -2
2.1 Connecting Your Computer
2.2 Types of Internet Connections- Wireless, Dial-up, DSL, Fiber, Cable, ISDN
2.3 Different Types of Internet Connections
2.4 Cable Internet Connection
2.5 Connecting to the Internet from Online Services
2.5.1 Connecting Using Wireless Broadband
2.5.2 Connecting Using an Ethernet Cable
2.5.3 Connecting a Computer Using Dial-Up
2.6 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
2.6.1 ISDN Services
2.7 Computer Networks
2.8 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
2.9 Communicating on the Internet
2.9.1 Email
2.9.2 E-Mail Address
2.9.3 E-mail Message Components
2.9.4 E-mail Header
2.9.5 Advantages
2.9.6 Disadvantages
2.10 Usenet and Newsgroups
2.10.1 Usenet (User Network)
2.10.2 Working of Usenet Newsgroup
2.10.3 Mailing list vs. Newsgroup
2.11 Internet Chat and Instant Messaging
2.11.1 Chatting on the Internet
2.12 History of Instant message
2.12.1 Using Instant Messaging
Review Questions

Chapter-3
3.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
3.2 WWW Architecture
3.3 Web Page
3.3.1 Static Web page
3.3.2 Dynamic Web page
3.4 Web Browser
3.4.1 Features of Web Browser
3.5 URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
3.6 Component of a Web Browser
3.7 Markup Languages vs. Programming Languages
3.8 Hyper Text Markup Language
3.9 eXtensible Markup Language
3.10 Standardized Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
3.11 Hypertext Markup Language
3.12 HTML Tags
3.13 Basic tags
3.14 Formatting Tags
3.15 Table Tags
3.16 List tags
3.17 Frames
3.18 Forms
3.19 Image Maps
3.20 Forms
3.21 Web Hosting
3.22 Web database definition
3.23 MySQL
3.24 Gopher
3.25 Telnet
3.26 Searching the internet
Review Questions

Chapter -4
4.1 Audio on the Internet
4.2 VIDEO on the internet
4.3 The <video> element
4.4 Contents of a media file
4.5 Intranet
4.6 Benefits of Intranet
4.7 Applications
Review Questions

Chapter -5
5.1 Motivation for Firewall
5.2 Firewalls
5.3 Working of Firewall
5.4 Advantages of Firewall
5.5 Disadvantages of Firewall
5.6 How does a firewall work?
5.7 Functions of Firewall
5.8 Limitations of Firewall
5.9 Types of Firewall
5.10 Difference between a Firewall and Anti-virus
5.11 Virus
5.12 Computer Virus
5.13 Trojan Virus
5.14 Worm Virus
5.15 Ransomware virus
5.16 Rootkit virus
5.17 Protection from Computer Virus
5.18 Digital Certificates
5.18.1 Types of Digital Certificate
5.19 Digital Certificate Standards
Review Questions
 Chapter-1
The Wired World of the Internet
1.1 Introduction
Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each
other and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect
billions of computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and
other wireless and networking technologies. At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending
or exchanging information and data between computers across the world. It is a network of
networks that consists of millions of private, public academic, business, and government
networks.

Fig -1.1: Networking

Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and servers

across the world using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other communication
devices and channels.
So, it can be considered a global network of physical cables such as copper telephone wires,
fiber optic cables, tv cables, etc. Furthermore, even wireless connections like 3G, 4G, or Wi-
Fi make use of these cables to access the Internet.
Internet is different from the World Wide Web as the World Wide Web is a network of
computers and servers created by connecting them through the internet.
So, the internet is the backbone of the web as it provides the technical infrastructure to
establish the WWW and acts as a medium to transmit information from one computer to
another computer.
It uses web browsers to display the information on the client, which it fetches from web
servers.
The internet is not owned by a single person or organization entirely. It is a concept based on
physical infrastructure that connects networks with other networks to create a global network
of billions of computers.

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 As of 12 August 2016, there were more than 300 crores of internet users across the world.

1.2 What is Internet?

Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web.
However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address
so that user can locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a
particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Fig. 1.2: Overview of Internet

1.3 Evolution of Internet

The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET).

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  ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of
government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different
countries and thus became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW,
browsers, scripting languages etc., Internet provided a medium to publish and access
information over the web.

1.4Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet

1.4.1 Advantages of Internet
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of the
advantages of Internet:

Figure 1.3 : Advantages of Internet

Online Booking & Orders

The Internet has made it a lot easier for people to book tickets for buses, trains, flights
(domestic and international) directly using their devices from anywhere. Besides, people can
order a wide variety of products at home using the Internet and devices.

Cashless Transactions
Most countries are promoting cashless transactions and digital payments. This helps people
notcarry much cash. People can pay their bills through debit or credit cards using POS devices.

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Education
The Internet has the availability of broad educational content on any topic with different types.
People can study the relevant topic just by spending a couple of minutes over the Internet.

Online Banking & Trading

With the help of online banking, people can securely transfer the money from one account to
another, change their ATM pins, apply for the physical or virtual credit cards, update credit card
limits, enable or disable international transactions, track their transactions, and many more. Also,
they can even raise an online complaint or contact to bank's support staff.

Research
The Internet is playing a significant role in the field of research. In research, people can study
about the success and failed research and work further for the improvements. Uses of the Internet
in research have incredibly beneficial for the researchers.

Electronic Mail
Email or electronic mail is one of the first significant uses of the Internet. The email has enabled
faster communication between people on the Internet. Using email, people can quickly share
information, data files, such as images, audio, video, and other types of files.

Job Search
Getting a job is a lot easier than before. Any person can view relevant job information using the
Internet. However, the Internet has enabled people to find employment sitting at home to suit
their interests. Many websites provide details about job availability. Once people submit their
resumes, these websites keep informing about vacancies through email

Social Networking
Social networking sites have connected people around the world. Social networking is an
essential part of the Internet. With the help of the Internet, people have got the ability to form
social groups where they can share information, thoughts and ideas about anything

Collaboration
Due to the Internet, communication has become easier and better. You can easily connect with
anyone on the Internet, either texting, calling or video calling. It has created new cooperation
opportunities for the people. Besides, there are many cloud-based software and websites that
offer people to work on the same project simultaneously at the same time. People from different
places can easily connect and support their specialties using the Internet.

Entertainment
The Internet is the most effective means of entertainment. There are various options available on
the Internet, which people can try, such as watching movies, playing online games, listening to
songs, etc. The Internet has also made it easy for people to download entertainment items to their
local storage. Using the Internet, people can also share their videos, songs, pictures online with
others. Also, nowadays, people can watch live TV or sports on the Internet.

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E-Commerce
The Internet is not just limited to ordering things; it can also be used to sell products. Many e-
commerce websites allow businesses and individuals to sell their products. Products are
purchased by these e-commerce companies, stored in their warehouses, packaged in their brand
packaging, and distributed by themselves.

File Transfer
The Internet has made file transfer between systems or devices easier. With FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), data can be securely exchanged over the Internet. FTP is mainly beneficial when large
files need to be transferred because email allows sharing files with limited size.

Navigation
Once a user put the location in the online maps (such as Google maps), it provides all the details
about that location. Users can even find the best route to visit that particular location. The map
also provides the distance between the locations. One can also search for any specific place like
the nearest hotel, restaurants, banks, ATM, etc.

Advertising
Because most people use the Internet, it is the best means of promoting something or advertising.
There are options for paid promotion as well as free promotion. There are many advertising
platforms on the Internet that help promote products or businesses online. These platforms
advertise products on other related websites using banners, videos, email etc.

Real-time updates
The Internet is helping people to keep up with what is happening around the world. Many news
and information websites provide real-time updates on various categories, such as politics,
history, news, geology, leisure, sports, technology, marketing, and more. The presence of e-
newspapers and magazines is updating people and helping to cut paper usage.
 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are
various apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication. One
can find various social networking sites such as:
o Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo, Google+, Flickr, Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various
topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information,
Information Technology, Products etc can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a medium for
entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment over internet.
• Online Television, Online Games, Songs, Videos, Social Networking Apps.
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
• Internet Banking, Matrimonial Services, Online Shopping, Online Ticket Booking,
Online Bill Payment, Data Sharing, E-mail.

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  Internet provides concept of electronic commerce that allows the business deals to be
conducted on electronic systems.

1.4.2 Disadvantages of Internet

However, Internet has proved to be a powerful source of information in almost every field, yet
there exists many disadvantages discussed below:

Fig-1.4 : Disadvantages of Internet

Thread to Personal Information

There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address, credit card
number. Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One should use
credit cards only through authenticated sites.

Spamming
Another disadvantage is the Spamming. Spamming corresponds to the unwanted e-mails in bulk.
These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire system.

Virus Attacks
Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus attacks may cause
your system to crash or your important data may get deleted.

Cyber Crime
There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads to
misconception among many people. Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are
many pornographic sites that can be found, letting your children to use internet which indirectly
affects the children healthy mental life.

Addiction, time-waster
If any person is spending much time on the Internet connected devices, he can be addicted to the
Internet. An Internet addictive person can lead to spending his precious time on the Internet,
rather than doing something productive. Thus, anyone who is addicted to surf the Internet can

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hamper workplace productivity as well.

Depression, loneliness, and social isolation

The Internet also becomes a reason lead to depression as many people tend to compare
their lives with others on social networking sites. Social networking sites provide users
the option to make thousands of friends and communicate with each other.

Although social networking sites can give you benefits to find new connections
all over theworld, you may find yourself disconnected from your real-life friends.

1.5 Information Travels across the Internet

Information is divided up, sent in chunks across the world and reassembled when it reaches its
destination. Data is divided up into packets. Data routes across the Internet can be switched to
avoid congestion. Entire mechanism is handled by the TCP/IP protocols.

 The Internet is based on packet-switched protocols. Information is carried in packets,

which can be imagined as small parcels being passed from computer to computer.
 Large chunks of data are usually broken up into several smaller packets before being sent
through the network. The delivery mechanism, or protocol, that is used to encode the
packet ensures safe transit, and provides a way of reconstructing the data when it reaches
its destination.
 The protocols used on the Internet are referred to as TCP/IP, standing for Transmission
Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
 As a switched network, the physical connections between computers do not matter as far
as Internet traffic is concerned — the protocols ensure that guaranteed information
delivery is more important than speed or use of a particular route.
 This means that a sequence of packets might arrive out of order, with some travelling
through the net by a faster, shorter route than others. TCP/IP provides the means for your
software to piece together those packets into meaningful data.
 The ability to take different routes through the network is a fundamental part of the
original design of TCP/IP, as it allows the Internet to route around damaged areas of the
network.

1.6 How Data travels across the Internet?

 Data travels across the internet in packets. Each packet can carry a maximum of 1,500
bytes. Around these packets is a wrapper with a header and a footer.
 The information contained in the wrapper tells computers what kind of data is in the
packet, how it fits together with other data, where the data came from and the data's final
destination.
 When you send an e-mail to someone, the message breaks up into packets that travel
across the network. Different packets from the same message don't have to follow the
same path. That's part of what makes the Internet so robust and fast.
 Packets will travel from one machine to another until they reach their destination. As the
packets arrive, the computer receiving the data assembles the packets like a puzzle,
recreating the message.

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  All data transfers across the Internet work on this principle. It helps networks manage
traffic -- if one pathway becomes clogged with traffic, packets can go through a different
route. This is different from the traditional phone system, which creates a dedicated
circuit through a series of switches.
 All information through the old analog phone system would pass back and forth between
a dedicated connection. If something happened to that connection, the call would end.
 That's not the case with traffic across IP networks. If one connection should fail, data can
travel across an alternate route. This works for individual networks and the Internet as a
whole.
 For instance, even if a packet doesn't make it to the destination, the machine receiving the
data can determine which packet is missing by referencing the other packets. It can send a
message to the machine sending the data to send it again, creating redundancy. This all
happens in the span of just a few milliseconds.
 If you're interested in switching to an IP convergence system, do some research first.
Many companies provide installation services. While an IP system is relatively easy to
maintain, it does require an up-front investment to put the system in place.

You'll need to outfit your organization with the proper servers, handsets, video conferencing
equipment and wiring to take full advantage of the system's capabilities.

The following steps are done through data travelling.

1. The Internet works by chopping data into chunks called packets. Each packet then moves
through the network in a series of hops.
2 Sender
3 Entering the network - Each packet hops to a local Internet service provider (ISP), a company
that offers access to the network -- usually for a fee.
4 Modem
5 Wireless Router
6 Taking flight - The next hop delivers the packet to a long-haul provider, one of the airlines of
cyberspace that quickly carrying data across the world.
7 BGP - These providers use the Border Gateway Protocol to find a route across the many
individual networks that together form the Internet.
8 Finding a route - This journey often takes several more hops, which are plotted out one by
one as the data packet moves across the Internet.
9 Bad information - For the system to work properly, the BGP information shared among
routers cannot contain lies or errors that might cause a packet to go off track – or get lost
altogether.
10 Arrival - The final hop takes a packet to the recipient, which reassembles all of the packets
into a coherent message. A separate message goes back through the network confirming
successful delivery.

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 Fig-1.5 : Data Travelling

1.7 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

1.7.1 Introduction
TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of communication
protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP can also be used as a
communications protocol in a private computer network (an intranet or an extranet).

1.7.2 Internet Protocol (IP)

 IP is a set of rules and procedures and it is commonly referred to as TCP/IP.
 TCP and IP are the two main protocols. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an
abstraction layer between internet applications and the routing/switching fabric.
 TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end
communications that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP requires little central
management, and it is designed to make networks reliable, with the ability to recover
automatically from the failure of any device on the network.
 The two main protocols in the Internet Protocol suite serve specific

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 functions. TCP defines how applications can create channels of communication across a
network. It also manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before they
are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the destination
address.
 IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right
destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to determine
where to forward the message.
 A subnet mask is what tells a computer, or other network device, what portion of the IP
address is used to represent the network and what part is used to represent hosts (other
computers) on the network.
 A Network Address Translator (NAT) is the virtualization of Internet Protocol addresses.
NAT helps improve security and decrease the number of IP addresses an organization
needs.
 Common protocols of TCP/IP include the following:
o HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) handles the communication between a web
server and a web browser.
o HTTPS (Secure HTTP) handles secure communication between a web server and
a web browser.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol) handles transmission of files between computers.

1.7.3 TCP/IP Vs OSI Model

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the research branch of the U.S.
Department of Defense, created the TCP/IP model in the 1970s for use in ARPANET, a wide
area network that preceded the internet. TCP/IP was originally designed for the Unix operating
system, and it has been built into all of the operating systems that came after it.

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 THE NETWORK STACK

OSI Model Internet Web

Model Browser

Application HTTP

Presentation Application SSL

Session Socket

Transport Host-to-host TCP

Network Internet IP

Data Link Network Network

Interface Interface
Physical

The functions performed in each model are also similar because each uses a network layer and
transport to operate. The TCP/IP and OSI models are each mostly used to transmit data packets.
Although they will do so by different means and by different paths, they will still reach their
destinations.

The similarities between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model include the following:
 They are both logical models.
 They define networking standards.
 They divide the network communication process in layers.
 They provide frameworks for creating and implementing networking standards and
devices.
 They enable one manufacturer to make devices and network components that can Coexist
and work with the devices and components made by other manufacturers.

The differences between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model include the following:
 TCP/IP uses just one layer (application) to define the functionalities of the upper layers,
while the OSI model uses three layers (application, presentation and session).
 The TCP/IP model uses one layer (link) to define the functionalities of the bottom layers,
while the OSI uses two layers (physical and data link).
 The TCP/IP model use the internet layer to define the routing standards and protocols,
while OSI uses the network layer.
 The TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes while the OSI header is 5 bytes.

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  The TCP/IP model is a protocol-oriented standard, whereas the OSI model is a generic
model based on the functionalities of each layer.
 TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach, while OSI follows a vertical approach.
 In the TCP/IP suite, the protocols were developed first, and then the model was
developed. In OSI, the model was developed first, and then the protocols in each layer
were developed.
 TCP/IP helps establish a connection between different types of computers, whereas the
OSI model helps standardize routers, switches, motherboards and other hardware.

1.8 TCP/IP Model Layers

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols:
 The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its
protocols include the HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). At the application
layer, the payload is the actual application data.

 The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across

the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control,
multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.

 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is
used for error reporting.

 The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer, consists
of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects
nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for
local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

1.9 Functions of TCP/IP Layers

Applications
TEL TF
SMTP FTP NET DNS SNMP NFS TP
Presentation
RPC
Session

Transport TCP UDP

Network

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Network Access Layer
 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

 IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of
the entireTCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.
The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by
the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled
to form an original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant

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 network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol
 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the
router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network. The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol and TransmissionControl Protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
 It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.

UDP consists of the following fields:

 Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program

14
 that has created the message.
 Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
 Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
 Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain
any ID of a data segment.

Variable
8 bytes

Header Data
Header Format
Source port Destination port
Address 16bits Address 16 bits

Total length Checksum

16 bits 16 bits

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
 At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.
 At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.

15
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

1.10 Working of TCP/IP Protocol

 TCP/IP uses the client-server model of communication in which a user or machine (a
client) is provided a service (like sending a webpage) by another computer (a server) in
the network.
 Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless, which means each
client request is considered new because it is unrelated to previous requests. Being
stateless frees up network paths so they can be used continuously.
 The transport layer itself, however, is stateful. It transmits a single message, and its
connection remains in place until all the packets in a message have been received and
reassembled at the destination.
 The TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) networking model designed after it. The OSI reference model defines how
applications can communicate over a network.

16
 Server
Client

SYN
Segment

Active Passive
Open Open
SYN+ACK
Segment

ACK
Segment

Figure 1.9 : Working of the TCP Protocol

1.11 Importance of TCP/IP
 TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company.
Therefore, the Internet Protocol suite can be modified easily.
 It is compatible with all operating systems, so it can communicate with any other system.
 The Internet Protocol suite is also compatible with all types of computer hardware and
networks.
 TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient
path through the network.
 It is widely used in current internet architecture.

1.12 Uses of TCP/IP

 TCP/IP can be used to provide remote login over the network, for interactive file transfer,
to deliver email, to deliver Web Pages over the network and to remotely access a server
host's file system.
 Most broadly, it is used to represent how information changes form as it travels over a
network, from the concrete physical layer to the abstract application layer.
 It details the basic protocols, or methods of communication at each layer as information
pass through.

1.13 Pros and Cons of TCP/IP

The advantages of using the TCP/IP model:
 Helps establish a connection between different types of computers;
 Works independently of the operating system;
 Supports many routing protocols;
 Has client-server architecture that is highly scalable;
 Can be operated independently;

17
  Supports several routing protocols; and
 Is lightweight and doesn't place unnecessary strain on a network or computer.

The disadvantages of using the TCP/IP model:

 Complicated to set up and manage;
 Transport layer doesn't guarantee delivery of packets;
 Not easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP;
 Doesn't clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces and protocols, so not good for
describing new technologies in new networks; and
 Especially vulnerable to a SYN (synchronization) attack, which is a type of denial-of-
service attack in which a bad actor uses TCP/IP protocol.

1.14 Understanding Internet Addresses and Domains

1.14.1 Introduction
IP is a network layer - it must be capable of providing communication between hosts on different
kinds of networks (different data-link implementations).
The address must include information about what network the receiving host is on. This makes
routing feasible.

1.14.2 What is IP Addresses?

IP address is a unique logical address assigned to a machine over the network. An IP address
exhibits the following properties:
 IP address is the unique address assigned to each host present on Internet.
 IP address is 32 bits (4 bytes) long.
 IP address consists of two components: network component and host component.
 Each of the 4 bytes is represented by a number from 0 to 255, separated with dots. For
example 137.170.4.124
 IP address is 32-bit number while on the other hand domain names are easy to remember
names. For example, when we enter an email address we always enter a symbolic string
such as [email protected]
 Includes a network ID and a host ID.
 Every host must have a unique IP address.
 IP addresses are assigned by a central authority (the NIC at SRI International).

Let's understand through a simple example.

 In the above figure, a router has three interfaces labeled as 1, 2 & 3 and each router
interface contains its own IP address.
 Each host contains its own interface and IP address.
 All the interfaces attached to the LAN 1 is having an IP address in the form of
223.1.1.xxx, and the interfaces attached to the LAN 2 and LAN 3 have an IP address in
the form of 223.1.2.xxx and 223.1.3.xxx respectively.
 Each IP address consists of two parts. The first part (first three bytes in IP address)
specifies the network and second part (last byte of an IP address) specifies the host in the
network.

18
 1.10 Example for IP Address

Formats of IP Addresses
The four formats of IP Addresses
Class A
 128 possible network IDs over
 4 million host IDs per network ID
Class B
 16K possible network IDs
 64K host IDs per network ID
Class C
 Over 2 million possible network IDs
 254 host IDs per network ID

Network and Host IDs

 A Network ID is assigned to an organization by a global authority.
 Host IDs are assigned locally by a system administrator.
 Both the Network ID and the Host ID are used for routing.

IP Address Representation
IP Addresses are usually shown in dotted decimal notation:
 00000001 00000010 00000011 00000100
 cs.williams.edu is 137.165.8.2
 10001001 10100101 00001000 00000010

Host and Network Addresses

 A single network interface is assigned a single IP address called the host address.

19
  A host may have multiple interfaces, and therefore multiple host addresses.
 Hosts that share a network all have the same IP network address (the network ID).

IP Broadcast and Network Addresses

 An IP broadcast addresses has a host ID of all 1s.
 IP broadcasting is not necessarily a true broadcast, it relys on the underlying hardware
technology.
 An IP address that has a host ID of all 0s is called a network address and refers to anentire
network.

Subnet Addresses
 An organization can subdivide it's host address space into groups called subnets.
 The subnet ID is generally used to group hosts based on the physical network topology.

