A Handbook of Readings for Teachers of English

By

Dr. Mohammed Ghawi

College of Education

Academic Year

(2017-2018)
 Table of Contents

Module 1: Basic Concepts

Module 2: Communicative English Language Teaching

Module 3: Group-work Pair-work

Module 4: Teaching Young Learners

Module 5: Lesson Planning

Module 6: Class Management

Module 7: Class Discipline

Module 8: Integrated Skills & Sub-skills

Module 9: Teaching Listening

Module 10: Teaching Speaking

Module 11: Teaching Reading

Module 12: Teaching Writing

Module 13: Teaching Grammar

Module 14: Teaching Pronunciation

Module 15: Teaching Vocabulary

Module 16: Testing Design & Administration

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 Module 1

Basic Concepts of ELT

Part A: Basic ELT Concepts

1. English as a First Language (L1)

It refers to English spoken by native speakers in English-speaking
countries such as England, USA, Canada, and Australia. Other well-known
synonymous expressions are English as a Mother Tongue and English as a
Native Language. The abbreviated form (L1) is used to refer to all three
expressions.
2. English as a Second Language (ESL)
The concept is used to refer to English used in two different contexts.
The first context is related to English used by non-native speakers in
English-speaking countries. English, in this case, is used at work and at
school but most often, the native language is used at home. The second
context is related to English used in a multi-lingual community as a
language of communication in schools, business, government offices, and
everyday communication. English in this case is not the native language of
the people using it. Examples of English used in such contexts include
English in India, Pakistan, South Africa, Singapore, and the Philippines.
3. English as a Foreign Language
It refers to English taught as a school subject in non-English speaking
countries such as Syria, Lebanon, France, and Russia. English, in this case,
is not used as a medium of communication in everyday interactions. Its use
is restricted to English classes when teachers use it as a medium of
instruction in the classroom.

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4. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
English taught to certain groups of learners based on their needs.
Examples of ESP courses include English for Science and Technology,
English for Medical Purposes, and English for Business Administration.
ESP courses are different from general language proficiency courses in the
sense that they develop the learners’ L2 proficiency in certain content areas,
and they often require specialized teachers who have, at least, adequate
knowledge of the content.
5. Integrative vs. Instrumental Motivation
A language learner is said to have integrative motivation if s/he
desires to learn a target language to communicate with native speakers of
that language and become a member of the target language community.
However, if the learner wants to learn a target language to achieve
instrumental goals, this learner is said to have instrumental motivation.
Examples of instrumental goals include passing an exam, getting a job, or
reading language materials.
6. Learning vs. Acquisition
The term learning refers to the conscious process of internalizing a
second or a foreign language in formal settings, whereas the term acquisition
refers to the unconscious process of internalizing one's mother tongue in
natural settings. The term acquisition is sometimes used to refer to ESL and
EFL learning when the learning environment is similar to that of children
acquiring their L1.
7. Affective Filter
This refers to the psychological state of the learner which may
function as an emotional barrier to learning. It is assumed that when the
affective filter is high, the learner is unable to turn available input into
intake. A number of factors could raise the affective filter such as fear,
over-anxiety, incomprehensible input, or negative attitudes towards language
learning. The task of the language teacher, therefore, is to lower the
affective filter of the learner in order to create a conducive environment for
learning.

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8. Comprehensible Input
This means that the difficulty level of the teaching material has to be
appropriate for the level of the students. The term "i+1" is used to describe
the quality of optimal input where "i" stands for what the language learner
already knows and "1" stands for what the language learner needs to know.
The language teacher can make input more comprehensible to the learner by
using shorter sentences, clearer pronunciation, extra-linguistic support, and
high frequency words. In addition, input is usually more comprehensible
when the teaching material is interesting to the learners and relevant to their
needs.

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 Module 2
The Communicative Approach (CA)
Introduction:
The Communicative Approach appeared in the late 1970s and early
1980s as a result of the work of two sociolinguists, Dell Hymes & Michael
Halliday. It continues to be the most widely used teaching method
throughout the world. This method is based on the assumption that
successful communication requires more than linguistic competence; it
requires communicative competence – knowing when and how to say what
to whom. The Components of Communicative Competence include:
 Linguistic Competence: Knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation,
spelling, and word formation.
 Sociolinguistic Competence: The appropriate use of L2 utterances in various
contexts.
 Strategic Competence: The ability to use verbal and non-verbal means to
avoid breakdowns in communication.
 Discourse Competence: The ability to achieve cohesion in form and
coherence in meaning.
 Fluency: The ability to use spoken and written language with very little or
no hesitation.

1. Objectives:
- Enable learners to communicate in L2 in genuine situations outside the
classroom.
- Provide learners with knowledge of form, meaning, and function.
- Help learners choose appropriate language based context and interlocutors.
- Help learners negotiate meaning even when they have incomplete
knowledge of L2.
2. Role of the Teacher:
- Establishes situations that prompt L2 communication (manager).
- Facilitates communication in the classroom (facilitator).
- Provides needed advice to learners (advisor).
- Monitors learners' performance (monitor).
- Participates in some activities (co-participant or co-communicator).

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3. Nature of the Teaching/Learning Process:
- Using truly communicative activities, which have three basic characteristics:
information gap, choice, and feedback.
- Focusing on activities such as games, role-plays, and problem-solving
tasks.
- Stressing purposeful communication based on feedback by the interlocutor.
- Using authentic teaching materials.
- Maximizing communication through group activities (pairs, triads, small
groups, and whole groups).
- Securing a learner-centered environment.
4. Nature of Classroom Interaction:
- Teacher-student interaction.
- Student-teacher interaction.
- Student-student interaction.
5. Affective Considerations:
- Learners' motivation is enhanced by learning to communicate in L2 (Having
a feelings that they are doing something useful with L2).
- Learners are given the opportunity to express their individuality (ideas &
opinions) regularly.
- Learners' feeling of security is enhanced through cooperative interaction
with peers.
6. Nature of Language and Culture:
- Language is for communication.
- Communicative competence is broader than knowledge of linguistic forms.
- Learners need knowledge of form, meaning, and function.
- Learners convey messages that are socially appropriate.
- Culture is the everyday lifestyle of the people who use L2.
- Non-verbal behavior is an integral part of language and culture.
7. Stressed Language Areas/Skills:
- Language functions are emphasized over forms.
- Learners work with language at the discourse level (cohesion & coherence).
- Learners work on all four skills from the beginning.

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8. Role of L1:
- Judicious use of L1 is permitted. However, L2 remains the main medium of
instruction.
9. Nature of Evaluation:
- Both fluency and accuracy are evaluated.
- Both formal and informal evaluation are used.
- Formal tests are integrative in nature.
10.Dealing with Errors:
- Errors are tolerated in fluency-based activities.
- Errors are taken care of through accuracy-based activities.

