Introduction to Site practical construction

A construction site is an area or piece of land where construction work is taking place. It is a dynamic
environment where many different activities are taking place at the same time. The site is usually divided
into zones for different activities such as material storage, offices, and worker accommodation

Engineering drawing
A structural/Engineering drawing is a type of engineering drawing that provides detailed information
about the structural members needed to support the structure, which is not normally given in architectural
drawings. It is a plan or set of plans and details for how a building or other structure will be built.
Structural drawings are generally prepared by registered professional engineers and based on information
provided by architectural drawings. The structural drawings are primarily concerned with the load-
carrying members of a structure. They outline the size and types of materials to be used, as well as the
general demands for connections. They do not address architectural details like surface finishes, partition
walls, or mechanical systems. This detail drawing helps to set out any building or structure and requires
clear understanding of structural concepts.

Setting out of a building

Setting out of a building is the process of developing the physical positions of corners and walls of a
building by transferring dimensions from the layout plan. It involves establishing key points and guide
markers to ensure accurate building takes place, as well as ensuring that the construction remains within
the legal boundary. Setting out of buildings consists of two operations: setting out of center lines and
setting out of trenches or establishing the excavation lines for proceeding with the excavation3.
The process of setting out of buildings consists of two operations: setting out of center lines and setting
out of trenches or establishing the excavation lines for proceeding with the excavation.

The procedure of setting out a building involves the following steps:

1. Marking the corners of the building.

2. Setting out the center lines of the walls or columns.
3. Setting out the trenches or excavation lines.
4. Controlling the trench positioning with outline profile boards.
5. Measuring the offsets from axial lines and placing the frontage lines in their correct
position relative to local requirements.

The process involves the positions and levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the
construction plans to be established on the ground by various techniques and instruments1.

Formwork construction
Formwork is a temporary structure that is used to support wet concrete until it hardens. It is molds into
which concrete or similar materials are either precast or cast-in-place. In the context of concrete
construction, the falsework supports the shuttering molds. In specialty applications formwork may be
permanently incorporated into the final structure, adding insulation or helping reinforce the finished
structure.
Requirements of Good Formwork
 It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
 It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, to retain its shape.
 The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
 Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without
damage to the concrete.
 The material of the formwork should be cheap, readily available, and should be suitable for reuse.
 The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line, and levels should have a plane surface.
 It should be as light as possible.
 The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements.
 It should rest on a firm base.

Types of Formwork (Shuttering)

1. Timber Formwork
Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side, and beam bottom 25 mm to 40 mm thick
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm

2. Plywood Formwork
Resin-bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of the required sizes.
3. Steel Formwork
This consists of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel angles.
The panel units can be held together using suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
Column formwork 3D
Stair formwork
Concrete wall formwork

Period of Removal of Formwork

S. Description of structural member Time Period

No.
1 Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams 1 to 2 days
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
4 Removal of props to slabs
(a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
Removal of props to beams and arches
(a) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days

(b) Spanning over 6 m 21 days

Reinforcement work
Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used
in reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. To improve
the quality of the bond with the concrete, the surface of rebar is often patterned.
Rebar is necessary to compensate for the fact that whilst concrete is strong in compression, it is relatively
weak in tension. By casting rebar into concrete, it is able to carry tensile loads and so increase overall
strength.
Different uses of rebar include:
 Primary reinforcement: Used to provide resistance to support design loads.
 Secondary reinforcement: Used for durability and aesthetic purposes by providing localised
resistance to limit cracking and temperature-induced stresses.
 Provide resistance to concentrated loads, spreading it through a wider area.
 Assist other steel bars in accommodating their loads by holding them in the correct position.
 External steel tie bars to constrain and reinforce masonry structures, sometimes as a means of
building conservation.
 Reinforced masonry: Some masonry blocks and bricks include voids to accommodate rebar to
carry tensile loads. The rebar is secured in place using grout.