Sub netting
 Subnets can simplify routing.
 IP subnet broadcasts have a host ID of all 1s.
 It is possible to have a single wire network with multiple subnets.

Mapping IP Addresses to Hardware Addresses

 IP Addresses are not recognized by hardware.
 If we know the IP address of a host, how do we find out the hardware address ?
 The process of finding the hardware address of a host given the IP address is called
Address Resolution

Reverse Address Resolution

 The process of finding out the IP address of a host given a hardware address is called
Reverse Address Resolution
 Reverse address resolution is needed by diskless workstations and some X-Terminals
when booting.
ARP
 The Address Resolution Protocol is used by a sending host when it knows the IP address
of the destination but needs the Ethernet address.
 ARP is a broadcast protocol - every host on the network receives the request.
 Each host checks the request against its IP address - the right one responds.
 ARP does not need to be done every time an IP datagram is sent - hosts remember the
hardware addresses of each other.
 Part of the ARP protocol specifies that the receiving host should also remember the IP and
hardware addresses of the sending host.

Services provided by IP
 Connectionless Delivery (each packet is treated individually).
 Unreliable (delivery is not guaranteed).
 Fragmentation / Reassembly (based on hardware MTU).
 Routing.

20
  Error detection.

IP Datagram Fragmentation
 Each fragment (packet) has the same structure as the IP datagram.
 IP specifies that datagram reassembly is done only at the destination (not on a hop-by-hop
basis).
 If any of the fragments are lost - the entire datagram is discarded (and an ICMP messageis
sent to the sender).
 If packets arrive too fast - the receiver discards excessive packets and sends an ICMP
message to the sender (SOURCE QUENCH).
 If an error is found (header checksum problem) the packet is discarded and an ICMP
message is sent to the sender.

ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol

 ICMP is a protocol used for exchanging control messages.
 ICMP uses IP to deliver messages.
 ICMP messages are usually generated and processed by the IP software, not the user
process.

ICMP Message Types

 Echo Request
 Echo Response
 Destination Unreachable
 Redirect
 Time Exceeded
 Redirect (route change)
 there are more ...

UDP
 UDP is a transport protocol
 communication between processes
 UDP uses IP to deliver datagrams to the right host.
 UDP uses ports to provide communication services to individual processes.
 Datagram Delivery
 Connectionless
 Unreliable
 Minimal

Ports
 TCP/IP uses an abstract destination point called a protocol port.
 Ports are identified by a positive integer.
 Operating systems provide some mechanism that processes use to specify a port or access
it.

21
TCP Segment Format : Addressing in TCP/IP
 Each TCP/IP address includes:
 Internet Address
 Protocol (UDP or TCP)
 Port Number

1.15 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) refers to a web address which uniquely identifies a
document over the internet.
 This document can be a web page, image, audio, video or anything else present on the
web.
 For example, www.mkjc.com/internet_technology/index.html is an URL to the
index.html which is stored on mkjc web server under internet_technology directory.

URL Types
There are two forms of URL as listed below:
 Absolute URL
 Relative URL

Absolute URL
Absolute URL is a complete address of a resource on the web. This completed address comprises
of protocol used, server name, path name and file name.

For example : http:// www.mkjc.com / internet_technology /index.htm. where: http is the

protocol. index.htm is the file name.
The protocol part tells the web browser how to handle the file. Similarly we have some other
protocols also that can be used to create URL are: FTP, https, Gopher, mailto, news, etc

Relative URL
Relative URL is a partial address of a webpage. Unlike absolute URL, the protocol and serverpart
are omitted from relative URL.
Relative URLs are used for internal links i.e. to create links to file that are part of same websiteas
the WebPages on which you are placing the link.

For example : to link an image on www.mkjc.in, we can use the relative URL which can takethe
form like /internet_technologies/internet-osi_model.jpg.

22
1.16 Difference between Absolute and Relative URL
Absolute URL Relative URL
Used to link web pages on different Used to link web pages within the same
websites website.
Difficult to manage. Easy to Manage
Changes when the server name or Remains same even of we change the server
directory name changes name or directory name.
Take time to access Comparatively faster to access.

1.17 Understanding domains

A domain (also known as a site URL or a link) is a unique address of your website on the
Internet. People use the domain to locate and visit your site. Besides, it defines your brand and
produces an instant, but lasting impression. It also affects your site position in the search engine
results as the right keywords in your domain name improve your SEO ranking.
The domain name appears in the address bar of your browser (Chrome, Firefox, Internet
Explorer, or Safari):

Fig-1.11 : Example for Domain

A Domain Usually Contains:

The main domain name — a word or words related to what your website represents. In the above
example “ecwid” is the main domain.

A subdomain — an optional addition to the main domain. Subdomains are created to organize
and navigate to different sections of your website. In our example, “support” is the subdomain.
A top-level domain — the last label in your domain name, in the above example it is .com

When you register an ecwid account, you get a site with your store – Instant Site. Together with
the Instant Site, you get a free domain for it. You can customize the domain so it represents your
business and makes it easy for the customers to find your store.

1.18 Anatomy of Web Connections

1.18.1 Introduction
The Internet is a vast collection of computer linked by cable and satellites, not controlled by any
one authority, but all operating under common network protocols. The term ‘Internet’ includes
both the hardware (Satellite, Cable, Routing devices and computers) and the software (programs
and network protocols) that enable computers to communicate with each other.

23
When information is sent across the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP: the
networking-language computers use when communicating over the Internet) first breaks the
information up into packets of data. The Client computer sends those packets travel through
many levels of networks, computers, communications lines until they reach their final
destinations. Many types of hardware help the packets on their way. These are:

Hardware: TCP breaks

Sending it to
1.Hubs Information (Packets)
2.Bridges
3.Gateways
4.Repeaters
5.Routers Computer
sent it to the
ISP

Fig- 1.12 : Anatomy of Web Components

 Hubs, which link group of computers together and let them intercommunicate through
multiple ports.
 Bridges, which link local area networks (LANs) with each another’s.
 Gateways, which act like bridges, but also convey data between dissimilar networks.
 Repeaters, which amplify the data at intervals so that that the signal doesn’t weaken.
 Routers, which ensure packets of data arrive at their proper destination across different
technologies , media and frame formats.
 Servers, which deliver web pages and other services as requested.
 Client computers, which make the initial request for Internet services, and run
applications to handle those services.
 Cables and/or satellite communications, which make the hardware connections

1.18.2 Internet File Types

Introduction
While downloading files and viewing websites, you’ll meet up with many file formats. Most are
common, and encountered frequently, others are more obscure and require specialist programs to
open or use. Here, we have a list of the file types, along with the applications you’ll need to get
them going on your computer.
.AVI | .CSS | .DOC | .EXE | .GIF | .HTML/ .HTM | .JPG/ .JPEG | .MID/ .MIDI | .MP3 | .MPG/
.MPEG | .MOV/ .QT | .PDF | .PNG | .RAM | .RAR | .TIFF | .TXT | .WAV | .ZIP | Streaming
Media ]

1.18.3 Different File Types

.AVI — Audio/Video Interleaved
Standard video format supported on the windows platform. They do not stream, however, so you
have to download the entire file before you can watch any of it. Use » Windows Media Player or

24
pick up WinAmp or QuickTime.

CSS — Cascading Style Sheet

CSS files are a tool in the repertoire of webmasters that take care of how their websites look. To
read more about them, see our CSS documents.
CSS files can be created or edited in any text-editor, like Notepad. Try » TopStyle Lite too, it
includes loads of selectors for easy editing.

.DOC — Microsoft Word Document

You can get a “Word viewer” from Microsoft too, which is free. If both of these go against your
religion, you could use the free » Open Office suite, which is pretty damn good.

.EXE — Executable file

If you download a program that you need to install, it will likely come as an exe file. Just double
click it to install on your PC. Be careful of viruses!

GIF — Graphics Interchange Format

The most common image format on the Internet. Good for simple images. Read our Image File
Formats page for more.
Your browser can display them, or any image editor.

.HTML/ .HTM — Hyper Text Markup Language file

Most pages you create for a website will be HTML files.

.JPG/ .JPEG — Joint Photographic Experts Group file

Another very common image file format, mainly used for photos. Again, for more check out the
Image File Formats page.
Your browser can show them, or an image editor.

.MIDI/ .MID — Musical Instrument Digital Interface

Midis are sequenced music files made on keyboards. They’re usually really small and often
sound great, although it largely depends on your soundcard. Midi collections are one of the few
places in the world where you can find classic game and movie music, and for that I salute them. I
use » WinAmp.

MP3 — MPEG Layer 3 sound file

Singlehandedly caused a revolution. MP3 is a sound file format which is highly compressed,
which allows download-happy file sizes and excellent quality. Has caused much grief for the
music industry as songs are now small enough to be traded online.Get the superb » WinAmp for
the best player around.

.MPEG/ .MPG — Motion Picture Experts Group file

One of the standards for streaming movies.
» WinAmp can play movies. Or you could use » Windows Media Player, by Microsoft.

.MOV/ .QT — QuickTime Movie

25
The QuickTime format was designed by Apple and originated on the Mac, but has made the
transition to the PC and is hugely popular.
Get the » QuickTime Player for all your moving picture needs.

.PDF — Portable Document Format

Adobe Acrobat files were invented so that documents could be transferred between computers
and indeed platforms, and still look the exact same, something which can’t be said about HTML
files...
Get the » Acrobat Reader to make sense of these things. It just reads them, mind. It costs if you
want to make your own.

.PNG — Portable Network Graphics

PNGs are a file format designed to be used in place of GIFs. They are usually slightly smaller,
and sport advanced features like alpha-channel transparency and 24-bit colour support. Read
more on our image formats page.Your browser can view them.

.RAM — Real Audio Movie

Real Networks created formats for streaming audio and video, and gave away free players for the
formats, before allowing themselves to become so smothered in advertising that everyone with
sense decided to stop using their programs.
You might still come across real audio files around the net, so hand over all your personal details
to get whatever player » Real are trying to sell you this week.

.RAR — RAR archive

This is a compressed file format similar to the popular .zip format. It sports advanced functions
like special multimedia compression and has many benefits over zip files.
Get the excellent » WinRAR to take care of your RAR archives, and it can handle other archive
types too.

.TIFF — Tagged Image File Format

For really high quality images, TIFFs are used, but cannot be viewed through a browser. Your
only choice is to get a — Hooray! — image editor.

.TXT — TeXT file

The most basic of files, it’s just some text.
You no doubt already have either NotePad, SimpleText, or your browser, which you umm...
definitely have.

.WAV — WAVe sound file

A basic, either un- or not very- compressed sound file, usually used for short sound samples.
Your computer will be able to play these anyway (when it turns on and sings it’s playing a .wav).
Get » WinAmp for more power.

.ZIP — ZIPped file

26
Zipped files are really groups of other types of files kept together and compressed a bit. Many
downloads will consist of zip collections, so be sure to have something to open them with.
» WinZip is the best shareware program for unzipping files and making your own zips.

Streaming Media
Over the past few years many new file formats were brought in for the reason of allowing
streaming — that is, the file starts playing as soon as it begins to be downloaded, and keeps on
playing as more of the file makes its way to your computer. The hugely successful mp3 quickly
became the most popular of these formats. The proprietary RealAudio and RealVideo formats
from » Real are popular among multimedia sites, but are terrible formats that require a truly
horrible piece of software to play. Mpeg, AVI and MP4 video are also very popular, and can be
played in many programs like Quick time Player, VLC and Windows Media Player. These
typeof files are most important when embedding multimedia.

1.19 Internet’s Underlying Architecture

1.19.1 Introduction
The architecture of the Internet was commonly described as having four layers above the
physical media, each providing a distinct function: a “link” layer providing local packet
delivery over heterogeneous physical networks, a “network” layer providing best-effort global
packet delivery across autonomous networks.

1.19.2 Domain Name System (DNS)

When DNS was not into existence, one had to download a Host file containing host names and
their corresponding IP address. But with increase in number of hosts of internet, the size of host
file also increased. This resulted in increased traffic on downloading this file. To solve this
problem the DNS system was introduced.

Domain Name System helps to resolve the host name to an address. It uses a hierarchical naming
scheme and distributed database of IP addresses and associated names

1.19.3 Domain Name System Architecture

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name Space, Name Server that
have been described below:

Domain Names
Domain Name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are several domain
names available; some of them are generic such as com, edu, gov, net etc, while some country
level domain names such as au, in, za, us etc.

The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning
Com Commercial business

Edu Education

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 Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

Table 1.3 : Example for Generic Domain Names

The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

Au Australia
In India
Cl Chile
Fr France
Us United States
Za South Africa
Uk United
Kingdom
Jp Japan
Es Spain
De Germany
Ca Canada
Ee Estonia
Hk Hong Kong
Table 1.4 : Example for Country Domain Names

Domain Name Space

The domain name space refers a hierarchy in the internet naming structure. This hierarchy has
multiple levels (from 0 to 127), with a root at the top. The following diagram shows the domain
name space hierarchy:

28
 Figure 1.13 : Tree Format of DNS

In the above diagram each subtree represents a domain. Each domain can be partitioned into sub
domains and these can be further partitioned and so on.

Name Server
 Name server contains the DNS database. This database comprises of various names and
their corresponding IP addresses. Since it is not possible for a single server to maintain
entire DNS database, therefore, the information is distributed among many DNS servers.
 Hierarchy of server is same as hierarchy of names.
 The entire name space is divided into the zones
Zones
Zone is collection of nodes (sub domains) under the main domain. The server maintains a
database called zone file for every zone.

If the domain is not further divided into sub domains then domain and zone refers to the same
thing.
The information about the nodes in the sub domain is stored in the servers at the lower levels
however; the original server keeps reference to these lower levels of servers.

29
Types of Name Servers
Following are the three categories of Name Servers that manages the entire Domain Name
System:
 Root Server
 Primary Server
 Secondary Server

Root Server
Root Server is the top level server which consists of the entire DNS tree. It does not contain the
information about domains but delegates the authority to the other server

Primary Servers
Primary Server stores a file about its zone. It has authority to create, maintain, and update the
zone file.

Secondary Server
Secondary Server transfers complete information about a zone from another server which may be
primary or secondary server. The secondary server does not have authority to create or update a
zone file.

1.19.4 How DNS Working?

DNS translates the domain name into IP address automatically. Following steps will take you
through the steps included in domain resolution process:
 When we type www.tutorialspoint.com into the browser, it asks the local DNS Server for
its IP address.
 Here the local DNS is at ISP end.
 When the local DNS does not find the IP address of requested domain name, it forwards
the request to the root DNS server and again enquires about IP address of it.
 The root DNS server replies with delegation that I do not know the IP address of
www.tutorialspoint.com but know the IP address of DNS Server.
 The local DNS server then asks the com DNS Server the same question.
 The com DNS Server replies the same that it does not know the IP address of
www.tutorialspont.com but knows the address of tutorialspoint.com.
 Then the local DNS asks the tutorialspoint.com DNS server the same question.
 Then tutorialspoint.com DNS server replies with IP address of www.tutorialspoint.com.
 Now, the local DNS sends the IP address of www.tutorialspoint.com to the computer that
sends the request.

1.20 Router
The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to receive, analyze, and
forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a destination IP address of
a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to
transfer the packets. There are some popular companies that develop routers; such
are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important points of routers are given
below:

30
  A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network)
environments. For example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also
establish the connection between distant networks such as from Bhopal to
 It shares information with other routers in networking.
 It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
 Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like switches and hubs.

Fig- 1.15 Router

A router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP address of a
computer. It uses protocols such as ICMP to communicate between two or more networks. It is
also known as an intelligent device as it can calculate the best route to pass the network packets
from source to the destination automatically.

A virtual router is a software function or software-based framework that performs the same
functions as a physical router. It may be used to increase the reliability of the network by virtual
router redundancy protocol, which is done by configuring a virtual router as a default gateway.
A virtual router runs on commodity servers, and it is packaged with alone or other network
functions, like load balancing, firewall packet filtering, and wide area network optimization
capabilities.

Why Routers?
A router is more capable as compared to other network devices, such as a hub, switch, etc., as
these devices are only able to execute the basic functions of the network.
For example, a hub is a basic networking device that is mainly used to forward the data between
connected devices, but it cannot analyze or change anything with the transferring data.

On the other hand, the router has the capability to analyze and modify the data while transferring
it over a network, and it can send it to another network. For example, generally, routers allow
sharing a single network connection between multiple devices.

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Fig - 1.16 : Router with Multiple Devices

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1.20.1 How does Router work?
A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and compares it with the
routing table to decide the packet's next path. The list of routing tables provides directions to
transfer the data to a particular network destination. They have a set of rules that compute the
best path to forward the data to the given IP address.

Routers use a modem such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem to allow communication between
other devices and the internet. Most of the routers have several ports to connect different devices
to the internet at the same time. It uses the routing tables to determine where to send data and
from where the traffic is coming.

Fig- 1.17 : Router - Working Process

A routing table mainly defines the default path used by the router. So, it may fail to find the best
way. To forward the data for a given packet. For example, the office router along a single default
path instructs all networks to its internet services provider.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic. The static routing tables
are configured manually, and the dynamic routing tables are updated automatically by dynamic
routers based on network activity.

1.20.2 Features of Router

 A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and it is able to
communicate with its adjacent devices with the help of IP addresses and subnet.
 A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different types of ports like
gigabit, fast-Ethernet, and STM link port.
 It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in the network.
 Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash memory, RAM, Non-
Volatile RAM, console, network, and interface card.
 Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system by considering the
sub-network as an intact network.
 Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the data encapsulation
and decapsulation process.

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  Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave mode.
 It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
 Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data.

1.20.3 Applications of Routers

There are various areas where a router is used:
 Routers are used to connect hardware equipment with remote location networks
like BSC, MGW, IN, SGSN, and other servers.
 It provides support for a fast rate of data transmission because it uses high STM links for
connectivity; that's why it is used in both wired or wireless communication.
 Internet service providers widely use routers to send the data from source to destination
in the form of e-mail, a web page, image, voice, or a video file. Furthermore, it can send
data all over the world with the help of an IP address of the destination.
 Routers offer access restrictions. It can be configured in a way that allows for few users
to access the overall data and allows others to access the few data only, which is defined
for them.
 Routers are also used by software testers for WAN communications. For example, the
software manager of an organization is located in Agra, and its executive is located at a
different place like Pune or Bangalore. Then the router provides the executive the method
to share his software tools and other applications with the manager with the help of
routers by connecting their PCs to the router using WAN architecture.
 In wireless networks, by configuring VPN in routers, it can be used in the client-server
model, which allows sharing the internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources. As
shown in the below picture:
 In wireless networks, by configuring VPN in routers, it can be used in the client-server
model, which allows sharing the internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources. As
shown in the below picture:

Fig- 1.18 : Applications of Router

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  In modern times, routers have the facility of inbuilt USB ports within the hardware. They
have enough internal storage capacity. External storage devices can be used with routers
to store and share data.
 Routers are used to set up the operation and maintenance center of an organization, which
is known as the NOC center. All equipment at a distant location are connected by routers
on optical cable at a central location, which also offer redundancy through the main link
and protection link topology.

1.20.4 Types of Routers

There are various types of routers in networking; such are given below:

Wireless Router: Wireless routers are used to offer Wi-Fi connectivity to laptops, smartphones,
and other devices with Wi-Fi network capabilities, and it can also provide standard Ethernet
routing for a small number of wired network systems.

Wireless routers are capable of generating a wireless signal in your home or office, and it allows
the computers to connect with routers within a range, and use the internet. If the connection is
indoors, the range of the wireless router is about 150 feet, and when the connection is outdoors,
then its range is up to 300 feet.

Furthermore, you can make more secure wireless routers with a password or get your IP address.
Thereafter, you can log in to your router by using a user ID and password that will come with
your router.

Brouter: A brouter is a combination of the bridge and a router. It allows transferring the data
between networks like a bridge. And like a router, it can also route the data within a network to
the individual systems. Thus, it combines these two functions of bridge and router by routing
some incoming data to the correct systems while transferring the other data to another network.

Core router: A core router is a type of router that can route the data within a network, but it is
not able to route the data between the networks. It is a computer communication system device
and the backbone of networks, as it helps to link all network devices. It is used by internet
service providers (ISPs), and it also provides various types of fast and powerful data
communication interfaces.

Edge router: An edge router is a lower-capacity device that is placed at the boundary of a
network. It allows an internal network to connect with the external networks. It is also called as
an access router. It uses an External BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to provides connectivity
with remote networks over the internet.

There are two types of edge routers in networking:

 Subscriber edge router
 Label edge router

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The subscriber edge router belongs to an end-user organization, and it works in a situation
where it acts on a border device.
The label edge router is used in the boundary of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
networks. It acts as a gateway between the LAN, WAN, or the internet.

Broadband routers: Broadband routers are mainly used to provide high-speed internet access to
computers. It is needed when you connect to the internet through phone and use voice over IP
technology (VOIP).

All broadband routers have the option of three or four Ethernet ports for connecting the laptop
and desktop systems. A broadband router is configured and provided by the internet service
provider (ISP). It is also known as a broadband modem, asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL), or digital subscriber line (DSL) modem.

1.20.5 Benefits of Router

There are so many benefits of a router, which are given below:
Security: Router provides the security, as LANs work in broadcast mode. The information is
transmitted over the network and traverses the entire cable system. Although the data is available
to each station, but the station which is specificallyaddressed reads the data.

Performance enhancement: It enhances the performance within the individual network. For
example, if a network has 14 workstations, and all generate approximately the same volume of
traffic. The traffic of 14 workstations runs through the same cable in a single network. But if the
network is divided into two sub-networks each with 7 workstations, then a load of traffic is
reduced to half. As each of the networks has its own servers and hard disk, so fewer PCs will
need the network cabling system.
Reliability: Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down when the server has stopped,
or there is a defect in the cable, then the router services, and other networks will not be affected.
The routers separate the affected network, whereas the unaffected networks remain connected,
without interrupting the work and any data loss.