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 Module 3
Pair work/Group work
Technical Concepts
• Cooperative Learning: Learning in which students work together in
small groups on an activity. They are individually accountable for
their work and the work of the group as a whole.
• Jigsaw Activity: A group activity in which different members of the
group have different tasks related to the same topic. Students
perform the tasks individually, and then come back to the group to
put the information or pieces together.
• Rubric: A scoring guide or template for giving feedback on student
work and performances.
Background:
Group-work has become a common classroom practice since the 1070s.
Communicative teaching methodologies (Communicative Approach &
Cooperative Learning) have encouraged group work to reduce teacher
dominance (Teacher Talking Time --TTT) and create a learner-centered
environment (Student Talking Time – STT). Nevertheless, this does not
mean that all class activities should be done in groups. There is always time
and place for whole-class activities just as there is time and place for group-
work activities.
Rationale for Cooperative Learning:
• Interaction: Students have more time to talk to each other about
topics of interest to them.
• Interdependence: Students learn to depend on each other to
accomplish a common objective.
• Processing: Students process language in various tasks (learn to seek
help, raise questions, express doubt, disagree, paraphrase,
negotiate), which helps them gain confidence in the use of language
needed for success in subsequent learning.

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 • Competitiveness: Individual competition is replaced with group
competition to encourage collaboration.
• Accountability: Success in collective achievement is directly related
to individual accountability. Therefore, a group member has both an
individual responsibility and a group responsibility.

In Cooperative Activities, Teachers

• Require students to work in small groups, usually heterogeneous, to
perform tasks.
• Engage students in tasks that can usually be accomplished in a single
class period.
• Specify a definite outcome, such as giving a report to the whole class
or sharing information with members of other groups.
Grouping Strategies
• Mixed-abilities: Include top achievers, middle achievers, and bottom
achievers in each group.
• Diversity: Avoid groups of close friends, enemies, and one gender.
• Interest: Put students who share similar interests or viewpoints in
some activities.
• Group Size: Make sure each group does not exceed 3-5 members.

Teacher Roles
• Give instructions
• Group students
• Monitor progress
• Encourage involvement
• Facilitate interaction

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 • Assist as needed
• Intervene as needed
• Give feedback
• Evaluate performance
Evaluation
• Group grades: To encourage group members to help one another
(See example rubric for evaluating groups on p. 31). Evaluation
criteria include decision-making, social interaction, contributing, on-
task behavior, group structure and functioning.
• Individual Grades: To overcome feelings of unfairness by top
achievers, teachers may assign individual grades.
For cooperative activities, teachers prepare students to
• Explain directions.
• Offer suggestions.
• Help each other without interfering.
• Encourage each other.
• Paraphrase.
• Request a justification.
• Extend each other’s utterances.
• Express emotion.
• Resolve conflict.
• Criticize each other without giving offense.

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 Module 4
Teaching Young Learners
(Kg-5th grade)

Characteristics of Young Learners

At this age, children

• are active.
• like to play.
• are creative.
• have a short attention span.
• learn holistically.
• need clear directions.
• need repetition.

Tips for Teachers of Young Children

• Have an effective classroom set-up
- Open-box arrangement
- Using a rug for certain activities
• Give brief instructions
- Children cannot process multi-step instructions easily.
• Have pupils repeat multi-step directions
- Who can tell us what we are supposed to do?
- Omar, could you repeat the directions please?
• Don’t talk before they start listening
- Hand-check: hands up, clasp hands together, hands down.
- A known command: “1,2,3 eyes one me” then have the kids say
back “eyes on you.”
• Give a specific signal to start an activity
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 - A magic word: “Alladin”
- A bell ring
- A hand gesture
• Give brain-breaks or a structured time-out for pupils’ minds
- Physical stimulation
- Joke
• Ask pupils to clean up after activities or lessons
- Clean up desks
- Clean up classrooms

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 Module 5
Lesson Planning

Importance of Lesson Planning:

• To plan is human.
• A plan a day keeps disaster away, especially for novice teachers.
• Plans are not made to be broken, just bent.
• One size does not fit all.
• Planning can be done in a variety of ways.
• Looking back helps in planning ahead.

Metaphors for a Lesson

• A variety show
• Eating a Meal
• A wedding
• A menu
• A conversation
• Doing the shopping
• A football game
• A symphony

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 Ways of Lesson Planning
• How long before a specific lesson do you prepare it?
• Do you prepare a lesson plan or write down lesson notes?
• Do you note down your objectives?
• How often do you look at your notes?
• What do you do with your lesson notes after the lesson?

Lesson Plan Form

 Objectives: Statements which describe what students will be able to learn
by the end of the lesson.
 Revision & Warm-Up: Reviewing key points in the previous lesson and
paving the way for the new lesson.
 Activities, Techniques, Formative Evaluation, and Teaching Aids: What
you will teach, how you will teach, how you’ll assess understanding of each
activity, and what teaching aids you will use (closely related to objectives).
 Summative Evaluation: Final assessment to make sure students have
understood what you have taught, i.e. lesson objectives have been achieved.
 Closure: How you will wrap up you lesson.

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 SMART Objectives
• Specific
• Measurable
• Agreed Upon
• Realistic
• Timed

Sample Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
• read the passage on Unusual Marriage Ceremonies.
• answer the T/F and MC comprehension questions.
• use words that show time order (first, next, then, finally) correctly.
• distinguish between independent and dependent clauses with before and
after.
Sample Verbs to Use in Objectives
read, write, talk about, predict, ask, pronounce, match, underline, outline,
identify, locate, change, draw, list, describe, explain, distinguish, compare,
contrast, analyze.
Sample Verbs to Avoid in Objectives
understand, know, comprehend, listen

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 Tips on Lesson Planning & Implementation
• Prepare more than you need.
• Note down activities you may sacrifice.
• Keep a watch or clock easily visible.
• Do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute.
• If you have papers to distribute, give a number of papers to people at
different points in the class. Ask them to take one and pass the rest on.
• Give clear instructions before activities.
Ways of Varying a Lesson
• Tempo: activities may be fast-moving (a guessing game) or slow
(responding in writing).
• Organization: individualized tasks, pair-work, group-work, full-class.
• Mode and Skill: written or spoken; receptive (listening & reading) or
productive (speaking & writing).
• Mood: light versus serious; happy versus sad; tense versus relaxed.
• Stir-Settle: Some activities excite learners (controversial discussions, while
others calm them down (dictation).
• Active-Passive: Learners either take initiative or do as told.
Criteria for Evaluating Lesson Effectiveness
• Learners are active.
• Learners are attentive.
• Learners seem to enjoy the lesson.
• Learners seem to be learning the material well.
• The teacher has a specific plan.
• Language is used in a communicative way.