Metric bar size Linear mass density Nominal diameter Cross-sectional area
(mm) (kg/m) (mm) (mm2)
6,0 0.222 6 28.3
8,0 0.395 8 50.3
10,0 0.617 10 78.5
12,0 0.888 12 113
14,0 1.21 14 154
16,0 1.58 16 201
20,0 2.47 20 314
25,0 3.85 25 491
28,0 4.83 28 616
32,0 6.31 32 804
40,0 9.86 40 1257
50,0 15.4 50 1963

Bar bending and cutting

Bar Bending Member Percentage

Slab 1% of total volume of concrete
Beam 2% of of total volume of concrete
Column 2.5% of total volume of concrete
Footings 0.8% of total volume of concrete

Hook Length or Cutting length of Stirrups:-

The hook length is commonly provided for stirrups in beams and ties in columns. In general, Hooks are
added at the two ends of the rebar in stirrups or ties.
Hook Length = 9d (d is dia of the bar)
Below image makes you clear why the Hook length = 9d
Total Cutting Length of stirrup or tie = Total length of Bar + 2 x Hook Length (Two hooks)
Total Cutting Length = L+2(9d)
Therefore Total Cutting length = L+18d (d is the Diameter of a bar)
Bend Length:-
The Bend length calculation is different for Cranked bars (bent up bars) and bends at corners.
The bars are usually cranked in Slabs and bars are bent at corners in Stirrups or ties.
Bend Length calculation in Cranked Bars:-
As Shear stress is maximum at supports in Slab. To resist these stresses we usually crank the bars at the
ends of supports in the slab. The below figure depicts the bent up bar in Slab. To calculate the bend length
the below procedure is followed.

STRUCTURE
Bar Bending Schedule [BBS] Estimate of Steel in Building Construction

Bar Bending Schedule [BBS] Estimate of Steel in Building Construction

Krishna January 12, 2019 116 Comments
Introduction to Bar Bending Schedule [BBS]:-
“BBS” The word BBS Plays a significant role in any construction of High rise buildings. BBS refers to
Bar Bending Schedule. Well, What’s the use of BBS? Why we use BBS? What is BBS?
In this article, we are majorly focused on how and where to start and what are the basics. Apart from this,
you can also learn
First, Bar is any type of rebar which is used as a reinforcement in RCC. The bar may be a Mild Steel bar
or HYSD bar or TMT Bar.
Bar Bending Schedule is termed as “Calculation of the total Steel required for the construction of a
building” We use steel to make concrete to be reinforced and for tension requirements. But how much
steel required for constructing 15 floors building? How much Steel I have to order? All these questions
are answered in BBS
In Bar bending schedule, the bars are organized for each structural units (Beams or columns or slabs or
footings etc) and detailed list is prepared which specifies the Bar location (Bar in footings, slabs, beams
or columns), Bar Marking (to identify the bar in accordance with the drawing), Bar Size (length of the bar
used), Quantity (No. of Bars used), Cutting length, Type of Bend and Shape of the bar in reinforcement
drawings.

How BBS Changed from 1950-2019:-

From 1950 to 2019 lots of modifications and enhancements happening in our world. In 1950, three-
storeyed buildings are high rise buildings now we are constructing a building with 200 floors+. There is a
massive growth in the construction industry. Due to the vast increase in world population demands
increased facilities, more need for space and more construction.
Father of Estimation B.N. Datta has given certain recommendations for the usage of steel in different
components of buildings. But, he didn’t mention any values if we use more bars in a single structural
member.

Bar Bending Member Percentage

Slab 1% of total volume of concrete
Beam 2% of of total volume of concrete
Column 2.5% of total volume of concrete
Footings 0.8% of total volume of concrete
At that time we’ve used only four bars in columns; now we are using 12+ bars in columns based on load
analysis. So, the percentage of steel is increased in a column which reveals that the above-cited values are
outdated. ( They are outdated “not wrong”) He wrote that book in 1950. Now we are in 2019. He gave
recommendations according to the potentiality of construction at that time. Now we are constructing 200
+ floors in the small area.