Networking Range: In networking, a cable is used to connect the devices, but its length cannot
exceed 1000 meters. A router can overcome this limitation by performing the function of a
repeater (Regenerating the signals). The physical range can be as per the requirement of a
particular installation, as long as a router is installed before the maximum cable range exceeds.

Routing Protocols
Routing protocols specify a way for the router to identify other routers on the network and make
dynamic decisions to send all network messages. There are several protocols, which are given
below:

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): It is used to calculate the best route for the given packets to
reach the destination, as they move via a set of connected networks. It is identified by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as Interior Gateway Protocol.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): It helps manage how packets are routed on the internet via

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exchange of information between edge routers. It provides network stability for routers if one
internet connection goes down while forwarding the packets, it can adapt another network
connection quickly to send the packets.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): It specifies how routing information will be
exchanged between gateways within an independent network. Then, the other network protocols
can use the routing information to determine how transmissions should be routed.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): In this protocol, if a router is unable
to find a path to a destination from the tables, it asks route to its neighbors, and they pass the
query to their neighbors until a router has found the path. When the entry of routing table
changes in one of the routers, it informs its neighbors only about the changes, but do not send the
entire table.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): It decides how routing information can be exchanged
between two neighbor gateway hosts, each of which has its own router. Additionally, it is
commonly used to exchange routing table information between hosts on the internet.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP): It determines how routers can share information while
transferring traffic among connected group of local area networks. The maximum number of
hops that can be allowed for RIP is 15, which restricts the size of networks that RIP can support.

1.21 Difference between Bridge and Router

Bridge Router

A bridge is a networking device that is used to A router is also a networking device

connect two local area networks (LANs) by that sends the data from one network to
using media access control addresses and another network with the help of their
transmit the data between them. IP addresses.

A bridge is able to connect only two A router is capable of connecting

different LAN segments. theLAN and WAN.

A bridge transfers the data in the form of frames. A router transfers the data in the
formof packets.

It sends data based on the MAC address of It sends data based on the IP address
adevice. ofa device.

The bridge has only one port to connect the The router has several ports to
device. connectthe devices.

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The bridge does not use any table to forward The router uses a routing table to
thedata. sendthe data.

1.22 Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router

There are three primarily networking devices that connect the computers from one to another.
These devices are hub, switch, and router. These all have the ability to connect one computer
to another, but there is some difference between them. The difference between a hub, switch,
and router are given below:

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that is used to connect computers or other
networking devices together. A hub does not use any routing table to send the data to the
destination. Although it can identify basic errors of networks like collisions, it can be a
security risk to broadcast all information to the multiple ports. As the hub is a dumb device, it
does not need an IP address. Furthermore, Hubs are cheaper than a switch or router.

Switch: A switch is a hardware device that also connects computers to each other. A switch
is different as compared to a hub in that way; it handles packets of data. Whenever a switch
receives a packet, it decides the device to which the packet can be sent, and sends it to that
device only. A hub broadcasts the packet to all computers, but the switch does not circulate
the packet to all devices, which means bandwidth is not shared with the network, and thus it
increases the efficiency of the network. That's why switches are more preferred as compared
to a hub.

Router: A router is more different from a switch or hub. It is mainly used to route the data
packets to another network instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only. A
router is commonly found in homes and offices as it allows your network to communicate
with other networks through the internet. Basically, a router provides more features to your
networks like firewall, VPN, QoS, traffic monitoring, etc.

What is Routing Table in Router?

A routing table determines the path for a given packet with the help of an IP address of a
device and necessary information from the table and sends the packet to the destination
network. The routers have the internal memory that is known as Random Access Memory
(RAM). All the information of the routing table is stored in RAM of routers.

For example:
A routing table contains the following entities:
It contains an IP address of all routers which are required to decide the way to reach the
destination network.
It includes extrovert interface information.
Furthermore, it is also contained IP addresses and subnet mask of the destination host.

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1.23 The Internet Client/Server Architecture
1.23.1 Introduction
In the late 1960s, the US Department of Defense decides to make a large network from a
multitude of small networks, all different, which begin to abound everywhere in North
America.

We had to find a way to these networks coexist and give them an outdoor visibility, the same
for all users. Hence the name of InterNetwork (interline), abbreviated as Internet, data this
network of networks.

The Internet architecture is based on a simple idea: ask all networks want to be part of
carrying a single packet type, a specific format the IP protocol. In addition, this IP packet
must carry an address defined with sufficient generality in order to identify each computer
and terminals scattered throughout the world. This architecture is illustrated in Figure.
Table- : List of Subnet mask and Interface

Destination (Network ID) Subnet mask Interface

200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 Eth0

200.1.2.64 255.255.255.128 Eth1

200.1.2.128 255.255.255.255 Eth2

Default Eth3

Fig- 1.20 : Internet Architecture

 The user who wishes to make on this internetwork must store its data in IP packets that
are delivered to the first network to cross. This first network encapsulates the IP packet in
its own packet structure, the package A, which circulates in this form until an exit door,

39
 where it is decapsulated so as to retrieve the IP packet. The IP address is examined to
locate, thanks to a routing algorithm, the next network to cross, and so on until arriving at
the destination terminal.

 To complete the IP, the US Defense added the TCP protocol; specify the nature of the
interface with the user. This protocol further determines how to transform a stream of
bytes in an IP packet, while ensuring quality of transport this IP packet. Both protocols,
assembled under the TCP / IP abbreviation, are in the form of a layered architecture.
They correspond to the packet level and message-level reference model.

 The Internet model is completed with a third layer, called the application level, which
includes different protocols on which to build Internet services. Email (SMTP), the file
transfer (FTP), the transfer of hypermedia pages, transfer of distributed databases (World
Wide Web), etc., are some of these services. Figure shows the three layers of the Internet
architecture.

Application

TCP

IP

Fig- 1.21 : The Three Layers of the Internet

IP packets are independent of each other and are individually routed in the network by
interconnecting devices subnets, routers. The quality of service offered by IP is very small and
offers no detection of lost or possibility of error recovery packages.

TCP combines the functionality of message-level reference model. This is a fairly complex
protocol, which has many options for solving all packet loss problems in the lower levels. In
particular, a lost fragment can be recovered by retransmission on the stream of bytes. TCP
uses a connection-oriented mode.

The flexibility of the Internet architecture can sometimes be a default, to the extent that global
optimization of the network is carried out by sub-network subnet, by a succession of local
optimizations. This does not allow a homogeneous function in different subnets traversed.
Another important feature of this architecture is to place the entire control system, that is to say,
intelligence and control of the network, in the terminal machine leaving virtually nothing in the
network, at least in the current version, IPv4, the IP protocol. The control intelligence is in the
TCP software on the PC connected to the network.

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It is the TCP protocol which takes care of sending more or fewer packets according to network
load. Precise control window the maximum number of unacknowledged fragments that may be
issued. The TCP window control increases or decreases the traffic following the time required to
complete a round trip.

Over this time increases, Considering the more congested network, and the transmission rate
must decrease to counter saturation. In return, the infrastructure cost is extremely low; no
intelligence is not in the network. The service provided by the network of networks corresponds
to a quality called best effort, which means that the network does its best to carry the traffic. In
other words, the service quality is not assured.

The new generation of IP, IPv6, introduces new features that make the nodes of the network
smarter. The new generation of routers comes with QoS management algorithms, which allow
them to provide transportation can meet time constraints or packet loss. We expect the arrival of
IPv6 for ten years, but it’s still IPv4 IP that governs the world. The reason for this is that every
new need achievable with IPv6, IPv4 has been able to find the algorithms needed to do as well.
In IPv4, each new customer is treated the same way as those already connected with resources
being distributed equitably among all users. The resource allocation policies of telecom
operator’s networks are totally different, since, on these networks, a customer who already has a
certain quality of service does not suffer any penalty because of the arrival of a new customer.
As discussed, the now advocated solution in the Internet environment is to encourage customers
with real-time requirements, using appropriate protocols, using priority levels.

The IP protocol for thirty years, but remained almost confidential for twenty years before taking
off, unless its properties as a result of the failure of the protocols directly related to the reference
model, too many and often incompatible. The IP world growth comes from the simplicity of its
protocol, with very few options, and it’s free.
1.23.2 Client/Server Architecture
The client/server architecture significantly decreased network traffic by providing a query
response rather than total file transfer. It allows multi-user updating through a GUI front end toa
shared database. Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) or standard query language (SQL) statements
are typically used to communicate between the client and server.

The following are the examples of client/server architectures.

 Two tier architectures A two-tier architecture is where a client talks directly to a
server, with no intervening server. It is typically used in small environments(less
than 50 users).
In two tier client/server architectures, the user interface is placed at user’s desktop
environmentand the database management system services are usually in a server that is a
more powerful machine that provides services to the many clients. Information
processing is split between the user system interface environment and the database
management server environment.

 Three tier architectures The three tier architecture is introduced to overcome the
drawbacks of the two tier architecture. In the three tier architecture, a middleware is used

41
 between the user system interface client environment and the database management
server environment.
These middleware are implemented in a variety of ways such as transaction processing
monitors, message servers or application servers. The middleware perform the function
of queuing, application execution and database staging. In addition the middleware adds
scheduling and prioritization for work in progress.

The three tier client/server architecture is used to improve performance for large number of
users and also improves flexibility when compared to the two tier approach.

The drawback of three tier architectures is that the development environment is more difficult to
use than the development of two tier applications.

The widespread use of the term 3-tier architecture also denotes the following architectures:
 Application sharing between a client, middleware and enterprise server
 Application sharing between a client, application server and enterprise database server.

Three tier with message server. In this architecture, messages are processed and prioritized
asynchronously. Messages have headers that include priority information, address and
identification number. The message server links to the relational DBMS and other data sources.
Messaging systems are alternative for wireless infrastructures.

Three tier with an application server This architecture allows the main body of an application
to run on a shared host rather than in the user system interface client environment. The
application server shares business logic, computations and a data retrieval engine. In this
architecture applications are more scalable and installation costs are less on a single server than
maintaining each on a desktop client.
3-tier architecture provides
 A greater degree of flexibility
 Increased security, as security can be defined for each service, and at each level
 Increased performance, as tasks are shared between servers

The basic characteristics of client/server architectures

 Combination of a client or front-end portion that interacts with the user, and a
server or back-end portion that interacts with the shared resource. The client
process contains solution-specific logic and provides the interface between the user and
the rest of the application system. The server process acts as a software engine that
manages shared resources such as databases, printers, modems, or high powered
processors.
 The front-end task and back-end task have fundamentally different requirements for
computing resources such as processor speeds, memory, disk speeds and capacities, and
input/output devices.
 The environment is typically heterogeneous and multivendor. The hardware platform
and operating system of client and server are not usually the same. Client and server
processes communicate through a well-defined set of standard application program

42
 interfaces (API’s) andRPC’s.
 An important characteristic of client-server systems is scalability. They can be scaled
horizontally or vertically. Horizontal scaling means adding or removing client
workstations with only a slight performance impact. Vertical scaling means migrating to
a larger and faster server machine or multi servers.

Review Questions
1. What is Internet?
2. Define TCP/IP .
3. What is Internet Protocol (IP)?
4. Define Router.
5. What is DNS?
6. Discuss about advantages of Internet.
7. Explain the Disadvantages of Internet.
8. Explain the TCP/IP Model Layers.
9. Explain the functions of TCP/IP Layers
10. Explain the working of TCP/IP Protocol
11. Explain Uniform Resource Locator.
12. Difference between Absolute and Relative URL
13. Explain about Domain Name System (DNS
14. Explain the Domain Name System Architecture
15. How DNS Working? Explain.
16. How does Router work? Explain.
17. Explain the types of Routers.
18. Difference between Bridge and Router.
19. Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router.

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 Chapter -2
Connecting to the Internet
2.1 Connecting Your Computer
Whether you're using Wi-Fi, Ethernet, or the slowly fading dial-up, connecting to the internet is a
simple task that's important to learn.

Fig - 2.1 Connecting the Computera)Ensure that the source of the internet is on

It may seem obvious, but a common mistake that's often made when connecting to the internet is not
making surethe source of the internet is on.

Especially if you've just set up a router and/or modem, ensure that it's on and that everything is plugged
in properly, and that any lights on it aren't indicating that there are problems.

Make sure that everything is plugged in properly and is working right before getting started.

Fig:2.1 Source of the Internet

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Understand that most mobile devices can only connect to wireless broadband

Devices like smartphones, mobile tablets, iPods, handheld gaming systems, and so forth can usually
only connect to Wi-Fi services, due to the portable nature of them. Therefore, you won't be able to
connect a mobile device to ethernet or to a dial-up network. Ethernet and dial- up connections are
limited to computers and non-portable gaming devices.

Fig 2.2 connection with Wi-Fi

Know what "path" to take to get to your network settings

Regardless of what operating system or device you're using, you'll probably need to access your
network settings at some point in the process.The process is slightly different for every device, but the
general path that you'll need to take to access your network settings is usually the same, depending on
the OS.

Some common devices or operating systems, and their paths to the settings, are listed below.
Windows XP: S /tart –> Control Panel –> Network and Internet Connections
Windows Vista: Start –> Network –> Network and Sharing Center
Windows 7: Start –> Control Panel –> Network and Internet
Windows 8: Start –> Search "View network connections" –> View Network Connections
Windows 10: Search "View network connections" –> View Network Connections
Android: Settings –> Wi-Fi (or Wireless & Networks)

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2.2 Types of Internet Connections- Wireless, Dial-up, DSL, Fiber, Cable, ISDN
Internet connections are of different types depending upon the cost, speed, availability, etc. which

type of internet connection is most beneficial for you? It depends upon many factors.
Internet connections are categorized according to their uses like at home, offices, organization,etc.

2.3 Different Types of Internet Connections

Let us discuss the top 10 general types of internet connections:

Dial-up
In the past, the internet is connected by the dial-up lines.
The dial-up line uses PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network).
PSTN may be of the telephone line, fiber optic, Microwave transmission or communicationssatellite.

Dial-up internet connections are connected through a telephone line.

For accessing the internet, you have to dial a specific number, and Your ISP will open the internet line
for you.

Here is the same line for internet and telephone, so at a time only one task can take place either you can
run internet or talk on the telephone. It is the main disadvantage of a Dial-up connection.
It is the most inexpensive form of the internet connection, apart from it, its speed is also very slow from
28 Kbps to 56 Kbps.

46
It has a very high ping (Latency) speed so we cannot watch online movies and play online games.

ISDN
ISDN stands for Integrated Service Digital Network.
This connection is nearly similar to the DSL.
ISDN is a set of international communication standards designed in 1980 and improved in the 1990s.

47
It is a digital network to transmit voice, image, video, and text over the existing circuit- switched PSTN
telephone network. Different types of devices, such as analog phone, a fax machine, or a computer, are
connected to an ISDN terminal adaptor, which converts different types of data into ISDN format so that
they can share the same digital PSTN network.

There are two major types of ISDN:-

BRI – Basic Rate Interface (2B+D)
Two 64 kbit/s bearer (B) channels (For data)
One 16 kbit/s signaling (D) channels (For call setup and breakdown)

PRI- Primary Rate Interface

23B Channel- 64 Kbits/s (Mainly uses in North America) 1D channel- 64 Kbits/s (signaling and setup)
This connection is commonly used as connectivity from PSTN to large phone systems (PBX). Dial-up
and ISDN are the old types of internet connections.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

48
  In a DSL internet connection, both voice and internet data can flow over the same telephone line
at the same time.
 It has a DSL modem which filters the voice and data.
 DSL represents a high-speed connection, much fast than the ancient dial-up connection, but it is
not as fast as a cable connection.
 So due to DSL modem, you can go on the internet and talk on the phone at the same time
(Modem convert analog signal to digital signal).
 Speed of DSL varies; depending upon the place where you live, but on an average, download
speed varies from 5Mbps to 100 Mbps.

Types of DSL internet:

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line): In this internet connection downloading speed is
considerably faster than the uploading speed.
It is mostly used at home because at home we download more as compare to upload. Moreover, it is
the cheapest form of DSL.

SDSL (Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line): In SDSL connection, Download and upload speedare
equal. It is typically used in businesses.

VDSL (Very high bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line):

it is the fastest form of the DSL. It is fast because, in its line, copper wire is used. Due to copper,it is
only installed for limited distances.
On an average VDSL is 3 times faster than the ADSL.

2.4 Cable Internet Connection

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Broadband Cable is typically provided by the same provider that provides cable television to its
customers. Here we use cable modem/wifi router combo. Because of the connection of your neighbors
and you are on the same cable line so during the peak hours you have experienced slow speed. The
reason behind is that your neighbors are alsousing at the same time.

Fiber

 A fiber internet connection provides the fastest internet speed today. It can provide download
and upload speed of up to 1000 Mbps.
 It uses light to transfer the data through the optical fiber cable.
 In other forms of internet, connection data is transferred in electrical form, so signal get weaker
and weaker at large distances because singles in the copper cable can be affected by
electromagnetic interference.
 But in the fiber optic cable, signal transfers in the glass in the form of light, it can travel to long
distances without any losses.
 Fiber is more expensive than the DSL and cable.

Satellite

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  Satellite internet is the internet which uses the path of the outer space. Satellite internet signal
travels more than 46,000 miles (From ISP to user through satellite).
 In rural area satellite internet will be the best option for high speed, it is a faster option than
dial-up.
 Still, large-scale improvements are going on for making it more usable and reliable in the field
of infrastructure and technology.
 At many places, its speed is less than the cable and DSL connection.
 Satellites are orbiting directly over the equator, means it is a geostationary satellite.

Working
In this internet connection when you search about anything, on your internet devices, its signal send to
the satellite via a satellite dish and from satellite to NOC (Network Operation Center) retrieves data on
earth, and sends it back to the satellite, the whole process take place in reverse.
Distance from satellite ISP to satellite or from satellite to the user is more than 23000 miles. It means
data travels more than 46,000 miles. This process takes place in a fraction of seconds.
High Latency represents a bad signal in satellite internet connection. For browsing and downloading,
latency does not affect much but during gaming and streaming it affects lots.
Cellular

 In this network, radio waves are used for transfer signal to and from the mobile phone.
 In cellular technology geographic area is divided into hexagonal cells, with it each cell having
its tower and frequency slot.
 Generally, these cellular towers are connected through a wire or more specifically optical fiber
cable. These optical fiber cables are laid under the ground or ocean for providing national or
international connectivity.
 During the use of the internet; Smartphone transmits a signal in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
 The electromagnetic wave produces by your phone are picked up by the tower and system on
the tower convert them high-frequency light pulses.
 These light pulses are further transferred to the base transceiver for the further signal

51
 transferring.
 After that signal transferred to the destination server, for what you searched, after that reverse
process takes place.
Hotspot

 A hotspot is a technology which is relatively similar to the wifi. Hotspot provides internet
access to users via WLAN in the specific area to their location.
 For illustration; router and modem are like hotspots which transfer the data in the form of a
radiofrequency wave in the surrounding of its centralized position.
 Like Smartphone and mobile hotspots, here you can share your data with your friends.
 You can say that by the help of a hotspot we can create wifi.
 They are of two types: Passwords protected and free to uses.

But beware that free hotspots are most of the time on the target of the hackers.

Wireless
 The wireless network is built with the help of several hardware components like wireless
excess point or router and user devices like mobile phone, tablets, laptop, etc. which are
equipped with the wifi adaptor.

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  On the other hand, a wireless router is connected to the internet via a physical connection i.e.
with the fiber cable or analog line which uses a telephone and modem, after that connected to
the router.
 The wireless router is then connected to the devices via radio waves established an end to end
internet connection.
 A router receives the data from the internet and translates it is to a radio signal and sends it to
the wireless network to the connected devices.
 The identical process also happens in reverse.

Broadband

 Broadband is also known as a wideband because during communication it uses and provides a
wide band of frequencies. The wider the bandwidth of a channel, the greater will be the
information-carrying capacity.
 Here you can achieve speed up to 100 Mbps, it typically depends upon the cables we use like in
case of coaxial cable data transfer speed may vary but in optical fiber cables speed will be high.
 Generally, its speed in Mbit/sec but it can be Gbit/sec. (Found during testing in optical fiber
cable)
 ADSL broadband is used in homes and offices.
 These are well-known types of internet connections, which generally people use.

2.5 Connecting to the Internet from Online Services

2.5.1 Connecting Using Wireless Broadband
Make sure that the Wi-Fi connection for your device is on Regardless of the device, it's possible to turn
off Wi-Fi. Some devices have a physical switch that turns on or turns off the Wi-Fi, while others just
have the ability to toggle Wi-Fi onthe software settings.

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 Fig:2.3 Connecting with Wireless

Make sure that the computer does not have the Wi-Fi capability turned off before proceeding.

Access your device's settings

Navigate to your device's settings and open them, and then navigate to the network settings. You can
also click on the Wi-Fi icon on a computer's toolbar to open up a dropdown menu, which will list the
names of the connections in the area.

Fig:2.5 Access setting

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Find the name of your Wi-Fi network
Your broadband network's router should have the default name written on it. The name of a hotspot
network will usually show up by default as the name of your cellular device (e.g. "[Your name]'s
iPhone").Find this name and select it.

Wi-Fi or hotspot names can be changed, but if you've changed the name of your network or hotspot, you
probably know what it is.

Fig:2.6 Find the name of WIFI

Enter the password to the network or hotspot

Some networks are public, but most aren't. If the network you're trying to connect to has a password,
you'll be prompted for that password before you can connect to the network.

Fig:2.7 Enter the Password

Some protected public networks may have varying passwords per person.