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 Lesson Plan Form
Objectives: By the end of the lesson, learners will be able to:
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Revision & Warm-up:
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Procedures (Activities, Techniques, Formative Evaluation & Teaching Aids):
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Summative Evaluation:
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Closure:
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 Teacher Date Class Subject Topic Number of Visit

Classroom Observation Report

Date: Class: Unit: Lesson:

Objective Part

Criteria Outstanding Very Fair Needs Notes

Items Good Work
( 5) (4) ( 3) (2)
The teacher was well prepared.
The teacher triggered background
Preparation knowledge before getting into the lesson.
and The introduction was well-timed
Introduction
The lesson was presented effectively.
The teacher was able to deliver
information at students’ level.
The teacher managed to relate the lesson
to students’ life.
The time allotted to activities was
appropriate.
The amount of teacher’s and students’
Lesson talk was appropriate
Presentation Teacher feedback was appropriate.
Students attended to what was happening
in the class.
Slower learners were engaged in
classroom activities.
Supplementary teaching materials served
as useful aids in understanding lesson
content.

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 Use of audio-visual or technological
materials was effective.

Closure and The closure of the lesson was

Assessment appropriate.

The teacher used appropriate assessment.

The teacher was able to achieve the

lesson objectives.

Classroom
Management Classroom atmosphere was warm and
and open. Students were free to ask questions
Learning and express their opinions.
Atmosphere
Movement, eye contact, voice intonation,
body and facial expressions were used
effectively.
The teacher had good control of the class
and was able to deal tacitly with
misbehaviors.
Language The teacher used the target language in
Skill the classroom in an appropriate and
understandable way (pronunciation,
speed, vocabulary).

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 Subjective Part

Use of L1:
1. Over use __________________________________

2. No use __________________________________

3. Optimal use ________________________________

Language Errors:
1. Spelling: _________________________________________________________

2. Grammar:_________________________________________________________

3. Pronunciation:_____________________________________________________

Major Positive Points:

_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

Additional Comments:
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

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 Module 6
Classroom Management
Technical Concepts
 Classroom Management: It refers to all aspects of the classroom that
the teacher may have some influence over, e.g., teaching strategies,
physical arrangement of space, and disciplinary techniques.
 Instruction Management: It includes aspects such as choosing or
adapting teaching materials, using interactive teaching techniques,
monitoring seatwork, establishing daily procedures and routines, and
monitoring students’ independent work.
 Behavior Management: It involves pre-planned efforts to prevent
misbehavior as well as teacher’s response to it. It involves setting rules,
establishing a reward structure, and imposing consequences.
 Discipline: It refers to the treatment of misbehavior in classrooms and
schools.
 Consequences: Results of an event or a behavior. In the classroom, it
usually refers to the results of negative behavior.
 Proactive Teacher Behaviors: They are behaviors that anticipate
student actions and reactions. Proactive teachers plan the classroom to
avoid problems.
 Reactive Teacher Behaviors: They are behaviors that react to student
actions after a problem develops.
 Labeling: Classifying students into categories, using incomplete
information (e.g., calling a student “stupid” or “lazy” is labeling).
 Identifier: Something that gives a name or an identity to individuals. In
a classroom, this can be a name tag, name cards on desks, or group
names.

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 Diversity of Teacher’s Responsibilities
• Keep records
• Motivate students
• Ask questions
• Listen to answers
• Monitor behavior
• Make immediate decisions

Types of Classroom Management Strategies

Interventionist Strategies: The teacher exercises a high degree of control
over classroom activities.
Non-Interventionist Strategies: Students are allowed to exert a significant
influence in the classroom
Interactionist Strategies: Students and teacher share responsibility for
classroom management.

Framework for Classroom Management

A-Person Dimension: It refers to what teachers believe about students as
persons and what teachers do to enable students to develop as persons.
Teacher’s Perception of the Nature of Students
• Personal attributes
• Independence/capabilities of students
Psychological Climate
• Personal attention/worth
• Opportunity for success
• Group spirit and purpose
• Classroom climate (warmth, friendliness, courtesy, respect)
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 B. Instruction Dimension: It involves what teachers do to enable students
to learn.
Physical Environment
• Territory
• seating
• Materials

Time
• How to allocate time
• Diversions from task

Classroom Routines
• Daily routines
• Transitions
Monitoring Learning Behavior
• Keeping on task
• Circulating
• Feedback on performance
• Choice of learning topic/task
• Purpose of homework

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 C- Discipline Dimension: It refers to what teachers do to set standards
for behavior and to enforce those standards.

Rule setting
• Who sets rules
• Importance of rules

Acknowledgement of Appropriate/Inappropriate Behavior

• Importance of praise
• Effectiveness of punishment/negative consequences

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 Module 7
Class Discipline

Class discipline is a state in which both teacher and learners accept and
consistently observe a set of rules about acceptable behavior in the
classroom.
Factors Contributing to Class Discipline
 Class Management: Knowing how to organize the beginning of a lesson, or
how to get students to raise their hands instead of shouting out answers.
 Methodology: Students are likely to cooperate when they feel that the used
methodology is helping them to learn.
 Interpersonal Relationships: Feelings of respect and good will between
individuals.
 Lesson Planning: A carefully organized lesson makes for purposeful and
orderly process.
 Student Motivation: Students cooperate when the activity is interesting
and motivating.
Characteristics of a Disciplined Class
 Learning is taking place.
 The classroom is quiet.
 The teacher is in control.
 Teacher and students are cooperating smoothly.
 Students are motivated.
 The lesson is proceeding according to plan.
 Teacher and students are aiming for the same objective.
 The teacher has a natural charismatic authority.

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 Possible Causes of Misbehavior
• Poor planning
• Poor teaching skills
• Irrelevant teaching materials
• Boring Classroom environment
• Lack of clear and unified school policies
• Authoritarian treatment of students.

Attention & Mind-breaks

• Attention Count: When the teacher counts to three, students eyes are on the
teacher.
• TPR movements (sleep, wake up, wash your face, brush your teeth, comb
your hair, get dressed)
• A song accompanied with gestures.

The Basic Structure of a Discipline Plan Has to Contain:

 Rules: What the expected behaviors are (focus on five or six rules at a time;
try to avoid negative phrasing – Be on time instead of Don’t be late) .
 Rewards: What the student receives for appropriate behavior.
 Consequences: What a student expects if a rule is broken.

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 Sample Class Rules
• Be in class on time.
• Bring your books and notebooks.
• Listen to instructions.
• Keep your eyes on the teacher.
• Show respect to others.
• Keep the classroom clean.
• Be in class on time.
• Have your food and drink outside the classroom.