Bar Bending Schedule [BBS]:-

Before dealing with the BBS, it’s very important to learn the basics of Bar bending schedule. The below-
mentioned table is a kick-start guide for learning Bar bending schedule from scratch.
 S.No. Particulars Result
1. Standard Length of the Steel Bar 12m or 40'
(Bars are sold at standard Length)

2. Weight of Bar D2/162

for length = 1m
(were D = Dia of Bar)
Ex: If length of bar is 12m with 10mm Dia then , 7.40Kgs
Weight of bar = D2/162

Therefore for length 1m = 1m x D2/162

= 1 x 102/162 = 0.61 Kgs

For length 12m = 12 x 102/162

= 7.40Kgs
3. Density of Steel 7850Kg/m3
Below I am discussing the different concepts of Bar Bending schedule which are very useful while
working with BBS. All these concepts are used in BBS design calculation of any structural member. So
be familiar with the below concepts. To keep it clear, firstly the concepts are discussed and in the end,
this post is closed with an example of BBS calculation of a member.
1. Hook Length or Cutting length of Stirrups:-
The hook length is commonly provided for stirrups in beams and ties in columns. In general, Hooks are
added at the two ends of the rebar in stirrups or ties.
Hook Length = 9d (d is dia of the bar)
Below image makes you clear why the Hook length = 9d
From above fig, length of hook = [(Curved Portion) + 4d] = [(4d+d)+4d] = 9d

Hook Length = 9d [d is Diameter of the Bar]

Example Calculation considering stirrup with the hooks at ends:

For clear understanding, look at the below image for calculation of the total length of stirrup the
with two hooks at ends.

Total Cutting Length of stirrup or tie = Total length of Bar + 2 x Hook Length (Two hooks)
Total Cutting Length = L+2(9d)
Therefore Total Cutting length = L+18d (d is the Diameter of a bar)
Hope, now you are clear with the Hook length calculation.
2. Bend Length: -
The Bend length calculation is different for Cranked bars (bent up bars) and bends at corners.
The bars are usually cranked in Slabs and bars are bent at corners in Stirrups or ties.
(i) Bend Length calculation in Cranked Bars: -
As Shear stress is maximum at supports in Slab. To resist these stresses, we usually crank the bars at the
ends of supports in the slab. The below figure depicts the bent-up bar in Slab. To calculate the bend
length the below procedure is followed.

From the above figure as the bar is bent at an angle θ0 the additional length (la) is introduced.
Where, la = l1 – l2–(i)
Tanθ = D/l2 ; Sinθ = D/l1
Hence l1 = D/Sinθ and l2 = D/tanθ
Therefore from (i) :- la = D/Sinθ – D/tanθ
Giving different θ values as 300 , 450, 600 results different additional length la values as below.

θ0 D
/Sinθ D
/tanθ la =D/Sinθ – D/tanθ
300 D/0.500 D/ 0.27D
0.573
450 D/0.707 D/ 0.42D
1.000
600 D/0.866 D/ 0.58D
1.732
900 D/1 0 1D
1350 D/0.707 D/-1 2.42D

Example Calculation considering Bent up bar in Slab (Cranked bar):-

To keep the crank bar in position, an extra bar of length (L/4) is provided below the crank bar as shown in
the below figure.
Therefore, the total length of bar = L+0.42D+0.42D+(L/4)+(L/4) = 1.5L+0.84D
Remember D = Depth of Slab-Top Cover-Bottom cover
(ii) Bend Length calculation when bars are bent at corners:-
The important standards used while calculating the bend length at corners
1. 45° Bend length = 1d
2. 90° Bend length = 2d
3. 135° Bend length = 3d
Here, ‘d’ = Diameter of bar
Example Calculation considering stirrup with the bends at corners:

From above fig, There are 3 bends which are bent at an angle of 900 and two bends are bent at an angle of
1350
Total bend length = 3 x 900 Bend length + 2 x 1350 Bend length = 3 x 2d + 2 x 3d = 12d = 12 x 8 = 96mm

Overlap Length / Lap Length in Reinforcement:-

The standard length of Rebar is 12m. Suppose the height of the column is 20 m. To purvey this
requirement, two bars of length 12m and 8m are overlapped (joined) with overlap length.

Overlap Length for compression members (columns) = 50d

The Overlap Length for tension members (beams) = 40d

[d is the Diameter of the bar]

Important rules while preparing Bar Bending Schedule:-

 The bars used in building should be grouped together for each structural unit and listed seperately
for each floor.
 Bars are listed in numerical order.
 To identify the bar in the bundle of bars, each bar is uniquely labelled with reference details
(Length of the bar, size of the bar, Shape of the bar)
 The type of bar and shape of the bar should be in accordance with B8666.
 It is essential that the bar mark reference on the label attached to a bundle of bars refers uniquely
to a particular group or set of bars of defined length, size, shape and type used on the job.
 The cutting length and bending length calculations are separately calculated and not included in
the detailed list. Like I have listed the Bar Bending details in a table and calculations are done
separately.