55
Wait for the computer to connect
It often takes a few seconds for a computer to connect to a wireless source, but if the computer can't
establish the connection to the router, it will time out the Wi-Fi connection.

Fig:2.8 Wait for the computer to connect

Test out your internet connection

Once you've connected to the internet, open up a page in your web browser and wait for it to load.
Since some pages can crash, you may want to load up a reputable website, such as google.com or is
up.me to ensure that thewebsite isn't going tobe down.

Fig:2.9 Test internet connection

Troubleshoot if your computer won't connect to the internet

There are many reasons that a computer may not be able to connect to the wireless connection, A few
common problems are listed below:
Some older computers are unable to connect to the internet wirelessly. You may need an ethernet
cable to get online.
If the internet is slow or won't connect, you may be out of range of the router or hotspot. Trymoving
closer to the source.

56
2.5.2 Connecting Using an Ethernet Cable
Get an Ethernet cable and any needed adapters
Many recent devices can connect directly to the router via an ethernet cable. However, some aren't
built to do that. Laptops, for example, often don't have components for using ethernet. For that reason,
make sure you get any adapters you may need for the ethernet
cable to ensure that you can use it.

Fig:2.10 Ethernet cable

Ethernet cables are all different; for example, a Cat-5 or Cat-5e cable runs at slower speeds than a Cat-
6. However, it's also largely dependent on the router's connection and how many people will be
connecting to the network at once. Unless you're doing very, very intensive upload work, you're
probably not going to need a Cat-6 cable if you're the only one on the network.

Connect one end of the ethernet cable to the broadband source

The broadband source will most likely be a router, but in some cases, it may be a modem. In either
case, you'll need to plug in one end of the ethernet cable to the broadband source to ensure that the
computer will connect.

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 Fig:2.12 connect Ethernet to brand band source
Connect the other end of the cable to the computer

Find the Ethernet jack on your computer andplug it in. This jack will typically be located
on the back of the computer, where the other components plug in.

Fig:2.13 Connect other end

If your computer doesn't support Ethernet, you'll need to make sure the computer is connected to the
adapter, and then connect the cord via the adapter.

Access your computer's settings

You'll need to ensure that the computer is set torecognize the ethernet, rather than wireless. Most likely,
you'll have to turn off your wireless connection to ensure that the computer recognizes the ethernet
connection instead.

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Test out your internet connection
Open up a page in a web browser and see if it loads. Some web pages can take longer to load than
others, and others crash sometimes, so you may want to try and load a reliable website (e.g. google.com
or isup.me) to ensure that the connection is running.

Fig:2.14 Test your internet connection

Troubleshoot if you can't connect

Fig:2.15 Ethernet port

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Ethernet is more reliable than Wi-Fi, but that doesn't mean that things still can't go wrong.
If you're having trouble with the ethernet, it can stem from many problems, but make sure that the
basics (e.g. the router being connected) are established, and that your computer isn't being troublesome.

2.5.3 Connecting a Computer Using Dial-Up

Understand that dial-up internet is no longer widely supported and it will be very difficult to do
certain activities on the internet with this type of connection
With dial-up internet, you may be only limited to browsing websites that are mostly text and/or images
without many add ons and features.

If you want to do some very serious internet browsing, it will be best to find a Wi-Fi hotspot in a public
location. However, dial-up is still commonplace in a few rural areas, which means that you may find
yourself needing to connect to it.

Fig:2.16 Computer set-up

Ensure that you can connect to dial-up

Dial-up internet requires the use of a phone line, and can only connect one person per phone at a time.
Additionally, most new computers do not have the components to connect to dial-up; you may have to
purchase an external USB modem so your computer can connect.

Fig:2.17 Dial –up connection

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Plug in the modem to the phone jack
Oftentimes, places with dial-up internet will have two phone lines - one for the phone, and one for the
modem. However, if the modem isn't often used, it may be unplugged, or there may only be one phone
line.

Fig:2.18 Plug in Phone Jack Fig:2.19 Connect to modem

Make sure that the phone cable is plugged into both the phone jack on the wall, and the plug on the
modem.

Connect the modem to the computer

Using another phone line, insert one end of the second phone cable into the modem and the other end
into the computer's modem jack (or the converter).
Make sure that you don't accidentally plug the phone cable into the ethernet plug by mistake. The
phone jack on the computer should be noted by a small phone next to it.

Fig:2.20 Status

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62
Access your computer's network settings
You'll need to manually set up the dial-up connection on the computer. From there, configure the modem
settings. If this is your first time connecting to the dial-up source, you'll most likely need to configure the
modem's network settings

While the process is slightly different for every OS, you'll need to enter the same information: the dial-up
phone number, a username, and a password. The settings paths that you'll need to follow in order to
configure the network are:
 On Windows XP: Network and Internet Connections –> Set up or change your Internet connection –
> Setup
 On Windows Vista: Network and Sharing Center –> Set up a connection or network –> Set up a
dial-up connection

Fig:2.21 set up a new Connection

Connect your computer's connection to the modem

If the dial-up settings are already configured, it may just be as simple as opening up the network settings and
connecting to the modem, rather than searching for wireless connections. You will have to enter the
number, username, and password, however.

Test out your internet connection

To ensure that your internet connection isworking, open up a webpage and wait for it to load.
Dial-up internet is much slower than typical broadband speeds, so don't be surprised if it takes some
time.

You may want to try and load a solely text-based webpage to increase the loading speed and tell if your
internet is working.

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 Fig:2.22 Test connection Fig:2.23 Troubleshoot8)Troubleshoot if you can't connect

While dial-up is no longer widely supported, it's still possible to have issues with it. Ensure that thephone
line is properly plugged in and that your system can connect to dial-up internet.

Windows 10 has been known to have some trouble with dial-up connections sometimes. You may have to
use a computer with an older operating system, if available.

Ensure that you haven't accidentally plugged the phone cable into the ethernet jack by mistake. The phone
cable's jack is smaller and is often denoted by a phone symbol.

2.6 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and
other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.

Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system was seen as a way to transmit
voice, with some special services available for data. The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech
and data on the same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone system.

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet switched
networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better voice or data
quality than an analog phone can provide.

It provides a packet-switched connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of

128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions.
A greater data rate was achieved through channel bonding. Generally ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs
(six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.

ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing systems.
ISDN Interfaces

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The following are the interfaces of ISDN:
Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI toinitiate
connections.
 The B channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel operates at a maximum of 16
Kbps. The two channels are independent of each other.
 For example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other channelis used
to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN supports basic rate interface (BRl).

Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

 Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B channels depending on
the country you are in.
 PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is
present in the usual Primary Rate Interface (PRI).

Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN)
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current communications infrastructure, which is
heavily dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainlyon the evolution of fiber optics.
According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service requiring transmission channels capable of
supporting rates greater than the primary rate.

2.6.1 ISDN Services

ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into 3 categories- bearer services,
teleservices and supplementary services.

Bearer Services
Transfer of information (voice, data and video) between users without the network manipulating the content
of that information is provided by the bearer network.

There is no need for the network to process the information and therefore does not change thecontent. Bearer
services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model.

They are well defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-switched,
frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.

Teleservices
In this the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services corresponds to layers 4-7
of the OSI model.
Teleservices relay on the facilities of the bearer services and are designed to accommodate complex user
needs.
The user need not to be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax,
videotex, telex and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by name yet they have not yet
become standards.

Supplementary Service
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are provided by supplementaryservices.
Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling are examples of supplementary services which are all
65
familiar with today’s telephone company services.

The Internet & Television connection

There is 3 Easy way to connect your Smart TV to the internet
The wireless option – connect over your home Wi-Fi. Most new Smart TVs are Wi-Fi-enabled, meaning
they have a wireless adapter built-in. Connecting to the web takes just a few minutes – but this option works
best when your TV is in the same room as the router.

Fig. 2.24 Connect your Smart TV

Benefits of a wireless connection

 There are no trailing wires – perfect for keeping your living room uncluttered
 You have the freedom to place your TV anywhere in your living room, which makes it the best
option for wall-mounting
 It's incredibly simple to set up – simply press a few buttons on your TV remote
How to connect
 Hit the Menu button on your TV remote
 Choose the Network Settings option then Set up a wireless connection
 Select the wireless network name for your home Wi-Fi
 Type your Wi-Fi password using your remote’s button.

The wired option – plug directly into your router

Want the strongest, most stable connection? Plug your TV directly into the internet router via an
Ethernet cable. Your TV must be close to your router.
When you’re connecting multiple devices, make sure your connection stays strong by opting for a
powerful beam forming router.

Benefits of a wired connection

 It's simple to set up – just plug it in
 It provides the most reliable connection – your streaming should be free from buffering
 It's much faster than Wi-Fi

How to connect?
 Find the Ethernet port on the back of your TV
 Connect an Ethernet cable from your router to the port on your TV
 Select Menu on your TV’s remote and then go to Network Settings
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  Select the option to enable wired internet
 Type your Wi-Fi password using your remote’s buttons
 When your TV is upstairs, use a powerline

TV upstairs or in another room from your router? It doesn't mean you can't watch Netflix or iPlayer.
The further away you are from your router, the weaker the signal becomes. But you can extend thereach
of your home network for smoother streaming with a powerline kit.
A powerline kit includes 2 adapters and 2 Ethernet cables. Once the adapters are plugged into power sockets
and your router, the internet signal is sent down your electricity cables.

Benefits of powerline
 It delivers a strong internet connection upstairs or through thick walls
 You will extend the internet to the far corners of your home
 Easy to set up

How to connect
 Plug the first powerline adapter into a socket in the same room as your router
 Wse an Ethernet cable to connect the adapter to your broadband router
 Plug the second powerline adapter into a socket in the same room as your Smart TV
 Then plug an Ethernet cable into the Ethernet port on your Smart TV
 Connect the other end of the Ethernet cable to your powerline adapter

How fast is your broadband?

 Watching online video is the main benefit of Smart TV.
 The faster your broadband the better quality your catch-up TV, series binges and movie nights will
be.
 Particularly if your Smart TV is also 4K UHD. Netflix and Amazon stream a selection of
movies and TV shows in 4K.
 Super-fast broadband will give you the best possible regular streaming experience – and it’s near-
essential for 4K steaming.

2.7 Computer Networks

 Using the Internet, computers connect and communicate with one another, primarily using the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol).
 A step-by-step guide that each computer uses to know how to talk to another computer.
 Each computer must do to transmit data, when to transmit data, how to transmit that data. It also
states how to receive data in the same manner.
 If the rules are not followed, the computer can't connect to another computer, nor send and
receive data between other computers.
 To connect to the Internet and other computers on a network, a computer must havea NIC
(network interface card) installed.

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  A network cable plugged into the NIC on one end and plugged into a cable modem, DSL
modem, router, or switch can allow a computer to access the Internet and connect to other
computers.

ISPs (Internet service providers)

 ISPs (Internet service providers), the companies that provide Internet service and
connectivity, also follow these rules. The ISP provides a bridge between your computer
and all the other computers in the world on the Internet.
 The ISP uses the TCP/IP protocols to make computer-to-computer connections possible
and transmit data between them. An ISP assigns an IP address, which is a unique address
given to your computer or network to communicate on the Internet.

Home Network
If you have a home computer network, the computers are also using TCP/IP to connect. The
TCP/IP protocol allows each computer to "see" the other computers on the network, and share
filesand printers.

When computers connect on the same network, it is called a local area network, or LAN. When
multiple networks are connected, it is called a wide area network, or WAN. With this type of
network, your home has a network router that connects to your ISP.

Fig:2.25 Wireless Router

The router is given the IP address for your connection to the Internet and then assigns local IP
addresses to each device in your network. These local addresses are often 192.168.1.2-255.
When accessing a local computer in your network, your router sends your TCP/IP
packets between the local IP addresses.

when you want to connect to the Internet, your router uses the IP address assigned by the ISP.
Your IP address is not a 192.168.x.x address because the ISP assigns that IP address and not your
router.

When requesting information from a web page, such as Computer Hope, you enter a URL that is
easy to understand and remember. For your computer to access the computer containing the
pages, that URL must be converted into an IP address, which is done with DNS.

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Once DNS has converted the URL into an IP address, the routers on the Internet will know how
to route your TCP/IP packet.

The below Fig:2.26 helps explain the information in the previous sections about your
computer communicates with others on the Internet.

 Windows, macOS, and Linux computers use the TCP/IP protocol to connect to other
computers on a LAN or WAN. Connecting to a LAN or WAN requires either a wired
connection or a wireless connection.
 A wired connection is usually done using a network cable . A wireless connection (Wi-
Fi) uses an 802.11b wireless network card. With both connection types, a network router
is usually required to connect to other computers. Connecting to the Internet at your
home also requires either a cable modem or a DSL modem, depending on which ISP you
use.

2.8 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL, originally, digital subscriber loop) is a communication medium,
which is used to transfer internet through copper wire telecommunication line.
Along with cable internet, DSL is one of the most popular ways ISPs provide broadband internet
access.

Its aim is to maintain the high speed of the internet being transfered.
If both telephone and internet facility, then the answer is by using splitters or DSL filters(shown
in below diagram).Basically, the use splitter is to splits the frequency and make sure that they
can’t get interrupted.

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 Fig:2.27 Digital Subscriber Line

Types of DSL
1. Symmetric DSL – SDSL, splits the upstream and downstream frequencies evenly,
providing equal speeds to both uploading and downloading data transfer. This connection
may provide 2 Mbps upstream and downstream.it is mostly preferred by small
organizations.

2. Asymmetric DSL – ADSL, provides a wider frequency range for downstream transfers,
which offers several times faster downstream speeds.an ADSL connection may offer 20
Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps upstream, it is because most users download more data
than they upload.

Benefits
 No Additional Wiring – A DSL connection makes use of your existing telephone
wiring, so you will not have to pay for expensive upgrades to your phone system.
 Cost Effective – DSL internet is a very cost-effective method and is best in connectivity
 Availability of DSL modems by the service providers.
 User can use the both telephone line and internet at a same time.And it is because the
voice istransferred on other frequency and digital signals are transferred on others.
 User can choose between different connection speeds and pricing from various providers.
 DSL Internet service only works over a limited physical distance and remains unavailable
inmany areas where the local telephone infrastructure does not support DSL technology.
 The service is not available everywhere. The connection is faster for receiving data than it
is forsending data over the Internet.

2.9 Communicating on the Internet

2.9.1 Email
Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode over the internet. It
offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of distributing information among people.

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2.9.2 E-Mail Address
Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This name is known as E-
mail address. Different users can send and receive messages according to the e-mail address.
E-mail isgenerally of the form username@domainname.

For example,
[email protected] is an e-mail address where webmaster is username and
tutorialspoint.com is domain name.
The username and the domain name are separated by @(at) symbol.
Email addresses are not case sensitive.
Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

2.9.3 E-mail Message Components

E-mail message comprises of different components: E-mail Header, Greeting, Text, and
Signature.These components are described in the following diagram:

From : Alex Diaz [email protected] Wed Jun22 11:00 EDT 2013

Email
Date : Wed , 22 Jun 2013 11:00 :46 EDT 2013-0400(EDT)
Heading
To : [email protected]

Greeting Hi Guys : bean dip

Subject

Someone
Cc Accidently finished off the black bean dip last night. Can one of
: [email protected]
you pick up another case of it on your way home? I think Luke on his bike
Text today so might have to.talk Body

------Alex
Signature

Alex T.Diaz Fig:2.28 Components of E-mail Message

323 Toast Lane | office(401)347-2345

East Providence.
2.9.4 E-mail Header | tax(401)347-0013
The first five lines of an E-mail message is called E-mail header. The header part
Rhode island
comprises offollowing fields:05983
 From
 Date
 To
 Subject

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  CC
 BCC
From
The From field indicates the sender’s address i.e. who sent the e-mail.

Date
The Date field indicates the date when the e-mail was sent.To
The To field indicates the recipient’s address i.e. to whom the e-mail is sent.

Subject
The Subject field indicates the purpose of e-mail. It should be precise and to the point.

CC
CC stands for Carbon copy. It includes those recipient addresses whom we want to keep
informed but not exactly the intended recipient.

BCC
BCC stands for Black Carbon Copy. It is used when we do not want one or more of the
recipients to know that someone else was copied on the message. Greeting. Greeting is the
opening of the actual message. Eg. Hi Sir or Hi Guys etc.

Text
It represents the actual content of the message.

Signature
This is the final part of an e-mail message. It includes Name of Sender, Address, and
Contact Number.

2.9.5 Advantages
E-mail has proved to be powerful and reliable medium of communication. Here are the
benefits of E-mail:
 Reliable
 Convenience
 Speed
 Inexpensive
 Printable
 Global
 Generality

Reliable
Many of the mail systems notify the sender if e-mail message was undeliverable.

Convenience
There is no requirement of stationary and stamps. One does not have to go to post office. But all
thesethings are not required for sending or receiving an mail.

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Speed
E-mail is very fast. However, the speed also depends upon the underlying network.

Inexpensive
The cost of sending e-mail is very low.

Printable
It is easy to obtain a hardcopy of an e-mail. Also an electronic copy of an e-mail can also be
saved forrecords.

Global
E-mail can be sent and received by a person sitting across the globe.

Generality
It is also possible to send graphics, programs and sounds with an e-mail.

2.9.6 Disadvantages
Apart from several benefits of E-mail, there also exists some disadvantages as discussed below:
 Forgery
 Overload
 Misdirection
 Junk
 No response

Forgery
E-mail doesn’t prevent from forgery, that is, someone impersonating the sender, since
sender isusually not authenticated in any way.

Overload
Convenience of E-mail may result in a flood of mail.

Misdirection
It is possible that you may send e-mail to an unintended recipient.

Junk
Junk emails are undesirable and inappropriate emails. Junk emails are sometimes referred to as
spam.

No Response
It may be frustrating when the recipient does not read the e-mail and respond on a regular basis.

2.10 Usenet and Newsgroups

2.10.1 Usenet (User Network)
Like mailing lists Usenet is also a way of sharing information. It was started by Tom Truscott
and Jim Ellis in 1979. Initially it was limited to two sites but today there are thousands of Usenet
sitesinvolving millions of people.

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Usenet is a kind of discussion group where people can share views on topic of their interest.

Newsgroup Classification
There exist a number of newsgroups distributed all around the world. These are identified using a
hierarchical naming system in which each newsgroup is assigned a unique name that consists of
alphabetic strings separated by periods.

The leftmost portion of the name represents the top-level category of the newsgroup followed by
subtopic. For example,

Camp

Database AI answer lang mail networ os

k

C basic Fortran C++ Java

Fig:2.29 Hierarchy of Newsgroup

The following table shows the top-level hierarchies of Usenet Newsgroup:

Comp. Computer related topics including computer hardware, Comp.lang.java.beans
software, languages etc. Comp.database.oracle

News. Newsgroup and Usenet topics News.software.nntp

Rec. Artistic activities, hobbies, or recreational activities such Rec.arts.animation

as books, movies etc.

Sci. Scientific topics Sci.bio.botany

Soc. Social issues and various culture Soc.culture.india

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 Talk. Conventional subjects such as religion, politics etc. Soc.politics.india

Humanities. Art, literature, philosophy and culture Humanities.classics

Misc. Miscellaneous topics i.e. issues tat may not fit Misc.answers
intoother categories Misc.books.technical

2.10.2 Working of Usenet Newsgroup

When a newsreader such as outlook express connects to a news server, it downloads all the new
messages posted in the subscribed newsgroup. We can either reply a message after reading or
post a news article to the news server.

The article posted to a news server is appended to the file maintained for that newsgroup thenthe
news server shares article with other news servers that are connected to it.

Then each news server compares if both carry the same newsgroup. If yes, then by comparing
the files it checks that if there are any new articles in the file, if so they are appended to the file.
The updated file of the news servers is then sent to other news servers connected to it. This
process is continues until all of the news servers have updated information.

Fig:2.30 Working of Usenet Newsgroup

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2.10.3 Mailing list vs. Newsgroup
S. Mailing List Newsgroup
N.

1. Messages are delivered to individual Messages are not posted to individual

mailboxes of subscribed member of mailboxes but can be viewed by anyone who
group. has subscribed to that newsgroup.

2. Working with mailing list is easier Working with a particular newsgroup requires
than newsgroup. It is easy to proper knowledge of that newsgroup.
compose and receive emails.

3. In order to send or receive mails, you It requires a newsgroup reader.

required an email program.

4. Messages are delivered to certain Messages are available to public.

group of people.

5. Mailing list does not support Newsgroup supports threaded discussion.

threaded discussion.

6. Messages delivered to listed Article posted on a newsgroup can be

subscribers cannot be cancelled. cancelled.

2.11 Internet Chat and Instant Messaging

2.11.1 Chatting on the Internet
 Chatting online is talking to someone - or many someones - using the Internet to send
typed messages back and forth. You type your message and send it, other people read it
and type their messages and send them. You read the messages, type your reply and send
it back etc.
 Each person's messages are identified by the screen name of the person who typed it.

 A screen name is the name you are known by to this chat group. You may use the same
screen name each time, or choose a different one for each chat session. For security
reasons, do not use your real name.

 The people you are chatting to may use different names as well. You may talk to Rose
one session, Wonder Woman the next session and Shyness the next, and be chatting to

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 the same person in all three sessions.
 On the other hand, you may talk to Master Fox in five chat sessions and be talking to a
differentperson each time.
 You can chat in two ways: using a channel, or using a direct connection.
 A channel is where a lot of people are talking together. It is another name for a chat
room. Each channel has a name that should indicate what the people in the room are
talking about. A direct connection is a private conversation between you and another
person using the Internet.
 You join chat groups in different ways, depending on what sort of ISP you have.
 If you have a PPP account with your ISP, you use the IRC (Internet Relay Chat) to talk.
 If you use a large company (such as CompuServe) you chat with other users of that
company.
 When you first join a chat group, you will see the screen names of people who are
already chatting and a window that is keeping track of their messages. Everyone in the
group will be notified when you join it, so if it is friendly someone should send you a
welcome message.