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 Sample Reward Ideas
• A simple gift (a star, a praise tag, a piece of candy).
• Be the leader of a class game.
• Be the first to have a break.
• Class Points: Write points on the board for good performance (individuals or
groups).
• Stars Page: Sticking a star on the notebook of a student for good
performance. Rewarding the student who has ten stars.
• School Money: Locally produced paper notes to be used inside the school
for buying things.
• Student/Star of the Week (e.g., for a student who scores the highest points).
• Favorite Game or Activity: Students are rewarded for good behavior by
playing their favorite game, going on a trip, having a party, or watching a
movie.
• Stickers: Sticking stickers on students' faces.
• Teacher assistant
• Honor's List: A student's name is put in a special list for honored students.
Sample Consequences Ideas
• Changing the seat of the student.
• Deducting points.
• Paying a fine.
• Boycotting the naughty student for some time.
• Asking the student to stand in the naughty corner for a short time.
• Doing a physical activity (push-ups, standing on one foot)
• Depriving the student of a break, a fun activity, or a PE class.
• Doing classroom chores (e.g., empty the trash can, clean the board, clean the
class).

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 Practical Hints for Teachers on Classroom Discipline
 Start by being firm with students: you can relax later.
 Get silence before you start speaking to the class.
 Know and use students’ names.
 Prepare your lessons well.
 Walk around the class.
 Avoid ignoring the problem – facing the problem prevents escalation.
 Speak clearly.
 Give clear instructions.
 Have back-up materials prepared.
 Look at students while speaking.
 Make work appropriate to students’ age and ability.
 . Develop an effective questioning technique.
 13. Time your activities whenever possible.
 14. Vary your teaching techniques.
 15. Deal with problems quietly and avoid empty threats.
 16. Avoid confrontations (power struggle, standing in students’ face).
 17. Clarify fixed rules.
 18. Show yourself as helper and supporter of students.
 19. Treat students with respect (Don’t patronize them).
 20. Choose topics that activate students.
 21. Be warm and friendly to students.
 22. Use humor constructively.

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 Authoritarian vs. Authoritative
 Authoritarian: It describes a teacher who is bossy.
 Authoritative: It describes a teacher who is obeyed because he or she is
trusted to know best about the subject of study and how to learn it.

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 Class Management Skills
Observation Checklist
N Item Always often sometimes rarely Never
1. The teacher talks to students
respectfully.
2. The teacher calls students by their
names.
3. The teachers is prepared for the
lesson.
4. The teacher has a smiling face
5. The teacher's language is
appropriate for the level of the
students.
6. The teacher uses a variety of
teaching techniques.
7. The teacher uses the time
efficiently
8. The teacher uses the board
efficiently
9. The teacher gives clear
instructions.
10. The teacher uses mind-breaks to
avoid boredom.
11. The teacher's voice can be heard
clearly.
12. The teacher gives students equal
opportunities to participate in
activities.
13. The teacher's style is encouraging.
14. The teacher monitors students'
work.
15. The teacher is firm but gentle.
16. The teacher walks around the
classroom to assist students.
17. The teacher provides students with
feedback.
18. The teacher creates a relaxing
classroom atmosphere.
19. The teacher gives special attention
to weak students.
20. The teacher adjusts seating
arrangement according to the
activity.
22. The teacher keeps students on task.
22. The teacher implements classroom
rules.
23. The teacher praises good behavior.
24. The teacher imposes consequence
for misbehavior.
25. The teacher involves students in
decision-making.

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 Module 8
Integrated Skills and Sub-Skills

Technical Concepts:
• Integrated Skills: Primary language Skills (reading, writing, speaking,
listening) and sub-skills (grammar, vocabulary, spelling,
pronunciation, usage) used together for communication.
• Productive Skills: The primary skills of speaking and writing.
• Receptive Skills: The primary skills of listening and reading.
• Brainstorming: Suggesting many ideas as quickly as possible without
giving each a lot of thought, usually in groups and in preparation for a
future activity.
• Graphic Organizers: Visual maps of information, such as graphs,
timelines, diagrams, story maps, etc. that help learners understand
and retain information.
• Language Retention: Remembering or storing language mentally
over time so that it can be used when needed.
• Rote Memorization: The process of learning something by repeating
without necessarily gaining a deep understanding of it.
• Tangible: Something real that can be seen or touched (opposite =
intangible).
• Task-Based Learning: An approach in which learners work together
to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. Learning
occurs through social activity (enact a scene from a play, develop a
TV commercial, prepare a school newspaper).
• Total Physical Response (TPR): A language teaching approach that
combines language learning with physical movement, initially based
on commands.

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Definition of Integration:
It refers to the process of weaving together the four language skills, as well
as the other related sub-skills in L2 instruction. It is the opposite of
segregated skill -instruction.

Rationale for Integration:

• People integrate language skills in natural communication.
• It ensures adequate preparation of learners for everyday
interactions and academic life.
• Teaching students to improve their learning strategies in one skill
area can often enhance performance in all language skills, e.g.,
learning strategies can be transferred across skills and sub-skills.
• Separating language skills in textbooks or in teaching is practically
impossible.

Two Basic Models for Integration

A. Content-Based Language Instruction:
It refers to the process of learning real content through the medium of
L2. It can be used at all levels of proficiency, but the nature of content may
differ according to students’ proficiency levels. For beginners, the content
often involves basic social and interpersonal communication skills. For
higher levels, the content can become more complex and academic.

Models of Content-Based Instruction:

a. The Theme-Based Model: It integrates language skills into the study of a
theme (marriage customs, wonders of the world, violence).

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b. The Adjunct Model:
Language and content courses are taught separately, but are carefully
coordinated.
c. The Sheltered Model:
The subject-matter is taught in simplified English tailored to students’
proficiency level.

B. Task- Based Language Instruction:

Students work together in groups to achieve specific tasks (prepare a class
newspaper, design a TV commercial, enact a scene from a play). Tasks
become more complex at higher proficiency levels (e.g., introducing a
partner for beginners vs. taking a public opinion poll for advanced learners).
Advantages:
• Exposes learners to authentic language and challenges them to
interact naturally.
• Makes language a real means of communication rather than a mere
object of- academic interest.
• Allows teachers to track students’ progress in multiple skills at the
same time.
• Promotes learning of real content, not just language forms.
• Motivates students of all ages and backgrounds.
Practical Tips:
• Teachers should reflect on their teaching practices to assess the
extent to which the skills are integrated.
• Teachers should familiarize themselves with the various ways of
integrating language skills in the classroom.
• Teachers should choose textbooks and other teaching materials to
promote the integration of language skills and sub-skills.

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• Teachers should use appropriate tasks to integrate skills and sub-
skills when the course or textbook focuses on one skill only.
• Teachers should teach language-learning strategies and emphasize
the transfer of strategies across skills and sub-skills.

36
 Module 9
Teaching Listening
Introduction
Most students want to be able to understand what people are saying to
them in English, either face-to-face, on TV or on the radio, in theaters and
cinemas, or on tape, CDs or other recorded media. Anything we can do to
make that easier will be useful for them. This is especially important since,
the way people speak is often significantly different from the way they write.
Thus, the more they hear and understand English being spoken, the more
they absorb appropriate input which can eventually improve their listening
skill as well as their speaking skill.