Use of Bar Bending Schedule:

 BBS helps to estimate the total quantity of steel required for the construction of building or
structure. It helps to quote for tender the cost incurred by steel.
 Finding the cutting length and bending length in reinforcement detailing improves the quality of
construction and minimize the wastage of steel, makes an economic construction
 With the help of reinforcement drawings, cutting and bending can be done at the factory and
transported to the site. This increases faster construction and reduces the total construction cost.
 For site engineers, It becomes easy to verify the cutting length and bending length of the
reinforcement before placing the concrete.

BBS of Column
Structural Member Column
(3mx0.3mx0.3m)
Bar Marking 1. Main Bars
2. Stirrups (Longitudinal bars)
Dia of Bar 1. Main Bars = 16mm;
2. Stirrups
(Longitudinal bars) = 8mm
No. of Bars used 1. Main bars = 4
2. Stirrups = 30
Cutting length 1. Main bars = 4m
2. Stirrups = 1.2m
Total Length of 1. Main bars = 16 m
bar 2. Stirrups = 36m
Weight of Steel 1. Main bars = 25.24Kgs
bar 2. Stirrups =14.22Kgs

Below is the standard format of BBS for the above table calculation
 REBAR SCHEDULE

Payment No :-____
N Locat
Length (m)
o. Description ion D L N M
6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24
Columns C1

1 16 4 4 1 16
2 8 1.2 30 1 36
Total Length
(m) - 36 - - - 16 - -
Unit Weight
(Kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.617 0.888 1.208 1.578 2.468 3.551

Weight (Kg) - 14.22 - - 25.24 - -

Supervisor Contractor
Bar placement
Practical Tips for Placement of Reinforcements in Concrete Members

1. The site engineer should examine clearance at stirrups and column ties that protrude beyond
other reinforcement.
2. A clear cover between the top of the slab and the top of reinforcements must be maintained,
especially if exposed to an aggressive environment as in the bridge deck slab.
3. In the case of double mat reinforcement, it is advised to align steel bars vertically above each
other in horizontal directions to facilitate concrete pouring and consolidation.
4. Provide openings in the top mat reinforcement to place fresh concrete easily and prevent
scattering and concrete segregation.
5. In case of extremely congested reinforcement, create an opening by moving congested steel
bars to each side to make way for concrete placement. Move the steel bars to the previous
position after concrete pouring is completed. Sometimes, the displaced bars can be left at their
place if the designer approves them.
6. The nominal coarse aggregate size in the concrete mixture should not be greater than three-
quarters of the spacing between bars to ensure the flow of concrete through steel bars and
avoid honeycombing.
7. The head of vibrators should fit between steel bars to consolidate concrete adequately. If a
small vibrator head is used, reduce the spacing between vibration points and increase
vibration time. All vibrators should be functional and prevent concrete placement unless spare
vibrators are available.
8. Stagger bar splices to ease the concrete placement.
9. Ensure that the splice of column ties is staggered around the corners of the column. It is not
recommended to place splice of column ties above each other.
10. When splices are welded, make sure that the weld is of the required size and length. The bars
should not be burned, or their cross-section should not be reduced due to welding.
11. The use of tack welding is prohibited because it weakens the bars at the tack location. If
contract documents allow tack welding, it should be done by professionals. It is recommended
to carry out weld tests if many welds are made.
12. It is common to use splicing sleeves for large bars.
13. The mechanical splices should be approved by the designer otherwise it is not permitted to
use.
14. Anchor steel bars, whenever required, by bending it around another bar, by extending it to the
point of zero stress, or by bending it to 90 degrees or semicircular hook of specified minimum
radius.