Writing Your Messages

 When you are chatting, you use smileys to express your feelings. Common smileys are
listed inthe section on E-Mail.
 Chatters also use simple abbreviations. Some are easy to understand (for example, u for
you).
 Others are acronyms. A list of some of these appears in the section on E-Mail.

Things to remember when you join a chat group:

1. The conversation has already been going for a while. Read a full page of exchanges
(messages)before you type any so you understand what people are talking about. Reading
messages without replying is called lurking. When you do say something, you are de-
lurking
2. Start by reading the messages from one person, then another person etc until you get used
to following all the different threads of the conversation.
3. Scroll up to read older messages if you have to, and scroll down to see new messages.
4. Do not hurt anyone's feelings. These are people you are talking to.
5. Be cautious. You have no idea who these people are (and if you ask them, they may lie to
you).
6. Keep your messages short, to the point, and clean.
7. If you like, use the chat system to create a profile about yourself that other chatters can
read (as you can read theirs). Do not include any personal information.
8. If you want to talk to someone in private send them a message saying hello, who you
are andwhat you want.
9. If you join an offensive group by mistake, leave. Fast.
10. If you have someone in your chat group being offensive either ignore them, go to
another chatroom or set your screen so you don't get their messages.

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Things to remember to chat safely:
 Many people lie. About anything. This includes personal information.
 Do not reveal information that enables someone to find you - name, address, phone
number,place of work, suburb, mailing address etc.
 Never give your password to anyone. No exceptions.
 Be very cautious if someone without a profile wants to chat with you.
 If you ever choose to meet a chat friend in person, be very cautious and plan your
meeting withsafety in mind
 The Internet has revolutionized the way we communicate. E-mail has been the most
rapidly adopted form of communication ever known. People around the world send out
billions of e-mail messages every day.
 With IM, you can keep a list of people you interact with. You can IM with anyone on
your buddy list or contact list as long as that person is online. You type messages to
each other into a small window that shows up on both of your screens.

Features IM programs
 Instant messages - Send notes back and forth with a friend who is online
 Chat - Create a chat room with friends or co-workers
 Web links - Share links to your favorite Web sites
 Video - Send and view videos, and chat face to face with friends
 Images - Look at an image stored on your friend's computer
 Sounds - Play sounds for your friends
 Files - Share files by sending them directly to your friends
 Talk - Use the Internet instead of a phone to actually talk with friends
 Streaming content - Real-time or near-real-time stock quotes and news
 Mobile capabilities - Send instant messages from your cell phone

2.12 History of Instant message

 Before the Internet became popular, a lot of people were already online. The major online
services, such as America Online (AOL), Prodigy and CompuServe, were the main
way that ordinary people could connect and communicate with each other online.
 Online services provide the actual interface that you use when you're connected to the
service, which creates a targeted experience for users.
 In the early 1990s, people began to spend more and more time on the Internet. Creative
software developers designed chat-room software and set up chat rooms on Web servers.
In a chat room, a group of people can type in messages that are seen by everyone in the
"room." Instant messages are basically a chat room for just two people.
 In 1997, AOL, considered the pioneer of the online community, gave its users the ability
to talk in real time with each other through chat rooms and instant messages. In June
1998, AOL acquired Mirabilis and ICQ.
 The ICQ model is the basis for most instant-messaging utilities on the market today. In
the nextsection we'll examine how these services work.

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2.12.1 Using Instant Messaging
 Look at the steps below to understand exactly what happens with an instant-messaging
service.
 You go to the download page and get a copy of the free software client for your
computer.
 You install the software and open the client.
 The client tries to connect to the server. It uses a proprietary protocol for communication.
 Once the client is connected to the server, you can enter your name and password to log
in to the server. If this is your first time on, you can sign up for an account and
immediately begin using it. When the server verifies your name and password, you are
logged in.
 The client sends the server the connection information (IP address and number of the port
assigned to the client) of the computer you are using. It also provides the user with the
names of everyone in your contacts list.
 The server creates a temporary file that has the connection information for you and the
list of your contacts. It then checks to see if any of the users in your contact list are
currently logged in.
 If the server finds any of your contacts logged in, it sends a message back to the client on
your computer with the connection information for that user. The server also sends your
connection information to the people in your contact list that are signed on.
 When your client gets the connection information for a person in your contact list, it
changes the status of that person to "online." You click on the name of a person in your
contact list who is online, and a window opens that you can enter text into. You enter a
message and click "send" or hit return to communicate with that person.
 Because your client has the IP address and port number for the computer of the person
that you sent the message to, your message is sent directly to the client on that person's
computer. In other words, the server is not involved at this point. All communication is
directly between the two clients.
 The other person gets your instant message and responds. The window that each of you
sees on your respective computers expands to include a scrolling dialog of the
conversation. Each person's instant messages appears in this window on both computers.
 When the conversation is complete, you close the message window. Eventually, you go
offline and exit. When this happens, your client sends a message to the server to
terminate the session. The server sends a message to the client of each person on your
contact list who is currently online to indicate that you have logged off. Finally, the server
deletes the temporary file that contained the connection information for your client. In the
clients of your contacts that are online, your name moves to the offline status section.

Making phone calls on the Internet

The free phone call applications listed below are available in four different forms:
 PC to phone programs are ones that can make a free call from your computer to a real
telephone number so you don't even need a telephone yourself.
 App to phone software are ones that make free internet calls from a mobile device to a
real number. These services support making phone calls to any number, even landlines
and mobile phones that aren't using the app.
 PC to PC internet calling is when a computer makes a free phone call to another
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 computer.
 App to app services run entirely on smartphones or tablets, meaning that phone calls
only work if the recipient has the same application installed. This method can not be used
to call landlines or other mobile phones that don't have the proper software.

Google Voice is one of the best ways to make free internet phone calls. With Google Voice, you
can make free calls to an actual phone number, PC to PC calls, and free PC to phone calls.

Google Voice is much more than a way to make free phone calls on the internet. Google Voice is
primarily a way to manage the phone numbers in your life and can be used to intelligently route
incoming calls to your free phone number provided by Google Voice to any other phone you
have. With Google Voice, you can also get free SMS, make a free conference call, and get free
voicemail services.

Free calls you make with Google Voice must be to numbers in the United States or Canada.
Free phone calls with Google Voice are limited to three hours. However, you can continue to
make a free call to the same number over and over again.

The Google Voice app works from the web as well as iPhone, iPad, and Android devices.

WhatsApp is owned by Facebook and is a popular texting app with hundreds of millions of
users. However, you can also call your WhatsApp friends right from the app using only your
internet connection (doesn't count against your phone plan's voice minutes).

You just need to confirm your phone number to get started. Once you're using the app, you can
start a new conversation to clearly see which of your contacts are also using WhatsApp, after
which you can call them for free, no matter where in the world they're located. Group calls can
include as many as eight people.

WhatsApp also lets you send videos, photos, your location, and contacts, to other users. End- to-
end encryption is supported for all communication within the app.

Because WhatsApp requires the app to make free phone calls, you can not use it to make free
calls to phones that don't have the app installed, nor to landlines.

You can use WhatsApp from a computer or mobile device, including Android, iPhone, iPad,
Windows, and Mac.

TextNow is a mobile app that can send and receive free phone calls with other users. You can
also text any phone because you're given an actual number to use. To make phone calls to non-
users, like landline phones, you'll need to buy or earn redeemable credits.

The interface is very nice. It keeps track of call history right within the message center, it's quick
and easy to start a phone call, and you can even send messages while actively in a call.

80
In addition to sending text messages, TextNow lets you send photos, drawings, emoticons, and
your location. You can also customize the voicemail greeting, get email alerts when you get
messages, change the message screen background, use a different alert for different contacts,
customize the overall theme, and use a signature with all your messages.

You can login to your TextNow account on a different device, and all your saved messages and
phone number will remain and can be used immediately.Because you don't need an actual phone
number to set up TextNow (just an email address), it works with devices that might not have a
phone number,like the iPad, iPod touch, and Kindle.

If you're using TextNow on Windows or Mac, or from the web, you can both call and text from
your computer.

A TextNow app is available for Android, Windows Phone, iPhone, iPad, Windows, and Mac.

Google Duo is another audio calling app from Google. You can make audio calls only or you
can use it for free video calling. You can not send or receive text messages with Google Duo,
though.

When you choose a contact to call, Google Duo puts other Google Duo users from your contact
list at the very top of the list. Everyone else is listed below with an invite button next to them so
you can ask them to join you on Google Duo for free audio and video calls.
The way this app works is by calling other Google Duo users, so you cannot call house phones or
any other phone that isn't using the app.

Google Duo can be used for website or Google's Nest Hub Max. It's also available as an app for
Android, iPhone, and iPad.

Textfree is a free application that gives you your own phone number to make free app to app
calls and text messages, and you can even customize the voicemail greeting.

The texting feature can actually be used on non-app phones as well, which means you can use
Text free as another way to text your friends over the internet. Every Textfree user begins with a
limited number of minutes for free calling to phones not using the app, like landlines.
There are ways to get more free minutes like watching video advertisements and completing free
offers.

If you fail to use your Textfree phone number for 30 days, it will be returned to the "pool" of
numbers for new Textfree users, and thus become inactive. You can always get another one if
your current number expires.

In addition to the web, Textfree is usable through the Android, iPhone, and iPad app.

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 Review Questions
1. Define DSL
2. What is ISDN?
3. Define Usenet
4. Define Email
5. What is Computer Network?
6. Explain the types of Internet Connections
7. Explain ISDN Services
8. What is Digital Subscriber Line?
9. Explain E-mail Message Components
10. Discuss about working of Usenet Newsgroup
11. Explain Instant Messaging in detail.

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 Chapter - 3
World Wide Web (WWW)-I
3.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
 The World Wide Web allows computer users to locate and view multimedia-based
documents (i.e., documents with text, graphics, animations, audios or videos) on almost
any subject.
 Even though the Internet was developed more than three decades ago, the introduction of
the World Wide Web is a relatively recent event. In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee of CERN
(the European Laboratory for Particle Physics) developed the World Wide Web and
several communication protocols that form the backbone of the Web.
 The Internet and the World Wide Web surely will be listed among the most important
and profound creations of humankind.
 In the past, most computer applications executed on “stand-alone” computers (i.e.,
computers that were not connected to one another).
 The W3C is also a standardization organization.
 Web technologies standardized by the W3C are called Recommendations. W3C
Recommendations include the Extensible Hyper-Text Markup Language (XHTML),
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), Hypertext Markup Language (HTML; now considered a
“legacy” technology) and the Extensible Markup Language (XML).
 The W3C homepage (www.w3.org) provides extensive resources on Internet and Web
technologies.

3.2 WWW Architecture

WWW architecture is divided into several layers.

Identifiers and Character Set

Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is used to uniquely identify resources on the web and
UNICODE makes it possible to built web pages that can be read and write in human languages.

Syntax XML (Extensible Markup Language) helps to define common syntax in semantic web.

Data Interchange
Resource Description Framework (RDF) framework helps in defining core representation of
data for web. RDF represents data about resource in graph form.

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 User interface and applications

Cryptography Trust C
r
Proof y
p
t
Ontologies Rules: o
Querying: OWL RIF/SWR
g
SPARQL L
r
Taxonomies:RDFS a
p
Data Interchange :RDF h
y
Syntax:XML

Identifiers:URL Character Set : UNICODE

Fig-3.1-WWW Architecture

Taxonomies
RDF Schema (RDFS) allows more standardized description of taxonomies and other
ontological
constructs.

Ontology
 Web Ontology Language (OWL) offers more constructs over RDFS. It comes in
followingthree versions:
 OWL Lite for taxonomies and simple constraints.
 OWL DL for full description logic support.
 OWL for more syntactic freedom of RDF

Rules
RIF (Rule Interchange Format) and SWRL (Semantic Web Rule Language) offers rules beyond
the constructs that are available from RDFs and OWL. Simple Protocol and RDF Query
Language (SPARQL) is SQL like language used for querying RDF data and OWL Ontologies.

Proof

84
All semantic and rules that are executed at layers below Proof and their result will be used to
prove deductions.

Cryptography
Cryptography means such as digital signature for verification of the origin of sources is
used.

3.3 Web Page

web page is a document available on world wide web. Web Pages are stored on web server and
can be viewed using a web browser.

Web pages can contain huge information including text, graphics, audio, video and hyper links.
These hyper links are the link to other web pages.

Collection of linked web pages on a web server is known as website. There is unique Uniform
Resource Locator (URL) is associated with each web page.

3.3.1 Static Web page

Static web pages are also known as flat or stationary web page. They are loaded on the client’s
browser as exactly they are stored on the web server. Such web pages contain only static
information. User can only read the information but can’t do any modification or interact with
the information.
Static web pages are created using only HTML. Static web pages are only used when the
information is no more required to be modified.

Fig-3.2 Static Web Page

3.3.2 Dynamic Web page

It shows different information at different point of time. It is possible to change a portion of a

web page without loading the entire web page. It has been made possible using Ajax technology.

85
Server-side dynamic web page
It is created by using server-side scripting. There are server-side scripting parameters that
determine how to assemble a new web page which also include setting up of more client-side
processing.

Client-side dynamic web page

It is processed using client side scripting such as JavaScript. And then passed in to Document
Object Model (DOM).

Fig-3.3 Dynamic Webpage

3.4 Web Browser

 The World Wide Web was the first web browser. It was created by W3C Director Tim
Berners- Lee in 1990. Later, it was renamed Nexus to avoid confusion caused by the
actual World Wide Web.
 The Lynx browser was a text-based browser, which was invented in 1992. It was not able
to display the graphical content.
 Although, the first graphical user interface browser was NCSA Mosaic. It was the first
most popular browser in the world, which was introduced in 1993.
 In 1994, there were some improvements occurred in Mosaic and came to Netscape
Navigator.
 In 1995, Microsoft introduced the Internet Explorer It was the first web browser
developed by Microsoft.
 A research project started on Opera in 1994. Later, it was publicly introduced in 1996.
 Apple's Safari browser was introduced in 2003. It was specifically released for
Macintoshcomputers.
 In 2004, Mozilla introduced Firefox as Netscape Navigator.
 In 2007, a browser Mobile Safari was released as Apple mobile web browser.
 The popular browser Google Chrome was launched in 2008.
 The fast-growing mobile-based browser Opera Mini was released in 2011.
 The Microsoft Edge browser was launched in 2015.
Definition
 A browser is a software program that is used to explore, retrieve, and display the
information available on the World Wide Web. This information may be in the form of

86
 pictures, web pages, videos, and other files that all are connected via hyperlinks and
categorized with the help of URLs (Uniform Resource Identifiers).
 For example, you are viewing this page by using a browser. On behalf of the users, the
browser sends requests to web servers all over the internet by using HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol).
 A browser requires a smart phone, computer, or tablet and internet to work.

3.4.1 Features of Web Browser

Most Web browsers offer common features such as:
 Refresh button: Refresh button allows the website to reload the contents of the web
pages. Most of the web browsers store local copies of visited pages to enhance the
performance by using a caching mechanism. Sometimes, it stops you from seeing the
updated information; in this case, by clicking on the refresh button, you can see the
updated information.
 Stop button: It is used to cancel the communication of the web browser with the server
and stops loading the page content. For example, if any malicious site enters the browser
accidentally, it helps to save from it by clicking on the stop button.
 Home button: It provides users the option to bring up the predefined home page of the
website.
 Web address bar: It allows the users to enter a web address in the address bar and visit
the website.
 Tabbed browsing: It provides users the option to open multiple websites on a single
window. It helps users to read different websites at the same time. For example, when
you search for anything on the browser, it provides you a list of search results for your
query. You can open all the results by right-clicking on each link, staying on the same
page.
 Bookmarks: It allows the users to select particular website to save it for the later
retrieval of information, which is predefined by the users.

3.5 URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A uniform resource locator is the address of a resource on the internet or the World Wide Web.
It is also known as a web address or uniform resource identifier (URI).
For example, https: www.Google.com, which is the URL or web address for the google website.
A URL represents the address of a resource, including the protocol used to access it.

A URL includes the following information:

 It uses the protocol to access the resource.
 It defines the location of a server by IP address or the domain name.
 It includes a fragment identifier, which is optional.
 It contains the location of the resource in the directory of the server. A URL forwards user
to a particular online resource, such as a video, webpage, or other resources. For
example, when you search information on Google, the search results display the URL of
the relevant resources in response to your search query.
 The title which appears in the search results is a hyperlink of the URL of the webpage. It

87
 is a Uniform Resource Identifier, which refers to all kinds of names and addresses of
the resources on the web servers.

URL's first part is known as a protocol identifier, and it specifies the protocol to use, and the
second part, which is known as a resource name, represents the IP address or the domain name of
a resource. Both parts are differentiated by a colon and two forward slashes like
http://www.google.com.

3.6 Component of a Web Browser

User Interface

Data Persistances
Browser Engine

Rendering Engine

Netw Javascript UI
orkin Interpreter Backend
g

Fig- Components of Web Browser

The primary components of a browser are shown in the below image.

User Interface: The user interface is an area where the user can use several options like address
bar, back and forward button, menu, bookmarking, and many other options to interact with the
browser.

Browser Engine: It connects the UI (User Interface) and the rendering engine as a bridge. It
queries and manipulates the rendering engine based on inputs from several user interfaces.

Rendering Engine: It is responsible for displaying the requested content on the browser screen.
It translates the HTML, XML files, and images, which are formatted by using the CSS. It
generates the layout of the content and displays it on the browser screen. Although it can also
display the other types of content by using different types of plugins or extensions. such as:
 Internet Explorer uses Trident
 Chrome & Opera 15+ use Blink
 Chrome (iPhone) & Safari use Webkit
 Firefox & other Mozilla browsers use Gecko
Networking: It retrieves the URLs by using internet protocols like HTTP or FTP. It is
responsible for maintaining all aspects of Internet communication and security. Furthermore, it
may be used to cache a retrieved document to reduce network traffic.

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JavaScript Interpreter: As the name suggests, JavaScript Interpreter translates and executes the
JavaScript code, which is included in a website. The translated results are sent to the rendering
engine to display results on the device screen.

UI Backend: It is used to draw basic combo boxes and Windows (widgets). It specifies a generic
interface, which is not platform-specific.

Data Storage: The data storage is a persistence layer that is used by the browser to store all sorts
of information locally, like cookies. A browser also supports different storage mechanisms such
as IndexedDB, WebSQL, localStorage, and FileSystem. It is a database stored on the local drive
of your computer where the browser is installed. It handles user data like cache, bookmarks,
cookies, and preferences.

List of Internet Browsers

There are various types of internet browsers, which are as follows:
Microsoft Edge: Microsoft Edge is a web browser that comes pre-installed with Windows 10
operating system and Windows Server 2016. It was introduced to replace the Internet Explorer
Web browser, and its code name was Spartan. It offers various types of features such as freestyle
writing over Web page displays, refined search, and presentations for e-books and other reading
resources.

Microsoft Edge was developed under the Spartan codename Project. In April 2015, Microsoft
changed the project Spartan name as Microsoft Edge.

Although Internet Explorer and Edge are included with Windows 10, Edge act as a default
browser. It combines new web technology evaluations and enhances the speed of browsing.

Fig-3.4: Edge

Although, Internet Explorer 11 was available in Microsoft Windows operating system, Microsoft
Edge has become the default browser in Windows 10. It needs at least 1 gigabyte of memory. It
offers several types of features, such as annotation features, a new rendering engine, and easy-to-
use icons, etc.

Features of Microsoft Edge

It provides support for Firefox and Chrome add-ons.
It has the ability to fill the form automatically.
It can be integrated with Cortana. It provides faster page rendering.
It has more security features and also allows private browsing.
It is modern, lightweight, and reduces resource consumption.

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 Latest versions of Edge browser
Platform Versions Release Date
Window 10 79.0.309.71 22-01-2020
Window 10 40.15254.603 21-01-2020
Mobile
Xbox One 40.15063.0 30-08-2018

Amazon Silk: Amazon silk is a proprietary Internet browser. It was released for Fire OS devices
on 15 November 2011. It is based on the open-source Chromium project and derives most of the
features from the Google Chrome browser.

Fig-3.5: Amazon Silk

It divides the task of loading webpages between Amazon's servers and Fire.
Silk is the default browser on most Amazon hardware devices as well as on app-based Kindle
devices, TV, Fire, and compatible Echo devices. Furthermore, it is the first new mass-market,
client software delivery mechanism, which should be built from the base of the cloud, not only
the web.

Rendering pages on EC2

The components that can be handed off to EC2 to speed up browsing are: HTML, CSS,
Networking, JavaScript, Block building, Marshaling, Native OM, etc.

Opera: An Opera web browser was first conceived at Telenor company in 1994, later bought by
the Opera Software on 1 April 1995. It was designed for desktop and mobile interfaces, but it is
more popular now for mobile phones. It is based on Chromium, and it uses the blink layout
engine.

Apple Safari: Safari is an internet browser available for the Macintosh, and Windows operating
systems included the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch. It was developed by Apple, Inc.

Google Chrome: Google Chrome is an open-source internet browser. It is developed by Google

on 11 December 2008 for Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Android, and iOS operating systems.

Mozilla Firefox: The Mozilla Firefox web browser is developed by the Mozilla Foundation and
its subordinate company, Mozilla Corporation. The First version 1.0 of Firefox was introduced
on 9 November 2004.

Internet Explorer: It is a web browser that is manufactured by Microsoft Corporation, and it is

included with the Microsoft Windows operating system. But It was removed in Window 10 in
support of Microsoft's new Edge Browser.