Basic Concepts
Listening: The ability to understand words received through the ears.
Top-down Listening: Listening for general information.
Bottom-up Listening: Listening for specific information.
Intensive Listening: Listening in a classroom under the close guidance of
the teacher.
Extensive Listening: Listening outside the classroom for pleasure.
Redundancy: Redundant utterances may take the form of repetitions, false
starts, rephrasing, self-corrections, elaborations, and meaningless additions
such as "I mean; you know“
Noise: Outside disturbance, temporary lack of attention, mispronounced
words, lack of knowledge.

37
 Importance of Teaching Listening
• Frequency of listening in language use and EFL textbooks.
• Exposing students to varieties of native English.
• Acquainting students with various moods, accents, intonation patterns.
• Saving teacher's time and energy in the EFL class.
Needed Listening Skills
• Distinguishing English sounds (p/b, e/i, f/v, s/z, etc.)
• Identifying intonation and stress patterns (rising/falling; stressed/unstressed
words).
• Recognizing some grammatical signals:
Plural nouns: books, churches
Third person singular of verbs: sleeps, watches
Regular past tense of verbs: walked, lived, invited
• Recognizing collocation (car: driver, license, garage)
• Distinguishing between spoken and written language (redundancy, noise,
colloquialism, contractions, reductions in vowel quality)
• Predicting what people are going to talk about.
• Guessing the meaning of unknown words from context.
• Identifying relevant points and discarding irrelevant information.
• Retaining relevant information by note-taking and summarizing.
• Inferring meaning.

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 Types of Listening Activities
1. Listening for Perception:

At the word level At the sentence level

• Repetition: choral, group and • Repetition: choral, group and

individual repetition individual repetition
• Which category: man (1); men• Identifying stress (I am
(2) [Teacher: pen, cat, rap, terribly tired)
net]
• Identifying intonation
• Minimal pairs: same or (rising/falling)
different (pin/ pin; pin/bin)
• The right word: but (bat, bet,
but)

2. Listening for Comprehension:

• Listening and making no response (identifying the described pictures among
a set of pictures)
• Listening and making short responses (T/F exercises)
• Listening and making longer responses (comprehension questions,
summarizing, translation, prediction, etc.)

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 Stages of a Listening Activity
A. Pre-listening:
• Brainstorming: A discussion of the listening topic based on titles,
photographs, etc.
• Discussion: Exchange of ideas and opinions about the topic.
• Games: Games that involve key words in the listening activity.
• Guiding Questions: Questions that help the learners exploit the listening
passage or dialog.

B. While-listening:
• Comparing
• Following instructions
• Filling in gaps
• Prediction:
• Repetition
• Ticking off items
• Information gap
• Paraphrase
• Sequencing
• Information search
• Matching
• Jigsaw listening

40
 C. Post-listening
• Answering comprehension questions
• Problem-solving
• Summarizing
• Writing follow-up activities
• Speaking follow-up activities

The Role of a Teacher in a Listening Activity

A. Be prepared and organized
Try out the audio equipment.
Check audio quality.
Use authentic recordings whenever possible.
Make sure the topic is related to students interests.
Use different types of audio materials.
Make sure students understand what they are supposed to do.
Let students compare answers in pairs or groups before whole class
discussions.
Pause the recording to give students time to answer.
Specify adequate time for listening
B. Alleviate tension
Tell students they don’t have understand everything.
Tell students to focus on what they are asked to do only.
Make sure the task is appropriate for students’ level.
Play the recording the first time without assigning any task.
Play the recoding in sections.
Use activities that encourage students to share information.

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 Module 10
Teaching Speaking

Introduction
Speaking is the act of conveying information or expressing one’s thoughts in
spoken language. Communicative Language Teaching has given speaking
fluency a primary focus in language teaching, of course, without ignoring
the other skills. Emphasis on speaking has been in response to the
overwhelming desire on the part of language learners to develop their oral
fluency. In fact, some learners consider speaking the main reason for
learning L2. For these learner, being able to speak is the ultimate measure
of success in L2 learning. That is why teachers of communicative classes
have integrated speaking into the other skills.
Basic Concepts
Fluency: Focusing on the delivery of meaning regardless of any language
mistakes.
Accuracy: Focusing on the delivery of oral messages which are free of
language mistakes.
Negotiation: What speakers do to achieve successful communication
(indicating understanding or lack of it; helping each other to express ideas;
making corrections)
Self-correction: Giving students hints and clues to correct their own
mistakes.
Peer Correction: Inviting students’ to correct mistakes made by other
students when self-correction fails.
Teacher correction: Correcting students’ mistakes when both self-
correction and peer-correction fail.
Over-correction: Constant interruptions of students’ speaking in order to
correct language mistakes.

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 Criteria for Teaching Speaking
• A competent teacher who is orally fluent.
• An appropriate classroom atmosphere -- anxiety-free.
• Ample opportunities for student participation.
• A variety of speaking activities.
• Enhancing the related sub-skills (grammar, vocabulary pronunciation).
• Having knowledge of the speech acts.
• Knowing when and how to correct language mistakes.

Some Factors that Influence Speaking Ability

Cognitive Factors
• Familiarity with the topic
• Processing demands
• Knowledge of language
Affective Factors
• Feelings towards the topic
• Self-consciousness
• Nervousness

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 Differences between Written & Spoken Language
Written Language
• The sentence is the basic unit of construction.
• Reported speech favored.
• Precision favored.
• Little ellipsis
• No question tags
• No Performance effects.

Spoken Language
• The clause is the basic unit of construction.
• Direct Speech Favored.
• Vagueness tolerated.
• A lot of ellipsis
• Many question tags
• Performance effects include (hesitations, repeats, false starts, incompletions,
syntactic blends)

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 Sources of Speaking Support
• Collocations: rich and famous, set the table…etc.
• Phrasal verbs: get up, log on, run out of…etc.
• Idioms/catch phrases: part and parcel, make ends meet…etc.
• Sentence frames: would you like a…?... The thing is…., what really gets me
is…
• Social formulas: see you later, have a nice day, mind your head…
• Discourse markers: if you ask me, by the way, to cut a long story short…
• Deixis: (space, time, person)
A. Spatial Deixis:
Here, this (place, thing…etc.)
There, that (place, thing etc.)
B. Temporal Deixis:
Now, this (time)
Then, that (time)
C. Person Deixis:
I, me
You, your

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 Types of Speaking
• Transactional: ordering a meal at a restaurant.
• Interpersonal: giving a comment about the weather as an excuse to start a
conversation with someone you don’t know.
• Interactive: A group discussion to solve a problem
• Non-Interactive: a voicemail message.
• Planned: delivering a prepared speech.
• Unplanned: a conversation with an old friend you accidently meet.
Speaking Strategies

Conversational Strategies
• Mastering turn-taking routines: when to talk, how to show desire to talk,
how to signal to someone else to talk.
• Using discourse markers:
To gain time: (ummm, well, you know)
To start a turn: (Well, I would just like to say…)
To signal beginning/ends: (right, now, anyway)
• Using conversational openings: (It’s a beautiful day!)
• Interrupting someone politely: (Sorry to interrupt, but ...)
• Shifting topic: (Oh, by the way, that reminds me ...)
• Closing a conversation: (It was nice meeting you)

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 Negotiation of Meaning
• Using formulaic expressions: (I’m sorry, I didn’t get that, would you mind
repeating that”
• Asking for help (What’s the word for that)
• Paraphrasing: (It’s a kind of …)
• Using “all-purpose phrase (It’s a what-do-you-call it?)