Construction Management
Construction management refers to the processes needed to successfully complete a construction
project. Construction project managers ensure that all elements of a construction project are supported
and executed efficiently throughout the project lifecycle. At its most fundamental level, construction
project management handles the coordination, execution, and planning of a construction project,
whether it’s agricultural, residential, commercial, institutional, industrial, heavy civil, or
environmental.
Construction management typically includes complicated tasks that can shift wildly depending on the
work at hand and requires strong skills in communication, deep knowledge of the building process,
and the ability to problem-solve.
Here we are going to cover two basic concepts which are practical on every construction project
 Construction cost estimating using unit rate analysis
 Construction works scheduling using duration estimating
Construction cost estimating using unit rate analysis
Unit price construction cost estimating is a method of estimating the cost of a project by dividing the
work into the smallest possible work increments and establishing a unit price for each piece. The unit
price is based on the cost of materials, equipment, and labor for each component or element of the
project. The unit price is then multiplied by the required quantity to find the cost for the increment of
work
Cost breakdown technique/Unit rate analysis is a method of estimating the cost of a project by
dividing it into smaller components or elements and estimating the cost of each component or
element. This technique is used to provide a detailed estimate of the cost of a project and to identify
areas where costs can be reduced.
A cost breakdown is a detailed list of all the costs associated with a project. It includes all the costs of
materials, labor, equipment, and other expenses. A sample cost breakdown
Standard output rates of construction works are predetermined labor output rates and plant output
rates used to calculate the cost per unit of the measured works. These rates can be found from actual
site measurements or standards like “General formula”.
The general formula to calculate the output of construction workers we can use any of the following
formulas.
 Output = (Total number of workers) x (Total hours worked) x (Efficiency factor)
 Output = Item of work actual executed/Number of persons who did the job
 Output = Item of work actual done/Unit price of item
The efficiency factor is a measure of how much work is done in each amount of time. It takes into
account factors such as the skill level of the workers, the quality of the tools and equipment used, and
the working conditions.
Here is an example of an efficiency factor table for different types of construction work:

Type of Work Efficiency Factor

Excavation 0.60

Concrete work 0.50

Masonry work 0.45

Carpentry work 0.40

Electrical work 0.35

Plumbing work 0.30

 DIRECT COST ANALYSIS SHEET FOR - Electrical light points
PROJECT SERVICE BLOCKS AND FENCE WORKS LABOR HRLY OUTPUT
DESCRIPTION Electrical light points HOURLY OUTPUT 0.63
ITEM Pt RESULTANT 5.00
QUANTITY 1.00
MATERIAL COST LABOR COST EQUIPMENT COST
Labor by Indexed Type of Hourly
Type of material Unit Qty Rate Cost/unit No. UF Hourly cost No. UF
Wire 2.5mm² ml 9.00 35.00 trade
315.00 Electrician 1.00 1 hourly cost
87.50 Equipment
87.50 Tools 1 1 rental rate
5.00
Conduit Pcs 2.00 90.00 180.00 DL 2.00 1 37.50 75.00
Scatola Pcs 2.00 40.00 80.00 -
- -
TOTAL 575.00 TOTAL 162.50 TOTAL

Material unit cost 575.00 Manpower unit cost 260.00 Equipment unit cost

DIRECT COST OF WORK ITEM 843.00 ETB/Pt

Profit and over head cost 35% 295.05 ETB/Pt

Total Unit Price 1,139.00 ETB/Pt

Remark:
Construction works scheduling using duration estimating
Construction works scheduling using duration estimating is a method of scheduling construction work
by estimating the duration of each task or activity. This method involves breaking down the project
into smaller tasks or activities and estimating the time required to complete each one. The duration
estimates are then used to create a schedule for the project.
How do you determine the duration for each task or activity?
The duration for each task or activity can be determined by using historical data, expert judgment, and
other factors such as the complexity of the task, the skill level of the workers, and the availability of
resources.
Historical data can be used to estimate the duration of tasks or activities based on past projects that are
similar in scope and complexity. Expert judgment can be used to estimate the duration of tasks or
activities based on the experience and knowledge of experts in the field.
Other factors such as the complexity of the task, the skill level of the workers, and the availability of
resources can also be used to estimate the duration of tasks or activities.
There are several methods for estimating task duration. Some of the most common methods include:
 Time tracking and analysis
 Fudge ratios
 Overestimation
 Check your schedule
 Three-point estimation
 Get feedback
 Use time tracking apps
 Estimate someone else’s time
 Use historical data and expert judgment
These methods can be used alone or in combination to estimate the duration of tasks or activities.
The critical path method (CPM)
is a technique that is used by project managers to create a project schedule and estimate the total
duration of a project. The CPM method consists of using a network diagram to visually represent
the sequences of tasks needed to complete a project.
The duration of each task can be estimated using historical data, expert judgment, and other
factors such as the complexity of the task, the skill level of the workers, and the availability of
resources.