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Markup Language
A markup language is a computer language that uses tags to define elements within a document.
It is human-readable, meaning markup files contain standard words, rather than typical
programming syntax.
Markup languages define the style and structure of a document so that a computer knows how
you want that document to appear.

Markup languages are used extensively across web development. They are used to describe how
a particular set of data should be represented on a web document.

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) describes the structure of a web page. XML, on the other
hand, describes a particular type of data.

<a href="https://google.com">Google</a>

We have used an <a> tag to define this link, and when our link is over we close it with an </a>
tag.

These tags tell our computer that we want to render a link, or an anchor (which is where the “a”
comes from). These tags will not appear on our web page. They are instructions for our web
browser to read, so they know how to show a particular web page.

Markup files are saved as plain text documents. This means you can open them using a standard
text editor.

3.7 Markup Languages vs. Programming Languages

The markup language sounds like they should be programming languages. A programming
language is a set of instructions given to a computer that produces various different types of
output. Ruby, Python and Perl are all programming languages. Markup languages, on the other
hand, are used to describe a document.

Types of Markup Languages

Several markup languages exist, the four most popular are HTML, XHTML, XML and SGML.

3.8 Hyper Text Markup Language

HyperText Markup Language, or HTML, is the main language used in web development.
Without it, we wouldn’t have websites. It defines the structure of a web page, such as what titles,
images, and text should appear on a page. It also defines in what order those features should
appear in the browser. Conversely, CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) are used to define the layout
and appearance of pages in the browser.

HTML is one of the standard markup languages. In HTML, tags are used to define every element
on a web page, from titles to images to forms. The HTML language is governed by the

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international organization World Wide Web Consortium, or the W3C. HTML is so essential to
how the web works that a set of international standards are necessary to write and process it
consistently.

HTML is a markup language used for creating WebPages. The contents of each webpage are
defined by HTML tags. Basic page tags, such as <head>, <body>, and <div> define sections of
the page, while tags such as <table>, <form>, <image>, and <a> define elements within the
page.
<a href="https://google.com">Google</a>

3.9 eXtensible Markup Language

XML, or eXtensible Markup Language, was designed to transport and store data. The language
is self-descriptive.

XML is used for storing structured data, rather than formatting information on a page. While
HTML documents use predefined tags (like the examples above), XML files use custom tags to
define elements.
This is because there are no limits to what you can name your XML tags. There are no
predefined tags, so you can choose names that precisely describe each point of data within an
XML document.

Let’s say you are creating a markup document to keep track of your favorite books. In XML, you
could use the following structure:
<book>
<title>How to Win Friends and Influence People</title>
<author>Dale Carnegie</author>
<rating>⅘</rating>
</book>

For example, an XML file that stores information about computer models may include the
followingsection:
<computer>
<manufacturer>Dell</manufacturer>
<model>XPS 17</model>
<components>
<processor>2.00 GHz Intel Core i7</processor>
<ram>6GB</ram>
<storage>1TB</storage>
</components>
</computer>

XML is called the "Extensible Markup Language" since custom tags can be used to support a
wide range of elements.

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eXtensible HyperText Markup Language
XHTML is a version of HTML4 which meets the XML standard. It’s largely been replaced by
HTML5 thanks to demands for a more diverse feature set. XHTML and HTML are very similar,
but there are a few differences that you may notice.

For instance, HTML attributes must have both a name and a value; you can’t use standalone
attributes. In addition, all XHTML tags are written in lowercase. In HTML, you can write using
uppercase or lowercase, even though best practices suggest you should use lowercase.

Example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width">
<title>Sample HTML page</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css" type="text/css"/>
</head>
<body>
<div>
<header>

<h1>Inline Style Demo</h1>

<nav>
<a href="#">Link #1</a>
<a href="#">Link #2</a>
<a href="#">Link #3</a>
</nav>
</header>
<main>
<h2>Internal Stylesheets:</h2>
<ul>
<li>Are located in the <head> of the HTML document.</li>
<li>Are inside the head, the internal stylesheet is located in between <style> tags.</li>
<li>The Syntax changes from inline styling with properties and values in between semicolons
toactual CSS with blocks of rules</li>
<li>How can this get cumbersome? </li>
</ul>
</main>
</div>
</body>
</html>

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3.10 Standardized Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
The markup languages that carry the instruction for text processing are known as ‘Procedural
Markup’. The idea of markup was to format a particular kind of document. But later on it was
felt that markup languages could be used for system-to-system information interchange also.
This was first realized by Charles Goldfarb, Ed Mosherand Ray Lorie when they were working
with legal documents. They designed the first markup language known as GML (Generalized
Markup Language) based on the following observation:

The document processing programs needed to support a common document format.

The common format needed to be specific to their domain - for example legal documents For
example, take an example of a memorandum:

To: Bishwanath Dutta

CC: Bibhuti Bhushan Sahoo
From: Aditya Tripathi
Date: 27.01.2013
Subject: Appointment order

There are six fields in this document:

Who the document is intended for (the To: field).
Who has been sent a copy of document (the CC: field).
Who sent the document (the From: field).
The date of document written (the Date: field).
The subject of document (the Subject: field).

The document body

The structure of this document is fixed and one is bound to write it in the same structure. Hence,
porting the information across systems will not be a problem as the structure of document is
always same. The definition of the structure of document is known as ‘DTD (Document Type
Definition)’.

Once GML was designed, Goldfarb fine-tuned his work and proposed the SGML(Standardised
Generalised Markup Language) which was further approved by ISO(International Organization
for Standardization) in 1986. Hence, SGML is for defining the format in a text document.
Readable by both humans and computer programs, SGML is usable in a wide range of
applications such as print publishing, CD-ROMs, and database systems. SGML was not a
language itself but it was a meta language to develop other markup languages.

3.11 Hypertext Markup Language

HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a formatting language used to define
the appearance and contents of a web page. It allows us to organize text, graphics, audio, and

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video on a web page.

Key Points:
The word Hypertext refers to the text which acts as a link.
The word markup refers to the symbols that are used to define structure of the text.
The markup symbols tells the browser how to display the text and are often called tags.
The word Language refers to the syntax that is similar to any other language.
HTML was created by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.

3.12 HTML Tags

Tag is a command that tells the web browser how to display the text, audio, graphics or video
on a webpage.

Key Points:
 Tags are indicated with pair of angle brackets.
 They start with a less than (<) character and end with a greater than (>) character.
 The tag name is specified between the angle brackets.
 Most of the tags usually occur in pair: the start tag and the closing tag.
 The start tag is simply the tag name is enclosed in angle bracket whereas the
closing tag isspecified including a forward slash (/).
 Some tags are the empty i.e. they don’t have the closing tag.
 Tags are not case sensitive.
 The starting and closing tag name must be the same. For example <b> hello </i> is
invalid asboth are different.
 If you don’t specify the angle brackets (<>) for a tag, the browser will treat the tag
name as asimple text.
 The tag can also have attributes to provide additional information about the tag to the
browser.

3.13 Basic tags

The following table shows the Basic HTML tags that define the basic web page:

Tag Description
<html> </html> Specifies the document as a web page.
<head> </head> Specifies the descriptive information about the web documents.
<title> </title> Specifies the title of the web page.
<body> </body> Specifies the body of a web document.

The following code shows how to use basic tags.

<html>
<head> Heading goes here…</head>
<title> Title goes here…</title>
<body> Body goes here…</body>
</html>

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3.14 Formatting Tags
The following table shows the HTML tags used for formatting the text:
Tag Description
<b> </b> Specifies the text as bold. Eg. this is bold text
<em> </em> It is a phrase text. It specifies the emphasized text. Eg. Emphasized text
<strong> </strong> It is a phrase tag. It specifies an important text. Eg. this is strong text
<i> </i> The content of italic tag is displayed in italic. Eg. Italic text
 Specifies the subscripted text. Eg. X1
 Defines the superscripted text. Eg. X2
<ins> </ins> Specifies the inserted text. Eg. The price of pen is now 15.
<del> </del> Specifies the deleted text. Eg. The price of pen is now 15.
<mark> </mark> Specifies the marked text. Eg. It is raining

3.15 Table Tags

Following table describe the commonly used table tags:
Tag Description
<table> </table> Specifies a table.
<tr> </tr> Specifies a row in the table.
<th> </th> Specifies header cell in the table.
<td> </td> Specifies the data in an cell of the table.
<caption> </caption> Specifies the table caption.
<colgroup> </colgroup> Specifies a group of columns in a table for formatting.

3.16 List tags

Following table describe the commonly used list tags:
Tag Description
<ul> </ul> Specifies an unordered list.
<ol> </ol> Specifies an ordered list.
<li> </li> Specifies a list item.
<dl> </dl> Specifies a description list.
<dt> </dt> Specifies the term in a description list.
<dd> </dd> Specifies description of term in a description list.

3.17 Frames
Frames help us to divide the browser’s window into multiple rectangular regions. Each region
contains separate html web page and each of them work independently.

A set of frames in the entire browser is known as frameset. It tells the browser how to divide
browser window into frames and the web pages that each has to load.

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The following table describes the various tags used for creating frames:
Tag Description
<frameset> It is replacement of the <body> tag. It doesn’t contain the tags that are normally
</frameset> used in
<body> element; instead it contains the <frame> element used to add each frame.
<frame> </frame> Specifies the content of different frames in a web page.
<base> </base> It is used to set the default target frame in any page that contains links whose
contents
are displayed in another frame.

3.18 Forms
Forms are used to input the values. These values are sent to the server for processing. Forms
uses input elements such as text fields, check boxes, radio buttons, lists, submit buttons etc. to
enter the data into it.

The following table describes the commonly used tags while creating a form:

Tag Description
<form> </form> It is used to create HTML form.
<input> </input> Specifies the input field.
<textarea> </textarea> Specifies a text area control that allows to enter multi-line text.
<label> </label> Specifies the label for an input element.

3.19 Image Maps

If the ISMAP attribute is present on an <IMG> element, the <IMG> element must be contained
in an <A> element with an HREF present. This construct represents a set of hyperlinks. The user
can choose from the set by choosing a pixel of the image. The user agent computes the head URI
by appending ‘?’ and the x and y coordinates of the pixel to the URI given in the <A> element.

For example, if a document contains:

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//IETF//DTD HTML 2.0//EN">
<head><title>ImageMap Example</title>
<BASE HREF="http://host/index"></head>
<body>
<p> Choose any of these icons:<br>
<a href="/cgi-bin/imagemap"><img ismap src="icons.gif"></a>
and the user chooses the upper-leftmost pixel, the chosen hyperlink isthe one with the URI
‘http://host/cgi-bin/imagemap?0,0’.

3.20 Forms
A form is a template for a form data set and an associated method and action URI. A form data
set is a sequence of name/value pair fields. The names are specified on the NAME attributes of
form input elements, and the values are given initial values by various forms of markup and
edited by the user.

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The resulting form data set is used to access an information service as a function of the action
and method.

Forms elements can be mixed in with document structuring elements. For example, a <PRE>
element may contain a <FORM> element, or a <FORM> element may contain lists which
contain

<INPUT> elements. This gives considerable flexibility in designingthe layout of forms.

Form processing is a level 2 feature.
Form Elements
Form: FORM

The <FORM> element contains a sequence of input elements, along with document
structuring elements.

The attributes are:

ACTION - specifies the action URI for the form. The action URI of a form defaults to the
base URI of the document (see 7, "Hyperlinks").

METHOD - selects a method of accessing the action URI. The set of applicable methods is a
function of the scheme of the action URI of the form. See 8.2.2, "Query Forms:
METHOD=GET" and 8.2.3, "Forms with Side- Effects: METHOD=POST

ENCTYPE - specifies the media type used to encode the name/value pairs for transport, in
case the protocol does not itself impose a format. See 8.2.1, "The form-urlencoded Media Type".

Input Field: INPUT

The <INPUT> element represents a field for user input. The TYPE attribute discriminates
between several variations of fields.

The <INPUT> element has a number of attributes. The set of applicable attributes depends on
the value of the TYPE attribute.

Text Field: INPUT TYPE=TEXT

The default value of the TYPE attribute is ‘TEXT’, indicating a single line text entry field. (Use
the <TEXTAREA> element for multi- line text fields.)

Required attributes are:

NAME name for the form field corresponding to this element.

The optional attributes are:

MAXLENGTH constrains the number of characters that can be entered into a text
input field. If the value of MAXLENGTH is greater the value of the SIZE attribute, the field
should scroll appropriately. The default number ofcharacters is unlimited.

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SIZE specifies the amount of display space allocated to this input field.

VALUE according to its type. The default depends on the user agent. The initial value of
the field.

For example:
<p>Street Address: <input name=street><br>
Postal City code: <input name=city size=16 maxlength=16><br>
Zip Code: <input name=zip size=10 maxlength=10 value="99999-9999"><br>

Password Field: INPUT TYPE=PASSWORD

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=PASSWORD’ is a text field as above, except that the value
is obscured as it is entered. (see also: 10, "Security Considerations").

For example:
<p>Name: <input name=login> Password: <input type=password name=passwd>

Check Box: INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=CHECKBOX’ represents a boolean choice. A set of such
elements with the same name represents an n-of-many choice field. Required attributes are:
NAME symbolic name for the form field corresponding to this element or group of
elements.

VALUE The portion of the value of the field contributed by this element.

Optional attributes are:

CHECKED
indicates that the initial state is on.

For example:
<p>What flavors do you like?
<input type=checkbox name=flavor value=vanilla>Vanilla<br>
<input type=checkbox name=flavor value=strawberry>Strawberry<br>
<input type=checkbox name=flavor value=chocolate checked>Chocolate<br>

Radio Button: INPUT TYPE=RADIO

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=RADIO’ represents a boolean choice. A set of such elements
with the same name represents a 1-of-many choice field. The NAME and VALUE attributes are
required as for check boxes.

Optional attributes are:

CHECKED indicates that the initial state is on.
At all times, exactly one of the radio buttons in a set is checked. If none of the
<INPUT> elements of a set of radio buttons specifies ‘CHECKED’, then the user agent must
check the first radio button of the set initially.

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For example:
<p>Which is your favorite?
<input type=radio name=flavor value=vanilla>Vanilla<br>
<input type=radio name=flavor value=strawberry>Strawberry<br>
<input type=radio name=flavor value=chocolate>Chocolate<br>

Image Pixel: INPUT TYPE=IMAGE

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=IMAGE’ specifies an image resource to display, and allows
input of two form fields: the x and y coordinate of a pixel chosen from the image. The names of
the fields are the name of the field with ‘.x’ and ‘.y’ appended.

‘TYPE=IMAGE’ implies ‘TYPE=SUBMIT’

processing; that is, when a pixel is chosen, the form as a whole is submitted.
The NAME attribute is required as for other input fields. The SRC attribute is required and the
ALIGN is optional as for the <IMG> element (see 5.10, "Image: IMG").

For example:
<p>Choose a point on the map:
<input type=image name=point src="map.gif">

Hidden Field: INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=HIDDEN’ represents a hidden field.The user does not
interact with this field; instead, the VALUE attribute specifies the value ofthe field. The NAME
and VALUE attributes are required.

For example:
<input type=hidden name=context value="l2k3j4l2k3j4l2k3j4lk23">

Submit Button: INPUT TYPE=SUBMIT

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=SUBMIT’ represents an input option, typically a button, that
instructs the user agent to submit the form.

Optional attributes are:

NAME indicates that this element contributes a form field whose value is given by the VALUE
attribute. If the NAME attribute is not present, this element does not contribute a form field.
VALUE indicates a label for the input (button).

You may submit this request internally:

<input type=submit name=recipient value=internal> <br> or
<input type=submit name=recipient value=world> Reset Button: INPUT TYPE=RESET

An <INPUT> element with ‘TYPE=RESET’ represents an input option, typically a button, that
instructs the user agent to reset the form’s fields to their initial states. The VALUE attribute, if
present, indicates a label for the input (button).

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When you are finished, you may submit this request:
<input type=submit><br>
You may clear the form and start over at any time: <input type=reset>

Selection: SELECT
The <SELECT> element constrains the form field to an enumerated list of values. The values are
given in <OPTION> elements.

Attributes are:
MULTIPLE indicates that more than one option may be included in thevalue.
NAME SIZE specifies the name of the form field

It specifies the number of visible items. Select fields of size one are typically pop-down menus,
whereas select fields with size greater than one are typically lists.

For example:
<SELECT NAME="flavor">
<OPTION>Vanilla
<OPTION>Strawberry
<OPTION value="RumRasin">Rum and Raisin
<OPTION selected>Peach and Orange
</SELECT>

The initial state has the first option selected, unless a SELECTED attribute is present on any of
the <OPTION> elements.

Option: OPTION
The Option element can only occur within a Select element. It represents one choice, and has
the following attributes:
SELECTED Indicates that this option is initially selected.
VALUE indicates the value to be returned if this option is chosen. The field value defaults
tothe content of the

<OPTION> element.
The content of the <OPTION> element is presented to the user to represent the option. It is used
as a returned value if the VALUE attribute is not present.

Text Area: TEXTAREA

The <TEXTAREA> element represents a multi-line text field. Attributes are:
COLS the number of visible columns to display for the text area, in characters.NAME

Specifies the name of the form field.

ROWS The number of visible rows to display for the text area, incharacters.

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For example:
<TEXTAREA NAME="address" ROWS=6 COLS=64>
HaL ComputerSystems 1315 Dell Avenue
Campbell, California 95008
</TEXTAREA>

The content of the <TEXTAREA> element is the field’s initial value.

Typically, the ROWS and COLS attributes determine the visible dimension of the field in
characters. The field is typically rendered in a fixed-width font. HTML user agents should allow
text to extend beyond these limits by scrolling as needed.

Form Submission
An HTML user agent begins processing a form by presenting the document with the fields in
their initial state. The user is allowed to modify the fields, constrained by the field type etc.
When the user indicates that the form should be submitted (using a submit button or image
input), the form data set is processed according to its method, action URI and enctype.

When there is only one single-line text input field in a form, the user agent should accept Enter
in thatfield as a request to submit the form.

3.21 Web Hosting

Web hosting is a service of providing online space for storage of web pages. These web pages
are made available via World Wide Web. The companies which offer website hosting are
known as Web hosts.

The servers on which web site is hosted remain switched on 24 x7. These servers are run by web
hosting companies. Each server has its own IP address. Since IP addresses are difficult to
remember therefore, webmaster points their domain name to the IP address of the server their
website is stored on.

It is not possible to host your website on your local computer, to do so you would have to leave
your computer on 24 hours a day.

Web hosting server typesShared server

On a shared server you share space with other users. It is the equivalent of doing your business at
a farmers market, meaning that you have some restrictions and what you do may affect others
and vice versa. The price of a shared hosting plan is very affordable and may vary between $5
and $15 with the good providers.

Virtual private server

A “virtual private server” (VPS) is a hybrid of dedicated and shared servers, but you can also
look at it as a higher class of shared server. Each section is separated and they act independently
of one another.

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Dedicated server
Dedicated servers are the easiest to explain. They are, as their name says, dedicated. It is a
physical server that you do not share with anyone else and no one else has access to. You can
host one or more websites, it is up to you.

Other typesCloud hosting:

Essentially means that multiple servers are joined together to provide better and faster
hosting performance. Having cloud hosting means that websites load faster and their workload is
balanced.

Co-located hosting
It is similar to dedicated hosting, it literally means co-located hosting. It allows you to place your
own server on the service provider’s location. It is the same as having a server in your own
office, but located in a place specifically designed for servers.

Managed hosting
Managed hosting is almost the same as the dedicated hosting. You get your own server; the only
difference is that you do not have full control over it.
Reseller hosting

It is where you (as a client) can become a web host yourself. What it means is that you buy a
provider’s services and sell them (for a profit) to third party.

Clustered hosting
It is where you have multiple servers that host the same content. That way even if one server
needs a reboot or goes down, your site will still be online. This option is for sites with very high
traffic.

Grid hosting
It utilizes several server clusters that act like a grid and is com- posed of multiple nodes. That
way multiple servers serve to one cluster or in this instance one site and different parts of the
website can operate independently of each other.

3.22 Web database definition

A web database is essentially a database that can be accessed from a local network or the internet
instead of one that has its data stored on a desktop or its attached storage. Used for both
professional and personal use, they are hosted on websites, and are software as service (SaaS)
products, which mean that access is provided via a web browser.

One of the types of web databases that you may be more familiar with is a relational database.
Relational databases allow you to store data in groups (known as tables), through its ability to
link records together

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Some advantages of using a web database include:
Web database applications can be free or require payment, usually through monthly
subscriptions. Because of this, you pay for the amount you use. So whether your business shrinks
or expands, your needs can be accommodated by the amount of server space. You also don’t
have to fork out for the cost of installing an entire software program.

The information is accessible from almost any device. Having things stored in a cloud means that
it is not stuck to one computer. As long as you are granted access, you can technically get a hold
of the data from just about any compatible device.

Web database programs usually come with their own technical support team so your IT
department folks can focus on other pressing company matters.
It’s convenient: web databases allow users to update information so all you have to do is to
create simple web forms.

3.23 MySQL
Something you’ll see commonly attached to the topic of web databases, and also worth noting
due to its use in many high profile websites, such as Google, Facebook, Twitter, and WordPress,
is MySQL. Based on Structured Query Language, MySQL is a relational database management
system (DBMS).

Just so you know, a database management system is the software that manages moving data in,
out, and around the database. The term ‘database’ refers to the actual data that is being stored.
MySQL isn’t the only database management system, but it is one of the more popular types.

Reasons for this are:

It is an open-source relational database management system, which means that it is free to use
and to modify.

It is compatible with multiple platforms, making installation a breeze.

It is known to be user-friendly, promising that even the most inadequate technology users will
find the initial setup, and use, relatively straightforward. Some Common Used Databases
There are many types of databases available to help you develop a website. Before choosing a
web hosting service, you need to have a comprehensive understanding about its database,
because it plays an important role in website development. Some popular databases are listed as
below.