Functional Language
Using fixed phrases or colloquial expressions: (catch you later, back in a sec,
I’ll call you back in a bit, anyone for coffee, fancy a tea).
Using adjacency pairs: These are paired responses as follows:
A: Nice day, isn’t it?
B: Yes, it is.
A: Fancy a tea?
B: Yes, please.

Stages of a Speaking Activity

Pre-speaking
• Making notes individually, in pairs, or in groups before oral reporting.
• Silent thinking time before individuals are called on to speak.
• Brainstorming with the whole class before individuals are invited to express
their opinions.

While-speaking
• Repetition (choral, group, individual)
• Activating social loafers/loners (assigning roles or numbers)
• Peer talk (pair- and group-work activities)

Post-speaking
• Plenary sessions after group-work activities
• Peer and teacher feedback on ideas and language

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 Roles of the Teacher
• Organizer
• Prompter
• Participant
• Monitor
• Feedback provider

Kinds of Speaking Activities

Mechanical Drills
• Repetition drills: sounds, words, grammatical patterns
• -Substitution drills

Structured Oral Activities

• Structured Interviews: Students question each other and answer factually,
thus exchanging real information while at the same time repeating and
reinforcing certain structures (Yes/No questions; Wh-Questions; Functions:
greetings, introductions; Find someone who: plays football/ doesn't eat meat)
• Picture Description: A picture of my town now (there is; there are) and 50
years ago (there was/ there were); a picture of what a person looks like; a
series of pictures.
• Guessing Games: Where is my hat? A student goes outside the classroom.
His classmates hide his hat somewhere. He comes back and asks 10 Yes/No
questions using prepositions (Is it in Omar's desk?). The Answer Card:
student A is given a card such as (Beirut) (Dureid Lahaam) (Kabsa). He
asks student B questions so that B gives the exact answer written on A's
card.
• Strip Stories: Students organize scrambled sentences into a short story, then
they memorize the strips and present them to the class.
• Story Building: The teacher starts the first sentence of a story, and then asks
individual students to add one sentence each (I had a terrible nightmare last
night)

Free Oral Production

• Problem-Solving Activities: Cross-word puzzles; choosing items for a
camping trip.
• Presentations: My best friend, My favorite TV program
• Debates: Tests must be abolished
• Skits: Organized around speech functions (travel agent & a customer)
• Oral Dialogue Journals
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 Module 11
Teaching Reading

Introduction:
Modern theories view reading as the process comprehending written
discourse as a result of the interaction between printed text and the reader’s
background knowledge. According to this view, reading is no longer viewed
as a passive or a receptive language skill. The readers’ schema or
background knowledge interacts with the written text to help them
understand the text. Moreover, effective reading is essential for success in
L2 learning. Adequate exposure to the written text through extensive
reading is believed to improve all language skills and sub-skills. Skillful
readers are thought to positively transfer reading strategies from L1 to L2.
One of the main objectives of teaching reading is to enable students to read
written material at appropriate speed and with adequate understanding.

Basic Concepts
Silent Reading: Reading done under the close guidance of the teacher for
the purpose of understanding the text as a whole or only part of it. It is often
practiced after key concepts have been introduced or explained and a task
has been assigned.
Reading Aloud: Reading done under the close supervision of the teacher for
checking students' pronunciation, word stress, intonation, and pauses. The
teacher often does the first reading as a model, then students read
individually or in pairs.
Skimming: Glancing rapidly through a text (title, sub-titles, topic sentences,
summaries) to determine its gist or main idea.
Scanning: Glancing rapidly through a text to search for a specific piece of
information (a name, a date, etc.).
Predicting: Reading a text quickly and anticipating what is coming based on
what was read and the reader’s previous experience with language and the
world.
Guessing: Readers guess the meaning of unknown words from context

Reasons for Reading

• We read literary works such as stories, novels, and plays for pleasure.
• We read newspapers, magazine, brochures, and phonebooks to learn new
information.
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 Reading Models
• Bottom-Up Model: Readers arrive at meaning by decoding written
symbols. According to this model, readers gradually progress in reading:
letters, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, discourse.
• Top-Down Model: Readers arrive at a general understanding of a written
text based on their previous knowledge of language and the world. They
make use of available verbal and non-verbal clues such as titles, sub-titles,
pictures, tables, charts, maps, etc.
• Interactive Model: Readers make use of both written symbols and
background knowledge to arrive at the meaning of a text.

Types of reading

A- Extensive Reading
Reading long graded texts such as stories, poems, novels, plays, magazines,
and journals under the guidance of the teacher. Reading is often done at
home for pleasure and for general knowledge without the direct assistance of
the teacher. Students rarely use a dictionary, but rather rely on guessing the
meaning of new words from context.

Extensive Reading Tasks

Oral Reports: Students present oral reports about what they have read and
answer any questions asked by their classmates and teacher.
Written Reports: Students write reading reports and reviews about what
they have read.

B- Intensive Reading
Reading short texts under the close guidance of the teacher for the purposes
of comprehension, vocabulary learning, grammar mastery, explanation,
pronunciation practice, functional use, and cultural knowledge.

Teacher Roles in Intensive Reading Tasks

• Organizer: The teacher gives students a clear purpose for the reading,
assigns a specific task, and sets time-limit for completing the task.
• Prompter: After doing the reading task, the teacher directs students to pay
attention to text structure and certain features of the text.
• Feedback Planner: After completing each reading task, students compare
answers and share information on what they have read in pairs, groups, or
whole class format.

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 Intensive Reading Tasks

A. Pre-Reading Phase
• Brainstorming: Before students read, the teacher asks them general
questions related to the topic and writes down some related words, phrases,
and structures on the board.
• Predicting: Students predict what they are likely to find in the text based on
headings, pictures, tables, graphs.
Pre-teaching of key words: Before the reading, the teacher introduces
students to key words they will definitely need to understand the text well.

B. While-Reading Phase
• Skimming: Students read for overall understanding of the text.
• Scanning: Students read for specific information in the text.
• Jigsaw reading: Each student is responsible for reading a paragraph n the
text. In groups, students get together to answer questions related to the
whole text.
• Ordering paragraphs: Students read paragraphs and put them in the right
sequence.
Inserting missing paragraphs into a text.