As you can see in this critical path diagram, project activities are represented by letters and the
critical path is highlighted in green. Tasks F, G and H are non-critical activities with float or
slack. We can also identify task dependencies between the critical path activities, and also
between activities (A, F and G) or (A, H and E), which are parallel tasks.
Critical Path Method (CPM) Formula

Before we learn how to use the CPM formula, we need to understand some key CPM
concepts.

 Earliest start time (ES): This is simply the earliest time that a task can be started in your
project. You cannot determine this without first knowing if there are any task dependencies
 Latest start time (LS): This is the very last minute in which you can start a task before it
threatens to delay your project timeline
 Earliest finish time (EF): The earliest an activity can be completed, based on its duration and
its earliest start time
 Latest finish time (LF): The latest an activity can be completed, based on its duration and its
latest start time
 Float: Also known as slack, float is a term that describes how long you can delay a task before
it impacts its task sequence and the project schedule. The tasks on the critical path have zero
float because they can’t be delayed

The critical path method formula has two parts; a forward pass and a backward pass.

Forward Pass in CPM

Use the CPM diagram and the estimated duration of each activity to determine their earliest
start (ES) and earliest finish (EF). The ES of an activity is equal to the EF of its predecessor,
and its EF is determined by the CPM formula EF = ES + t (t is the activity duration). The EF
of the last activity identifies the expected time required to complete the entire project.

Backward Pass in CPM

Begins by assigning the last activity’s earliest finish as its latest finish. Then the CPM
formula to find the LS is LS = LF – t (t is the activity duration). For the previous activities,
the LF is the smallest of the start times for the activity that immediately follows.

Critical Path Method Example

Let’s take a look at a critical path example to better understand how the critical path method
is used in project management. Although it’s high-level, it can help you visualize the
meaning of a CPM schedule.

We will use this critical path diagram to explain the elements that make up the critical path
analysis process. To keep things simple, we’ve already done the calculations for this example
using the CPM formula.
The above critical path method example shows the critical path for getting a website online.
All the tasks that are scheduled to build and launch the website are shown in the rectangular
nodes.

Some of the tasks are being done at the same time as others. For example, the work on
defining a target market is being done as the design is being done and the content for the site
is being drafted.

However, not all these tasks are equally important. Some aren’t critical to getting the site live
by the deadline. That’s where the critical path comes in. It has identified by the colored
arrows all the tasks that must be done in order to complete the project plan on time.

Critical Path Method Steps

Now that you know the key concepts of the critical path method, here’s how to calculate the
critical path in 8 steps.

1. Collect Project Activities

Use a work breakdown structure to collect all the project activities that lead to the final
deliverable.

2. Identify Task Dependencies

Determine which tasks are dependent on other tasks before they can begin. Use your
judgment and your team members’ feedback. Failing to define task dependencies correctly
makes the critical path method useless.

3. Create a Critical Path Diagram

A CPM diagram or network diagram, depicts the order of activities.

4. Estimate the Timeline

To use the critical path method, you’ll need to estimate the duration of each task. Use data
from past projects and other sources of information such as subject matter experts.

5. Use the Critical Path Formula

The critical path uses an algorithm, also referred to as the CPM formula. That algorithm has
two parts, the forward pass and the backward pass. The forward pass is determined by using
the earliest start for each activity (ES) and the earliest finish (EF). The ES of an activity
equals the EF of the one before it. The EF is calculated by EF = ES + t (the duration of an
activity).

The backward pass assigns the last activity’s EF as its latest finish. Then use the CPM
formula to find the LS, which is LF – t. For the activities before that, LF is the smallest of the
start times for the next activity.