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 Fig-3.6 Mysql Database

MySQL: It is a free open source relational database management system, so that it attracts most
web hosting providers. Besides, MySQL are available in both Linux web hosting and Windows
web hosting and it is appropriate for small websites.

MS SQL: It is developed by Microsoft and only allowed to run on Windows platform, which is
not free. MS SQL is suitable for some business websites, because it can serve thousands
concurrent users.

PostgreSQL: It is a free open source object-relational database. PostgreSQL is one of the most
reliable and advanced databases in the industry, which is suitable for some business websites.
Access: It is a Microsoft database and runs on Windows OS only, which is easy-to-use. If you
develop a small website with low number of visitors, Access is a good choice for your website.

3.24 Gopher
The Gopher technology was invented at the University of Minnesota, whose mascot is, not
surprisingly, the Golden Gopher. The gopher system allows people to search for and retrieve
information using a text interface.

The University of Minnesota began a licensing program for the gopher technology in 1993 as the
use of gopher was spreading rapidly over the Internet.

Gopher is an application-layer protocol that provides the ability to extract and view. Gopher was
designed to access a Web server or database via the Internet.

It initially supported only text-based file/document access but later came to support some image
formats such as GIF and JPEG.

Gopher was succeeded by the HTTP protocol and now has very few implementations. Gopher-
based databases, servers or websites can be accessed through two search engines: Veronica and
Jughead.

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Most of these programs involved direct connection between the servers and the clients (like
telnet and ftp) or they require knowing exact addresses (like e-mail).

Gopher is different from these other Internet services. Although you may need to know the
address of a gopher server to start, once there, you can traverse the Internet by selecting sites
from a menu.

There is free gopher client software available for most computers including UNIX and X-
Windows, IBM/PC DOS and Windows, Macintosh, VAX/VMS, VM/CMS and many others.
The source for most of this software can be found by anonymous FTPing to
boombox.micro.umn.edu and accessing the appropriate files from /pub/gopher.

Fig-3.7 Gopher
3.25 Telnet
The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users want to run
different application programs at the remote site and transfers a result to the local site. This
requires a client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a
specific program for each demand.

The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user access any
application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a program that allows a user to log on to
a remote computer. A popular client-server program Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet
is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.

Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local terminal appears
to be at the remote side.

There are two types of login:

 Local Login
 Remote Login

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 Application Program
…..

….

Terminal
Terminal driver
Operating
system

When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local login.
When the workstation running terminal emulator, the keystrokes entered by the user are accepted
by the terminal driver. The terminal driver then passes these characters to the operating system
which in turn, invokes the desired application program.

However, the operating system has special meaning to special characters. For example, in UNIX
some combination of characters have special meanings such as control character with "z" means
suspend. Such situations do not create any problem as the terminal driver knows the meaning of
such characters. But, it can cause the problems in remote login. Remote login

Fig-3.8 Remote Login

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Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)
The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data and commands are sent across
the network. In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the operating system
accepts a special combination of characters such as end-of-file token running a DOS operating
system ctrl+z while the token running a UNIX operating system is ctrl+d.

TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known as network virtual interface.
The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the local terminal into NVT form
and then delivers them to the network. The Telnet server then translates the data from NVT form
into a form which can be understandable by a remote computer.

Fig-3.9 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an application protocol.
 It is used to download files from and upload files to an FTP server.
 Download - retrieve file, from server to client.
 Upload - transmit file, from client to server.
 Authentication is by a username and password.
 Ftp often is used to access your account on a Unix server.

Anonymous FTP
 Some FTP servers provide public access through anonymous FTP.
 Login with username anonymous; give your email address as password.
 Access is granted to a limited slice of the system.
 Widely (but not universally) supported convention is to place public files in /pub area.

Typical uses:
Retrieve software, e.g. ftp://ftp.netscape.com/pub/communicator/
Publish information, e.g. ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/

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FTP Clients
 Both web browsers and dedicated clients may be used for FTP.
 Browser typically limited to anon FTP.
 Dedicated client offers control of transfer type.
 Dedicated client can do FTP upload.
 Dedicated client can transfer multiple files.

Common FTP Commands

command Action
r directory listing
cd change directory
cdup same as "cd .."
pwd print working (display current)
directory
ascii do transfers as "text" file
binary do transfers as "binary" file
get retrieve single file
mget retrieve multiple files, with wildcards
(*)
quit Quit

Non-Anonymous FTP
If you have permission or access privileges to an FTP site, you can use your browser to log into
the site via your user name. The FTP format (syntax) is changed to:
ftp://[email protected]

where username is your user name and address is the FTP site address you want to go to,
including ftp only if it is actually in the address; otherwise it is not included. Your browser
displays a dialog box to enter your password. Type in your password and press Enter to continue.
You can use a different format instead and include your password:

ftp://username:[email protected]
You must have previously gained access privileges before using non-anonymous FTP.

Downloading Files
 While working on the Internet, any web page can be seen in the browser window only
after it has been copied to the main memory of the computer.

 This process of copying web pages from the Internet to the computer is called
downloading. Apart from the web pages which are downloaded whenever we type in
the address or click on its link, we can also download files from the Internet.

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To Download Files
 One popular use of the Internet is downloading software files and their updates.
 There are a number of ways in which a file can be downloaded:
 There may be a download button which can be clicked. Click and follow the
instructions that appear on the screen for downloading the particular software.
 A web page can be saved by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ option.
 Right click a link and then choose the option ‘Save Target As’.
 Hold the Shift Key and click the link.
 This opens up another download window from where we can save the file.

Fig-: To Download a File

 Computers and Communication Technology The above image shows the popup menu
which appears when one right clicks a hyperlink.
 The ‘Save Target As’ is the selection needed for saving. Some files may be in
compressed form having extensions like .zip, .tar, rar, etc. Such files need to be
decompressed after downloading using software meant for this purpose. An example of
such software is WinZip. Apart from downloading files, we can also save some pictures
or texts.1.To save pictures:(a)Right click on the picture.(b)Choose the option ‘Save
picture’ from the popup menu.(c)Save the picture at the desired location when the dialog
box gets opened up.
 To save the text:
 (a)Entire text from a web page can be copied to a word processor file by choosing
Select All option from Edit menu. Choose Copy option from Edit. Open a blank
document file in the word processor and select the Paste option from the Edit Menu.
 (b)To copy only a part of the text from a web page, select the text or matter to be copied.
Once selected open a blank document and paste.
 We can directly set the picture seen on the Internet as the background image of our
computer. Right click on the picture and select the option ‘Set As Background’

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3.26 Searching the internet

Fig-3.10 Search text

Program used to find Web pages pertaining to a specific topic

Search tool with organized set of topics and subtopics• Lets you find information by clicking
linksrather than entering keywords

Fig-3.11 Search Link

Review Questions
1. Define WWW.
2. Define Web Page.
3. Define Web Browser.
4. Define URL.
5. Define SGML.

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6. Explain the WWW Architecture.
7. Explain the features of Web Browser.
8. Explain the component of a Web Browser.
9. Explain Hyper Text Markup Language.
10. Explain Formatting Tags
11. Explain Table Tags.
12. Explain List tags.
13. Explain Frames with example.
14. Write a note on Web Hosting.
15. Write a short note on MySQL.

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 Chapter -4
World Wide Web (WWW)-II
4.1 Audio on the Internet
The <audio> element
The <audio> element works just like the <video> element, with a few small differences as
outlined below. A typical example might look like so:

<audio controls>
<source src="viper.mp3" type="audio/mp3">
<source src="viper.ogg" type="audio/ogg">
<p>Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio. Here is a <a href="viper.mp3">link tothe
audio</a> instead. </p> hellooo
</audio>

This produces something like the following in a browser:

Fig-4.1 Audio on Internet

This takes up less space than a video player, as there is no visual component — you just need
todisplay controls to play the audio. Other differences from HTML video are as follows:

The <audio> element doesn't support the width/height attributes — again, there is no visual
component, so there is nothing to assign a width or height to.

It also doesn't support the poster attribute — again, no visual component.

Other than this, <audio> supports all the same features as <video> — review the above
sections formore information about them.

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4.2 VIDEO on the internet
Web developers have wanted to use video and audio on the Web for a long time, ever since the
early 2000s when we started to have bandwidth fast enough to support any kind of video (video
files are much larger than text or even images A native solution would solve much of this if
implemented correctly. Fortunately, a few years later the HTML5 specification had such
features added, with the <video> and <audio> elements, and some shiny new JavaScript APIs
for controlling them. We'll not be looking at JavaScript here — just the basic foundations that
can be achieved with HTML.

We won't be teaching you how to produce audio and video files — that requires a completely
different skillset. We have provided you with sample audio and video files and example code for
your own experimentation, in case you are unable to get hold of your own.

4.3 The <video> element

The <video> element allows you to embed a video very easily. A really simple example looks
likethis:

<video src="rabbit320.webm" controls>

<p>Your browser doesn't support HTML5 video. Here is a <a href="rabbit320.webm">link to
thevideo</a> instead.</p>
</video>

The features of note are:

src
In the same way as for the <img> element, the src (source) attribute contains a path to thevideo
you want to embed. It works in exactly the same way.

controls
Users must be able to control video and audio playback (it's especially critical for people who
have epilepsy.) You must either use the controls attribute to include the browser's own control
interface, or build your interface using the appropriate JavaScript API. At a minimum, the
interface must include a way to start and stop the media, and to adjust the volume.
The paragraph inside the <video> tags

This is called fallback content — this will be displayed if the browser accessing the page
doesn't support the <video> element, allowing us to provide a fallback for older browsers. This
can be anything you like; in this case, we've provided a direct link to the video file, so the user
can at least access it some way regardless of what browser they are using.

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The embedded video will look something like this:

Fig- 4.2 Video on Internet

Using multiple source formats to improve compatibility

There's a problem with the above example, which you may have noticed already if you've tried to
access the live link above with an older browser like Internet Explorer or even an older version
of Safari. The video won't play, because different browsers support different video (and audio)
formats. Fortunately, there are things you can do to help prevent this from being a problem.

4.4 Contents of a media file

First, let's go through the terminology quickly. Formats like MP3, MP4 and WebM are called
container formats. They define a structure in which the audio and/or video tracks that make up
the media are stored, along with metadata describing the media, what codecs are used to encode
its channels, and so forth.

A WebM file containing a movie which has a main video track and one alternate angle track,
plus audio for both English and Spanish, in addition to audio for an English commentary track
can be conceptualized as shown in the diagram below.

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The audio and video tracks within the container hold data in the appropriate format for the codec
used to encode that media.

For example:
A WebM container typically packages Vorbis or Opus audio with VP8/VP9 video. This is
supported in all modern browsers, though older versions may not work.

An MP4 container often packages AAC or MP3 audio with H.264 video. This is alsosupported
in all modern browsers, as well as Internet Explorer.

Example:
<video controls>
<source src="rabbit320.mp4" type="video/mp4">
<source src="rabbit320.webm" type="video/webm">
<p>Your browser doesn't support HTML5 video. Here is a <a href="rabbit320.mp4">link to
thevideo</a> instead.</p>
</video>

Other <video> features

There are a number of other features you can include when displaying an HTML video. Take
alook at our next example:

<video controls width="400" height="400"autoplay loop muted preload="auto"

poster="poster.png">

<source src="rabbit320.mp4" type="video/mp4">

<source src="rabbit320.webm" type="video/webm">

<p>Your browser doesn't support HTML video. Here is a <a href="rabbit320.mp4">link to

thevideo</a> instead.</p>
</video>

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The resulting UI looks something like this:

The new features are:

width and height
You can control the video size either with these attributes or with CSS. In both cases, videos
maintain their native width-height ratio — known as the aspect ratio. If the aspect ratio is not
maintained by the sizes you set, the video will grow to fill the space horizontally, and the
unfilled space will just be given a solid background color by default.

autoplay
Makes the audio or video start playing right away, while the rest of the page is loading. You are
advised not to use autoplaying video (or audio) on your sites, because users can find it really
annoying.

Loop mutedposter
Makes the video (or audio) start playing again whenever it finishes. This can also be
annoying, so only use if really necessary.

Causes the media to play with the sound turned off by default.
The URL of an image which will be displayed before the video is played. It is intended tobe
used for a splash screen or advertising screen.

preload
Used for buffering large files; it can take one of three values:
 "none" does not buffer the file
 "auto" buffers the media file
 "metadata" buffers only the metadata for the file

4.5 Intranet
 Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own
server andfirewall. Moreover we can define Intranet as:
 Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other.
PCsin intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique among
thecomputers in that Intranet.

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 Fig-4.2 Intranet

4.6 Benefits of Intranet

Intranet is very efficient and reliable network system for any organization. It is beneficial in
everyaspect such as collaboration, cost-effectiveness, security, productivity and much more.

Fig-4.3- Intranet Benefits

Communication
Intranet offers easy and cheap communication within an organization. Employees can
communicate using chat, e-mail or blogs.

Time Saving
Information on Intranet is shared in real time.

Collaboration
Information is distributed among the employees as according to requirement and it can be
accessed by the authorized users, resulting in enhanced teamwork.

Platform Independency
Intranet can connect computers and other devices with different architecture.

Cost Effective
Employees can see the data and other documents using browser rather than printing themand
distributing duplicate copies among the employees, which certainly decreases the cost.

Workforce Productivity
Data is available at every time and can be accessed using company workstation. This helpsthe
employees work faster.

Business Management
It is also possible to deploy applications that support business operations.

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Security
Since information shared on intranet can only be accessed within an organization, thereforethere
is almost no chance of being theft.
Specific Users
Intranet targets only specific users within an organization therefore, once can exactly know
whom he is interacting.

Immediate Updates
Any changes made to information are reflected immediately to all the users.

Issues
Apart from several benefits of Intranet, there also exist some issues.. These issues are
shown in the following diagram:

Management Concerns
Loss of control
Hidden Complexity
Potential for chaos

Security
Unauthorized access
Denial of Services
Packet sniffing

Productivity
Information overload lowers productivity
Users set up own pages
Overabundances of information

Fig-4.4 Intranet Feature

4.7 Applications
Intranet applications are same as that of Internet applications. Intranet applications are also
accessed through a web browser. The only difference is that, Intranet applications reside on local
server while Internet applications reside on remote server. Here, we've discussed some of these
applications:

Document Electronic
Publication Resource
applications applications
Intranet
application
s
Interactive Support for
Publication Internet
applications applications

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 Fig- Applications

Document publication applications

Document publication applications allow publishing documents such as manuals, software
guide, employee profits etc without use of paper.

Electronic resources applications

It offers electronic resources such as software applications, templates and tools, to be
shared across the network.

Interactive Communication applications

Like on internet, we have e-mail and chat like applications for Intranet, hence offering an
interactive communication among employees.

Support for Internet Applications

Intranet offers an environment to deploy and test applications before placing them on Internet.
Internet vs. Intranet

Apart from similarities there are some differences between the two. Following are the
differences between Internet and Intranet:

Intranet Internet
Localized Network. Worldwide Network
Doesn't have access to Have access to Internet.
Intranet
More Expensive Less Expensive
More Safe Less Safe
More Reliability Less Reliability

Shopping on Internet
Most traditional stores also have an online version of their store (For example, Walmart also sells
products through www.walmart.com). However, you should be aware of some of the very well-
known and trusted online-only retailers.

Amazon.com: Amazon started out as an online book retailer, but today the site sells
everything from books and DVDs to kitchen appliances and groceries. Amazon is the creator and
sole seller of the Kindle eBook reader. It is the world’s largest online retailer.

Zappos.com: When Zappos started in 1999, it only sold shoes, but quickly grew, in part because
of its free shipping both ways (i.e., free returns up to 365 days later) policy. Today, Zappos sells
clothing and shoes, and has become famous for their customer service.

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Etsy.com: Etsy is a marketplace for handmade, DIY, and vintage items. You can find everything
from handmade clothing, photographs, and bathproducts to craft supplies and antique
housewares.

eBay: The most well-known auction site on the Internet, eBay allows you to bid on anything
from playing cards to cars. eBay now also offers a “Buy-It-Now” feature, making it much more
like a traditional retail site.

eBay was the first site to use PayPal as a means of payment; we will talk about this service and
its pros and cons later in this handout.

Groupon: If you love a bargain, Groupon offers daily deals that you can buy to local businesses.
They also sell discounted limited-length sale items, like electronics or other luxury items. Deals
are delivered to your e-mail inbox daily, so that you don’t miss out on any of the latest deals!

As with most online activities, there are definite tradeoffs in online shopping between
convenience, cost savings, choice, and privacy. Before you decide whether or not online
shopping is for you, it is important to weigh the pros and cons of entering into the world of e-
commerce.
Benefits of Online Shopping
Convenience
One of the biggest benefits of online shopping is that you can buy almost anything you could
imagine without ever leaving your house. Online stores are open 24 hours a day and are
accessible from any location with an Internet connection.

Selection
In general, online stores are able to carry more selection than traditional brick-and- mortar stores.
Because online stores don’t need to attractively display their items on shelves, they can keep a
larger amount of inventory on hand.

Information
Online shops tend to provide more information about items for sale than you would get in a
physical store (unless you asked a sales associate, and that can be hit-or- miss). Product
descriptions most often include a description from the manufacturer, another description from
the vendor, specific technical and size details, reviews from professional magazines and journals,
and reviews from people who have bought the product.

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Price
Because online stores don’t have to pay rent for a storefront in a nice part of town and tend to
sell much larger quantities of goods, they can offer to sell products fora much lower price.
Discounts online can be substantial—up to 25-50 percent off the suggested retail price. There are
even some sites that only sell clearance items! However, buying online does take away from
local business, so that is a consideration to keep in mind.

Disadvantages of Online Shopping

Hands-On Inspection
One thing that online stores can’t replace is the experience of actually seeing andtouching the
item you are considering buying. For example, clothes shopping can be very tricky online, since
you can’t try on the clothes before you buy. There may alsobe small details that you decide you
don’t like in a product that aren’t noticeable until you have it in your hand.

Shipping
Some major online retailers now offer free shipping for their products, but many require you to
meet a minimum order cost to qualify or only offer this incentive at certain times of year. In
general, you should expect to pay an additional shipping cost on top of the price of the items that
you order.

Wait Time
Waiting for your item to arrive is another downside of online shopping. One of the great

pleasures of shopping at a store is the instant gratification—you see something you like, you pay
for it, and then you get to take it home and use it right away! In the case of online shopping, you
may have to wait days or even weeks for the item to arrive at your door. Especially if you are in
a time crunch, then you maywant to consider purchasing your item at a local retailer.

Privacy
When you shop online, you waive certain privacy rights to the online retailer. Onlinestores can
track your purchases over time to give you more suggestions of things you might like to buy,
send you e-mails with sale information, and, occasionally, sell your contact information to other
companies.

These days, many brick-and-mortar stores do the same thing, tracking your information through
your credit card (Target is a notable example). In contrast, by purchasing something in an online
store, you sign away certain privacy rights—this is why it is always a good idea to read the
Terms of Service.

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 Review Questions
1. Explain Audio on the Internet.
2. Explain VIDEO on the internet.
3. Explain Contents of a media file.
4. Discuss about Intranet.
5. Explain Benefits of Intranet.
6. Explain the Applications of Intranet.

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 Chapter-5
Safeguarding the Internet

5.1 Motivation for Firewall

Many organizations have confidential or official information which should be protected from
unauthorized access and modification. One possible approach is to use suitable
encryption/decryption technique for transfer of data between two secure site.

Although these techniques can be used to protect data in transfer, it does not protect data from digital
hackers. Toaccomplish this it is necessary to perform user authentication and access control to protect
the networks from unauthorized traffic. This is known as firewalls.

5.2 Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which monitors all
incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules it accepts, rejects or drops that
specific traffic.
It is a single point between two or more networks, where all traffics must pass, the firewall
authenticates, controls and logs all the traffic. It builds the bridge between internal and external
network and protects against
 Remote login
 Application back doors
 Virus, spams ,malware etc.

Fig-5.1 : Firewall

It protects the interface between a private network and an insecure public network.

5.3 Working of Firewall

Firewall match the network traffic against the rule set defined in its table. Once the rule is matched,
associate action is applied to the network traffic.

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For example, Rules are defined as any employee from HR department cannot access the data from code
server and at the same time another rule is defined like system administrator can access the data from
both HR and technical department.

Rules can be defined on the firewall based on the necessity and security policies of the organization.
From the perspective of a server, network traffic can be either outgoing or incoming. Firewall
maintains a distinct set of rules for both the cases. Mostly the outgoing traffic, originated from the
server itself, allowed to pass.

Incoming traffic is treated differently. Most traffic which reaches on the firewall is one of these three
major Transport Layer protocols- TCP, UDP or ICMP. All these types have a source address and
destination address. Also, TCP and UDP have port numbers. ICMP uses type code instead of port
number which identifies purpose of that packet.

Default policy: It is very difficult to explicitly cover every possible rule on the firewall. For this
reason, the firewall must always have a default policy. Default policy only consists of action (accept,
reject or drop).
Accept : allow the traffic
Reject : block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”
Drop : block the traffic with no reply

Suppose no rule is defined about SSH (Secure Shell) connection to the server on the firewall. It
follows the default policy.

Access Control Policies

Access control policies play an important role in the operation of a firewall. The policies can be
broadly categorized in to the following four types: Service Control , Direction Control, User
Control, Behavioral Control.