C. Post Reading Phase

• Answering reading comprehension questions.
• Filling-in forms or charts
• Matching sub-titles with paragraphs
• Matching paragraphs with pictures
• Summarizing the text orally
• Writing a summary, a paraphrase, a new ending, a new title
• Using some new words in sentences
• Answering opinion and personal experience questions
• Doing vocabulary and grammar exercises.
• Acting out a role-play

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 Bad Reading Habits
• Sub-vocalizing: murmuring the words you are reading hinders your
understanding
• Finger-pointing: Pointing at every word in the text slows students down
and distracts their attention
• Regression: Moving the eyes backwards to check previous words interrupts
the process of understanding; therefore, the eyes have to move steadily
forwards.

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 Module 12
Teaching Writing
Introduction
Writing is a complex process which allows language users to
communicate ideas through the use of written words. It often triggers
thinking because once ideas are written down, they become subject to,
arranging, adding and modifying (recursive nature of writing) examining.
Our students need to learn writing within a framework that moves from
controlled, to guided, to free writing activities. They should receive
feedback on their writing in relation to content, organization, grammar, and
mechanics. Teachers should make sure that their students are given enough
guidance in the various phases of the writing process. Students, on the
other hand, should be willing to write multiple drafts in order to benefit from
the feedback provided by the teacher and peers.

Approaches to Teaching Writing

The Product Approach
Teachers in this approach mainly focus on the final outcome of writing.
They assign writing tasks and correct mistakes related to grammar,
vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation. When students receive their writing
assignments full of red makings, they often feel frustrated and put the
assignments aside without even bothering to modify them.
The Process Approach
In this approach, the focus of the student and the teacher shifts from the final
writing outcome to the writing process. Students write first drafts, revise
them, write second drafts and so on until they have the final draft ready.
Throughout these stages of writing, they receive feedback from both their
teachers and classmates.

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 Stages of the Writing Process
Writers often practice writing in three stages: pre-writing, writing, post-
writing.
A- Pre-Writing Stage
The main focus in this phase is on generating ideas and language related to
the writing topic. The following techniques are often done in the classroom
under the supervision of the teacher:
• Brainstorming: The teacher elicits ideas and language related to the topic
without worrying about their sequence, organization, or even quality.
• Clustering: The teacher and his/her students generate ideas related to the
topic in the form of circles. The biggest circle contains the topic and is
written in the middle of the board or the page. Small circles branch from the
big circle in different directions as students start to suggest ideas related to
the topic. The small circles branch into smaller circles as details and
supporting ideas are generated.
• Outlining: The teacher directs students to make use of the ideas elicited
through brainstorming or clustering to prepare an outline of the writing
topic. The outline should contain main ideas and supporting details for the
writing topic.

B-Writing Stage
• Writing draft 1: This stage is often done at home. Students make use of the
ideas, vocabulary, and expressions generated in the pre-writing stage to
write the first draft of the topic and give it to the teacher for feedback on
form, content, organization, and mechanics. Some teachers follow the
selective feedback technique, i.e., they choose to focus on one aspect of
writing with each topic. However, most of the teachers favor comprehensive
feedback because they cannot tolerate seeing a mistake without correcting it.
Even students prefer feedback on the various aspects of their writing.
Teachers should be careful to familiarize students with their feedback
techniques and any correction symbols they use.

54
• Writing draft 2: Students make use of the teacher’s feedback to write a
revised copy of the writing task. Most of the teachers and students do not
prefer working on a third draft, but this is done in the process approach if the
second draft still contains problems related to the various aspects of writing.
C. Post Writing Stage
• The teacher meets with the students individually to discuss the strong and
weak points in their writing.
• The teacher selects samples of the students’ good writing topics and posts
them in the school bulletin board or publishes them in the school magazine.
• The teacher selects samples of students’ common mistakes without
mentioning names. The samples are either reproduced in a worksheet or
projected on the board. Students work in pairs or groups to correct the
mistakes. An error-free copy of the samples is then prepared in a whole-
class discussion format under the supervision of the teacher.
The Process Genre Approach
• This approach focuses on giving students practice in non-academic writing
tasks such as formal letters, informal letters, CVs, book reviews, article
reviews, film reviews, emails, etc. Students are often presented with models
to read and analyze before they are asked to produce similar texts. This
approach stresses issues such as purpose, audience, and specific features
related to the genre.
• Proponents of this approach advocate the integration of the other language
skills (reading, speaking, listening) into the writing task. For example,
students may do the writing task after reading a passage or listening to text
on a related topic. Students do a number of vocabulary, grammar, and
comprehension exercises before they begin the writing task.
• Students go through the stages of the process writing approach (pre-writing,
drafting, revising) to benefit from the provided feedback.

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Types of Writing Activities
A- Controlled Writing Activities
Beginning writers are supposed to trace and copy letters and words. At high
beginning and pre-intermediate levels, they manipulate sentences and
modify or model paragraphs. The focus in this type of writing tasks is
mainly on accuracy.
Handwriting
It is a form of imitative writing in which pupils learn how to write the
alphabet and some simple words. Students are often trained to write on four
parallel lines, then on two lines, and finally on one line.
Copying
It is a form of writing which aims at giving students further training in
handwriting and developing their consciousness of spelling and punctuation
marks.
Sentence Combining
It is the combining of simple sentences into longer compound or complex
sentences. It improves students’ sentence structure, length of sentences, and
sentence variety.
Dictation
It is a valuable instrument for practicing aural comprehension, distinguishing
sounds and words, recognizing grammatical forms, and developing spelling
consciousness (prepared words, sentences, text; punctuation marks should be
dictated).
Dictation Steps: (a) First reading at normal speed while students are just
listening (normally-paced, clear and expressive); (b) Second reading in units
at a fairly slow speed; (c) Third reading at normal speed at the end.
Dictation Feedback: Self-correction, peer-correction, teacher-correction

56
 C. Guided Writing Activities
Teachers often guide students’ writing through carefully chosen questions or
writing models.
Scrambled Sentences
Students re-arrange sentences to make complete paragraphs
Transformed Paragraphs
Students write parallel paragraphs by changing the subject, the tense,
affirmative to negative.
Story Completion
Students write different endings to a story.
Question and Answer
Students are asked a series of questions, the answers of which form the text.
Carefully constructed questions often help students to produce coherent
texts.
Parallel Writing
Students read and analyze a passage or a letter and then write their own on a
similar theme, utilizing the vocabulary, sentence structure, cohesive devices,
and organization of the model.