6. Identify the Critical Path

The activities with 0 float make up the critical path. All of these critical path activities are
dependent tasks except for the first task in your CPM schedule. All project tasks with positive
slack are parallel tasks to the critical path activities.

7. Revise During Execution

Continue to update the critical path diagram as you go through the project execution phase.
These critical path analysis steps determine what tasks are critical and which can float,
meaning they can be delayed without negatively impacting the project schedule. Now you
have the information you need to plan the critical path schedule more accurately and have
more of a guarantee you’ll meet your project deadline.

You also need to consider other changes or constraints that might change the project
schedule. The more you can account for these unexpected events or risks, the more accurate
your critical path schedule will be. If time is added to the project because of these constraints,
that’s called a critical path drag, which is how much longer a project will take because of the
task and constraint.

What is WBS (Work Breakdown Structure)

A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a project management tool that breaks down a project into
smaller components in a deliverable-oriented manner. It is a visual representation of the project’s
scope and helps to organize the team’s work into manageable sections. The WBS is created using an
iterative process by following these steps and meeting these guidelines 1:
 Gather critical project documents.
 Identify content containing project deliverables.
 Organize the deliverables into groups.
 Identify the sub-deliverables for each deliverable.
 Create a hierarchical structure of the deliverables and sub-deliverables.
The WBS can be used to estimate costs, allocate resources, and track progress. It is also useful for
identifying potential risks and dependencies between tasks.
Work schedule in MS-project
Microsoft Project is a project management software that can be used for work scheduling. It allows
you to create a project schedule by adding tasks and organizing them efficiently so that the project end
date occurs as soon as possible1. You can set the general working days and times for a project2 and
change the task type for more accurate scheduling3.
There are three scheduling modes available in Project: Fixed duration (default mode), Fixed effort
(Work), and Fixed units4. You can choose the mode that best suits your project’s requirements.
Sample schedule window in MS-project
Introduction to Civil Engineering software
Civil engineering software is a list of programs that can be used to design structures, roadways, and
bridges and predict those designs’ outcomes. It is a list of computer programs that have practical
experience during the time spent planning and regulating development projects. As an introductory
part we will try to cover some software. Examples of some software used in our line od of industry
are: -
 ETABS
 SAP2000
 SAFE
 AUTODESK AUTOCAD
 AUTODESK REVIT
 MS-PROJECT
 MS-EXCEL
ETABS, SAP2000 and SAFE
These three and many more are made by a company called CSI America and are used for structural
analysis, design and detailing of structures,
 ETABS: This software is used for structural analysis and design. It supports several
international codes and helps to create detailed models of structures.
 SAP2000: This software is used for structural analysis and design. It supports several
international codes and helps to create detailed models of structures.
 SAFE: This software is used for structural analysis and design of concrete slabs and
foundations. It supports several international codes and helps to create detailed models of
structures.
 AUTOCAD is used for performing detail and other drawings mainly in 2D and partly in 3D
 REVIT is BIM tool used for structural, architectural, mechanical, electrical and detail
drawings in advanced way with many features
 BIM (Building Information Modeling) is a system that integrates all the Architecture,
Engineering and construction of any construction project enabling every professional in that
project to make any changes as required and interact each other. BIM is supported by various
tools, technologies, and contracts1. It is used across the world to ensure that the planning,
design, and construction of buildings are highly efficient and collaborative.
 MS-Project is a project management tool made by Microsoft used to create project work
schedule together with resources schedule and present them in a graphical manner or Gantt-
chart
 MS-Excel is a common spreadsheet program of Microsoft used for numerical data analysis,
programming, graphical presentation and lot of customizable applications in each industry.
For construction works it can be used for structural analysis, design, scheduling, quantity
surveying and many more features that can be exploited by everyone of the field.
Some other software can be
 AutoCAD Civil 3D: This software is used for civil engineering design and documentation. It
supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows and helps to streamline the design
process.
 Infraworks 360: This software is used for infrastructure design and helps to create
preliminary designs in a real-world context.
 Revit Structure: This software is used for structural engineering and helps to create detailed
models of structures.
 STAAD.Pro: This software is used for structural analysis and design. It supports several
international codes and helps to create detailed models of structures.