Service Control
Determines the types of internet services to be accessed
Filters traffic based on IP addresses and TCP port numbers
Provides Proxy servers that receives and interprets service requests before it is passed on

Direction Control
Determines the direction in which a particular service request may be initiated and allowed to flow
through the firewall

User Control
Controls access to a service according to which user is attempting to access it
Typically applied to the users inside the firewall perimeter
Can be applied to the external users too by using secure authentication technique

Behavioral Control
Controls how a particular service is used
For example, a firewall may filter email to eliminate spam
Firewall may allow only a portion of the information on a local web server to an external user

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5.4 Advantages of Firewall
Monitor Traffic
To monitor the traffic passing through it. Whatever the information traveling through a network isin the
form of packets. Firewall inspects each of these packets for any hazardous threats. If any chance the
firewall happens to find them it will immediately block them.

Protection against Trojans

Malwares especially the type Trojans are dangerous to a user. A Trojan silently sits on your computer
spying over all the works you do with it. Whatever the information they gather will be sent to a web
server. Obviously its presence not known until the strange behaviors of your computer. A firewall in
this instance will immediately block Trojans before they cause any damages to your system.

Prevent Hackers
Hackers on the internet constantly look for computers in order for carrying out their illegal activities.
When the hackers happen to find such computers they will start to do even malicious activities such as
spreading viruses. Apart from those hackers there can be unknown people such as the neighbors
looking out for an open internet connection. Hence to prevent such intrusions it is a good idea to be
with a firewall security.

Access Control
Firewalls come with an access policy that can be implemented for certain hosts and services. Somehosts
can be exploited with the attackers. So the best in case is to block such hosts from accessingthe system.
If a user feels that they need protection from these types of unwanted access, this access policy can be
enforced.

Better Privacy
Privacy is one of the major concerns of a user. Hackers constantly look out for privacy information’s
for getting clues about the user. But by using a firewall many of the services offeredby a site such as the
domain name service and the finger can be blocked. Hence the hackers are with no chance of getting
privacy details. Additionally firewalls can block the DNS information’s of the site system. Due to this
the names and the IP address will not be visible to the attackers.

5.5 Disadvantages of Firewall

Cost
Hardware firewalls are more expensive than the software firewalls. It requires installations and
maintenance cost. Also needs IT experts to configure.
Software firewall, there is no much investment and it is easy enough for an average user to deploythem.

User Restriction
Firewalls prevent unauthorized access to your system from the network. This can actually be a
problem for large organizations.

Performance
Firewalls especially the software based has the capability to limit your computer's overallperformance.
The processing power and the RAM resources are some of the factors which decides the computer's
overall performance. When the software firewalls constantly run on the background they consume more
the processing power and the RAM resources. This can lead to a diminished system performance.
However hardware firewalls does not impact the system performance since they do not rely upon the
computer resources.
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Malware Attacks
Therefore even if you have firewall, it is still recommended to have an anti-malware software
installed on your PC. Because the only way to remove them is through an anti-malware scan.

Complex Operations
Firewalls for large organizations require separate set of staffs for operating them. These people make
sure that the firewall is safe enough to protect the network from intruders.

5.6 How does a firewall work?

A firewall system analyzes network traffic based on pre-defined rules. It then filters the traffic and
prevents any such traffic coming from unreliable or suspicious sources. It only allows incoming traffic
that is configured to accept.

Typically, firewalls intercept network traffic at a computer's entry point, known as a port. Firewalls
perform this task by allowing or blocking specific data packets (units of communication transferred over
a digital network) based on pre-defined security rules. Incoming traffic is allowed only through trusted
IP addresses, or sources.

Fig- 5.2 : How Firewall Work

5.7 Functions of Firewall
As stated above, the firewall works as a gatekeeper. It analyzes every attempt coming to gain access to
our operating system and prevents traffic from unwanted or non-recognized sources.

Since the firewall acts as a barrier or filter between the computer system and other networks (i.e., the
public Internet), we can consider it as a traffic controller. Therefore, a firewall's primary function is to
secure our network and information by controlling network traffic, preventing unwanted incoming
network traffic, and validating access by assessing network traffic for malicious things such as hackers
and malware.

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Generally, most operating systems (for example - Windows OS) and security software come with built-
in firewall support. Therefore, it is a good idea to ensure that those options are turned on. Additionally,
we can configure the security settings of the system to be automatically updated whenever available.

Firewalls have become so powerful, and include a variety of functions and capabilities with built- in
features:
 Network Threat Prevention
 Application and Identity-Based Control
 Hybrid Cloud Support
 Scalable Performance
 Network Traffic Management and Control
 Access Validation
 Record and Report on Events

5.8 Limitations of Firewall

When it comes to network security, firewalls are considered the first line of defense. But the question
is whether these firewalls are strong enough to make our devices safe from cyber-attacks. The answer
may be "no".

The best practice is to use a firewall system when using the Internet. However, it is important to use
other defense systems to help protect the network and data stored on the computer. Because cyber
threats are continually evolving, a firewall should not be the only consideration forprotecting the home
network.

The importance of using firewalls as a security system is obvious; however, firewalls have some
limitations:
 Firewalls cannot stop users from accessing malicious websites, making it vulnerable to
internal threats or attacks.
 Firewalls cannot protect against the transfer of virus-infected files or software.
 Firewalls cannot prevent misuse of passwords.
 Firewalls cannot protect if security rules are misconfigured.
 Firewalls cannot protect against non-technical security risks, such as social engineering.
 Firewalls cannot stop or prevent attackers with modems from dialing in to or out of the
internal network.
 Firewalls cannot secure the system which is already infected.

Therefore, it is recommended to keep all Internet-enabled devices updated. This includes the latest
operating systems, web browsers, applications, and other security software (such as anti-virus).
Besides, the security of wireless routers should be another practice. The process of protecting a
router may include options such as repeatedly changing the router's name and password, reviewing
security settings, and creating a guest network for visitors.

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5.9 Types of Firewall
Depending on their structure and functionality, there are different types of firewalls. The following is a
list of some common types of firewalls:
 Proxy Firewall
 Packet-filtering firewalls
 Stateful Multi-layer Inspection (SMLI) Firewall
 Unified threat management (UTM) firewall
 Next-generation firewall (NGFW)
 Network address translation (NAT) firewalls

5.10 Difference between a Firewall and Anti-virus

Firewalls and anti-viruses are systems to protect devices from viruses and other types of Trojans, but
there are significant differences between them. Based on the vulnerabilities, the main differences
between firewalls and anti-viruses are tabulated below:

Attributes Firewall Anti-virus

Definition A firewall is defined as the system Anti-virus is defined as the special type of
which analyzes and filters incoming software that acts as a cyber-security
or outgoing data packets based on mechanism. The primary function of Anti-
pre-defined rules. virus is to monitor, detect, and remove any
apprehensive or distrustful file or software
from the device.

Structure Firewalls can be hardware and Anti-virus can only be used as software. Anti-
software both. The router is an virus is a program that is installed on the
example of a physical firewall, and a device, just like the other programs.
simple firewall program on the
system is an example of a software
firewall.

Implementation Because firewalls come in the form Because Anti-virus comes in the form of
of hardware and software, a firewall software, therefore, Anti-virus can be
can be implemented implemented only at the software level.
either way.

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Responsibility A firewall is usually defined as a Anti-viruses are primarily responsible for
network controlling system. It detecting and removing viruses from
means that firewalls are primarily computer systems or other devices. These
responsible for monitoring and viruses can be in the form of infected files or
filtering network traffic. software.

Scalability Because the firewall supports both Anti-viruses are generally considered less-
types of implementations, hardware, scalable than firewalls. This is because anti-
and software, therefore, it is more virus can only be implemented at the software
scalable thananti-virus. level. They don't support hardware-level
implementation.

Threats A firewall is mainly used to prevent Anti-virus is mainly used to scan, find, and
network related attacks. It mainly remove viruses, malware, and Trojans, which
includes external network threats?for can harm system files and software and share
example- Routing attacks and IP personal information (such as login
Spoofing. credentials, credit card details, etc.) with
hackers.

5.11 Virus
“A Computer Virus is a malicious software program “Malware” that can infect a computer by
modifying or deleting data files, boot sector of a hard disk drive or causes a software program to work
in an unexpected manner”.

A computer virus resides on a host computer and can replicate itself when executed. Virus can steal
user data, delete or modify files & documents, records keystrokes & web sessions of a user. It can also
steal or damage hard disk space, it can slowdown CPU processing.

Definition of Computer Virus

“A computer virus is a program that may disturb the normal working of a computer system”. Virus
attaches itself to files stored on floppy disks, USBs, email attachments and hard disks. A file
containing a virus is called infected file. If this file is copied to a computer, virus is also copied to the
computer.

Activation of Virus
When the computer virus starts working, it is called the activation of virus. A virus normally runs all
the time in the computer. Different viruses are activated in different ways. Many viruses are activated
on a certain data. For example, a popular virus “Friday, the 13th” is activated only if thedate is 13 and
the day is Friday.

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Damages caused by virus
Computer virus cannot damage computer hardware. IT may cause many damages to a computer
system. A virus can:
 A computer virus can damage data or software on the computer.
 It can delete some or all files on the computer system.
 It can destroy all the data by formatting hard drive.
 It may display a political or false message very few times.

Causes of Computer Virus

The following are the main causes of a Computer Virus.Infected Flash Drives or Disks
Flash drives and disks are the main cause of spreading viruses. Flash drives and disks are used to
transfer data from one computer to other. A virus can also be copied from one computer to other when
the user copies infected files using flash drives and disks.

Email Attachments
Most of the viruses spread through emails. Email attachment is a file that is sent along with an email.
An email may contain an infected file attachment. Virus can spread if the users opens and downloads
an email attachment. It may harm the computer when it is activated. It may destroy files on the hard
disk or may send the virus automatically to all email addresses saved in the addressbook.

Infected / Pornography websites

Thousands of insecure websites can infect computer with viruses. Most of the websites with
pornographic materials are infected, so by visiting these websites the user’s computer also gets
infected by virus. These websites are developed to spread viruses or other unethical material. The virus
is transferred to the user’s computer when this material is downloaded. These websites may access the
computer automatically when the users visit them.

Networks
Virus can spread if an infected computer is connected to a network. The internet is an example of such
network. When a user downloads a file infected with virus from the internet, the virus is copied to the
computer. It may infect the files stored on the computer.

Pirated Software
An illegal copy of software is called pirated software. Virus can spread if user installs pirated software
that contains a virus. A variety of pirated software is available in CDs and from the internet. Some
companies intentionally add virus in the software. The virus is automatically activated if the user uses
the software without purchasing license.

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5.12 Computer Virus

Fig- 5.3. Types of Virus

5.13 Trojan Virus

Trojans can be viruses. A Trojan is a computer program pretending to be something it’s not for the
purposes of sneaking onto your computer and delivering some sort of malware. To put it another way,
if a virus disguises itself then it’s a Trojan. A Trojan could be a seemingly benign file downloaded off
the web or a Word doc attached to an email. Think that movie you downloaded from your favorite P2P
sharing site is safe? What about that “important” tax document from your accountant? Think twice,
because they could containa virus.

5.14 Worm Virus

Worms are not viruses, though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Even worse,the terms are
sometimes used together in a strange and contradictory word salad; i.e. a “worm virus malware.” It’s
either a worm or a virus, but it can’t be both, because worms and viruses refer to two similar but
different threats. As mentioned earlier, a virus needs a host system to replicate and some sort of action
from a user to spread from one system to the next. A worm, conversely, doesn’t need a host system and
is capable of spreading across a network and any systems connected to the network without user action.
Once on a system,worms are known to drop malware (often ransomware) or open a backdoor.

5.15 Ransomware virus

Ransomware can be a virus. Does the virus prevent victims from accessing their system or personal
files and demands ransom payment in order to regain access à la ansomware? If so, then it’s a
ransomware virus. In fact, the very first ransomware was a virus (more onthat later).

Nowadays, most ransomware comes as a result of computer worm, capable of spreading from one
system to the next and across networks without user action (e.g. WannaCry).

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5.16 Rootkit virus
Rootkits are not viruses. A rootkit is a software package designed to give attackers “root” access or
admin access to a given system. Crucially, rootkits cannot self-replicate and don’tspread across systems.

Software bug virus

Software bugs are not viruses. Even though we sometimes refer to a biological virus as a “bug” (e.g. “I
caught a stomach bug”), software bugs and viruses are not the same thing. A software bug refers to a
flaw or mistake in the computer code that a given software program is made up of. Software bugs can
cause programs to behave in ways the software manufacturer never intended. The Y2K bug famously
caused programs to display the wrong date, because the programs could only manage dates through
the year 1999. After 1999 the year rolled over like the odometer on an old car to 1900. While the Y2K
bug wasrelatively harmless, some software bugs can pose a serious threat to consumers.

Cybercriminals can take advantage of bugs in order to gain unauthorized access to a system for the
purposes of dropping malware, stealing private information, or opening up a backdoor. This is known
as an exploit.

5.17 Protection from Computer Virus

Virus infects computer system if latest and updated version of an Antivirus program is not installed.
Latest Antivirus software should be installed on Computer to protect it from viruses. A computer
system can be protected from virus by following these precautions. The latest and updated version
of Anti-Virus and firewall should be installed on the computer.

 The Anti-Virus software must be upgraded regularly.

 USB drives should be scanned for viruses, and should not be used on infected computers.
 Junk or unknown emails should not be opened and must be deleted straightaway.
 Unauthorized or pirated software should not be installed on the computer.
 An important way of protection against virus is the use of back up of data. The backup is used
if the virus deletes data or modifies it. So back-up your data on regular basis. There are some
great softwares that can back up your data automatically.
 Freeware and shareware software from the internet normally contain viruses. It is important to
check the software before using them.

Fig- 5.4 : Anti – Virus Softwares

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Your best protection is your common sense. Never click on suspicious links, never download songs,
videos or files from suspicious websites. Never share your personal data with people you don’t know
over the internet.

5.18 Digital Certificates

Digital Certificates provide a means of proving your identity in electronic transactions, muchlike a driver
license or a passport does in face-to-face interactions. With a Digital Certificate, you can assure friends,
business associates, and online services that the electronic information they receive from you are
authentic. This document introduces Digital Certificates and answers questions you might have about
how Digital Certificates are used. For information about the cryptographic technologies used in Digital
Certificates.

Digital certificates are the equivalent of a driver's license, a marriage license, or any other form of
identity. The only difference is that a digital certificate is used in conjunction with a public key
encryption system. Digital certificates are electronic files that simply work as an online passport.
Digital certificates are issued by a third party known as a Certification Authority such as VeriSign or
Thawte. These third party certificate authorities have the responsibility to confirm the identity of the
certificate holder as well as provide assurance to the website visitors that the website is one that is
trustworthy and capable of serving them in a trustworthy manner.

Digital certificates have two basic functions. The first is to certify that the people, the website, and the
network resources such as servers and routers are reliable sources, in other words, who or what they
claim to be. The second function is to provide protection for the data exchanged from the visitor and
the website from tampering or even theft, such as creditcard information.

5.18.1 Types of Digital Certificate

Identity Certificates
An Identity Certificate is one that contains a signature verification key combined with sufficient
information to identify (hopefully uniquely) the keyholder. This type of certificate is much subtler
than might first be imagined and will be considered in more detail later.

Accreditation Certificates
This is a certificate that identifies the key holder as a member of a specified group or organization
without necessarily identifying them.
For example, such a certificate could indicate that the key holder is a medical doctor or a lawyer. In
many circumstances, a particular signature is needed to authorize a transaction but the identity of the
key holder is not relevant.

For example, pharmacists might need to ensure that medical prescriptions are signed by doctors but
they do not need to know the specific identities of the doctorsinvolved.

Here the certificate states in effect that the key holder, whoever they are, has ‘permission to write
medical prescriptions’. Accreditation certificates can also be viewed as authorization (or permission)
certificates.

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It might be thought that a doctor’s key without identity would undermine the ability to audit the issue
of medical prescriptions. However, while such certificate might not contain key holder identity data, the
certificate issuer will know this so such requirements can be met if necessary.

Authorization and Permission Certificates

In these forms of certificate, the certificate signing authority delegates some form of authority to the key
being signed. For example, a Bank will issue an authorization certificate to its customers saying ‘the
key in this certificate can be used to authorize the withdrawal of moneyfrom account number 271828’.

In general, the owner of any resource that involves electronic access can use an authorization certificate
to control access to it. Other examples include control of access to secure computing facilities and to
World Wide Web pages.

In banking an identity certificate might be used to set up an account but the authorization certificate
for the account will not itself contain identity data. To identify the owner of a certificate a bank will
typically look up the link between account numbers and owners in its internal databases. Placing such
information in an authorization certificate is actually undesirable since it could expose the bank or its
customers to additional risks.

The Parties to a Digital Certificate

In principle there are three different interests associated with a digital certificate:

The Requesting Party –

The party who needs the certificate and will offer it for use by others – they will generally provide
some or all of the information it contains.

The Issuing Party –

The party that digitally signs the certificate after creating the information in the certificate or checking
its correctness.

`The Verifying Party (or Parties) –

Parties that validate the signature on the certificate and then rely on its contents for some purpose. For
example, a person – the requesting party – might present paper documents giving proof of identity to a
government agency – the issuing party – who will then provide an identity certificate that could then be
used by a bank – the verifying party – when the requesting party opens a bank account.

The term ‘relying party’ is sometimes uses instead of ‘verifying party’ but this can be misleading since
the real purpose is to identify a party who checks the certificate before relying on it. In a credit card
transaction many parties might handle a certificate and hence rely on it in some way but only a few of
these might actually check the validity of the certificate. Hence a ‘verifying party’ is a party that
checks and then relies on the contents of a certificate, not just one that depends on it without checking
its validity. The actual parties involved in using a certificate will vary depending on the type of
certificate.

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Public and Private key-
Public-key refers to a cryptographic mechanism. It has been named public-key to differentiate it from
the traditional and more intuitive cryptographic mechanism known as: symmetric-key, shared secret,
secret-key and also called private-key.

Symmetric-key cryptography is a mechanism by which the same key is used for both encrypting and
decrypting; it is more intuitive because of its similarity with what you expect to use for locking and
unlocking a door: the same key.

This characteristic requires sophisticated mechanisms to securely distribute the secret-key to both
parties2. Public-key on the other hand, introduces another concept involving key pairs: one for
encrypting, the other for decrypting.

A great deal of advantages over symmetric-key:

 Simplified key distribution
 Digital Signature
 Long-term encryption

However, it is important to note that symmetric-key still plays a major role in the implementation of a
Public-key Infrastructure or PKI.

A definition
Public-key is commonly used to identify a cryptographic method that uses an asymmetric- key pair3: a
public-key and a private-key 4. Public-key encryption uses that key pair for encryption and decryption.
The public-key is made public and is distributed widely and freely.

The private-key is never distributed and must be kept secret. Given a key pair, data encrypted with the
public-key can only be decrypted with its privatekey; conversely, data encrypted with the private-key
can only be decrypted with its public key. This characteristic is used to implement encryption and
digital signature.

Encryption and Decryption-

Encryption is a mechanism by which a message is transformed so that only the sender and recipient can
see. For instance, suppose that Alice wants to send a private message to Bob. To do so, she first needs
Bob’s public-key; since everybody can see his public-key, Bob can send it over the network in the
clear without any concerns. Once Alice has Bob’s public-key, she encrypts the message using Bob’s
public-key and sends it to Bob. Bob receives Alice’s message and, using his private-key, decrypts it.

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 Fig: Encryption/ Decryption

5.19 Digital Certificate Standards

X.509 Certificates
This standard is designed around a link between a digital signature key and a name in an
X.500 directory that is hopefully sufficient to identify a person or an entity. It also embodies a
capability for certificate extensions and these can be marked as critical or non- critical so that any extra
features that they offer can be controlled.

The aim here is to ensure that a verifying party will not accept a certificate as valid if there are critical
extensions present that it cannot interpret. In contrast, a non-critical extension is not essential for
validating the certificate and any inability to interpret it does not necessarily make the certificate
invalid. More generally X.509 allows fields for which there is no universal definition of the semantics
involved.

Although X.509 is widely used, it does have some potentially serious weaknesses including the
assumption that it is always necessary to link a key to an identified person or entity; theassumption that,
even when such a link is appropriate, it is always possible to uniquely identify the person or entity
involved.
The problem here is that X.500 presumes the existence of a global directory structure in which every
entity that needs to be identified can be traced somewhere within its hierarchy

Companies provide digital certificates:

RSA ( www.rsa.com )
RSA is the premier provider of security solutions for business acceleration. As the chosen security
partner of more than 90 percent of the Fortune 500, RSA helps the world's leading organizations
succeed by solving their most complex and sensitive security challenges. In September 2006, after
over 20 years providing leadership to the security industry, RSA Security joined forces with EMC
Corporation and Network Intelligence to form the Security Division of EMC. Thawte(
www.thawte.com)

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Thawte is a leading global Certification Authority. Our SSL and code signing digital certificates are
used globally to secure servers, provide data encryption, authenticate users, protect privacy and assure
online identifies through stringent authentication and verification processes. Our SSL certificates
include Wildcard SSL Certificates, SGC SuperCerts and Extended Validation SSL Certificates.

Verisign ( www.verisign.com )
VeriSign (Nasdaq: VRSN) is the trusted provider of Internet infrastructure services for the digital
world. Billions of times each day, companies and consumers rely on our Internet infrastructure to
communicate and conduct commerce with confidence. VeriSign offerings include SSL, SSL
Certificates, and digital content solutions, Extended Validation, two- factor authentication, identity
protection, managed network security, public key infrastructure (PKI), security consulting,
information management, and solutions for intelligent communications, and content.

Review Questions
1. Define Firewalls
2. Define Virus
3. What is Digital Certificate?
4. Explain the working of Firewall
5. Explain the advantages of Firewall
6. Explain the disadvantages of Firewall
7. Explain the functions of Firewall
8. Explain the types of Firewall
9. Explain Digital Certificates
10. Explain the types of Digital Certificate

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