B- Free Writing
In this type of activities, students generate, organize, and express their own
ideas in their own words. In this type of activities, fluency and quantity are
more important than quality. Students are often asked to write about
different topics that are of interest to them.
Points Writers should Keep in Mind in Free Writing Activities
 The purpose
 The audience
 The content
57
 Syntax
 Grammar
 Proper choice of words
 The mechanics of writing
 Organization

Feedback Tips
- Read the students' piece of writing a first time without a pen in hand.
- Write comments on strengths and weaknesses.
- Make sure your students are familiar with your correction symbols.
- Decide on a strategy for handling errors (correct all or some).
- Remember that your main task is to help students know what to do next.
- Provide in-text and end-of-text comments.
- Avoid general comments such as good and bad.
- Give specific suggestions on what to revise.
- Ask elaboration and clarifying questions.
- Hold individual conferences with students.
- Provide a check-list when you use peer correction.
- Hold a feedback session of common mistakes.
- Read the students' piece of writing a first time without a pen in hand.
- Write comments on strengths and weaknesses.
- Make sure your students are familiar with your correction symbols.
- Decide on a strategy for handling errors (correct all or some).
- Remember that your main task is to help students know what to do next.
- Provide in-text and end-of-text comments.

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- Avoid general comments such as good and bad.
- Give specific suggestions on what to revise.
- Ask elaboration and clarifying questions.
- Hold individual conferences with students.
- Provide a check-list when you use peer correction.
- Hold a feedback session of common mistakes.

Correction Symbols

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 Module 13
Teaching Grammar
Introduction
Grammar is the way a language combines words or even parts of words
to form larger units of meaning. It holds the different parts of language
together according to specific rules that form a system. Moreover, it is an
integral part of language skills and sub-skills such as listening, speaking,
reading, writing, and vocabulary learning. Over the years, language teachers
have alternated between two approaches for teaching grammar. One approach
focuses on language analysis, but the other focuses on language use.
Proponents of the Chomsky-inspired Cognitive Approach teach grammar by
analyzing its structures and applying its rules. However, followers of the
Communicative Approach teach grammar points in the context of
communicative situations that reflect real-life language use and everyday
language functions such as requesting, greeting, inviting, offering, and
apologizing.

Basic Concepts:

• Inter-language (IL): An intermediate system located on a continuum

stretching from the mother tongue to the target language.
• Fossilization: The state of affairs that exists when the learner ceases
to elaborate the IL no matter how long there is exposure, new data, or
new teaching (when IL freezes at certain point)
• Recycling: Introducing one aspect of a form and then returning to the
form from time to time for reinforcement and elaboration.
• Deduction: A technique for teaching grammar rules in which students
are given the rule and then the rule is illustrated by the use of
examples.
• Induction: A technique for teaching grammar rules in which students
are presented with a number of examples and are asked to induce the
rule.

Teachers in the Communicative Approach:

• Aim at enabling language students to use linguistic forms accurately,
meaningfully, and appropriately.
• Focus on the use of form and meaning simultaneously.

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 • Believe that incorrect forms can be eliminated gradually as the learner
advances in learning, whereas confusions in meaning are more
difficult to overcome.
• Introduce the various meanings of grammatical forms separately and
in different situations.
• Stress teaching grammar in a learner-centered approach through group
work and pair work activities.

Steps of Inductive Grammar Activities

• Choose a specific grammar point to teach.
• Provide students with examples in context.
• Guide students to discover the rule.
• Allow students to test the rule.
• Provide opportunities for controlled practice.
• Provide opportunities for communicative practice.
• Write the rule on the board

Steps of Deductive Grammar Activities

• Choose a specific grammar point to teach.
• Write the rule on the board
• Provide students with examples in context.
• Provide opportunities for controlled practice.
• Provide opportunities for communicative practice.

Recommended Techniques for Teaching Grammar

• Focus on a specific grammar point at a time to avoid confusing
students.
• Provide students with controlled exercises, followed by
communicative activities.
• Use time-lines as graphic organizers for illustration (especially with
tenses).
• Ask various questions to check students’ understanding (yes/no
questions; either/or questions; wh-questions).
• Elicit examples from students.
• Compare L2 forms with L1 forms.

Points to Remember When Teaching the Tenses:

• Teach the various uses of the tense.
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 • Teach the three tense forms (affirmative, negative, interrogative).
• Teach the related time expressions for each tense.
• Teach the exceptions.
The Three-Dimensional Grammar Framework
(Form, Meaning, Context)

Example: The possessive “s”

A. Form (syntactic patterns, morphemes)
• /'s/ after singular nouns and irregular plural nouns
• /'/ after regular plural nouns ending in "s" and singular nouns ending
in "s"
• There are three allomorphs:
/z/ after voiced consonants and vowels
/s/ after voiceless consonants
/ z/ after sibilants

B. Meaning (grammatical & lexical meaning)

• Relationship: Jack's wife
• Part/Whole: My brother's hand
• Amount: A month's holiday
• Origin/Agent: Shakespeare's tragedies

C. Context (social context, discourse)

• /'s/ vs. his, her, their ---------------> referent is clear
• /'s/ vs. /of the/ -------------> non-human head noun (the leg of the
table)
• /'s/ vs. /noun compounds/ --------------> (table leg)

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 Sample Communicative Grammar Activities

A. Simple Present Tense

Students ask each other “How often” questions.
How often do you watch TV?
How often do you eat out?

B. Present Continuous Tense

Miming: A student mimes an action and his/her classmates describe
the action being mimed (e.g., He is listening to music).

C. Simple Past Tense

Students write sentences about what they were doing at a specific time
in the past. They do not write their names. Classmates guess the
name of the writer of each statement by asking questions in the past
continuous tense.
Example:
A: What were you doing at 6:00 P.M. yesterday?
B: I was doing my Math homework.

D. Present Perfect Tense

• Ask your students to write sentences on the life and achievements of a
living celebrity.
• Students ask each other “Have you ever ….. Questions?”
• Students write answers for questions such as the following:
Why is my mother upset?
• Students propose an explanation exclamation situations such as the
following:
• Ouch! [Someone has stepped on my foot]
• You’re joking ![Mary has bought a new car.]
• Help!
• Hoops
• Well-done!

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 Error Correction

Significance of Errors
• Errors are no longer viewed as linguistic sins.
• They tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has
progressed, and consequently what remains for him to learn.
• They are indispensable to the learner himself because making errors is
a device used by the learner to learn, i.e., a way for testing
hypotheses.

Sources of Errors
• Language Transfer: Students transfer L1 rules into L2. However,
transfer can be both negative and positive.
• Overgeneralization: Students over-generalize L2 rules to wrong
contexts (He goed).
• Transfer of Training: Students make errors because of incorrect
exposure to L2 in the classroom (the pronunciation of comfortable).
• Strategies of L2 Communication: L2 users make errors, but they do
not care about being corrected because they can get the message
across (e.g., immigrants in the USA).
• Strategies of L2 Learning: Students use their own L2 learning
strategies based on specific assumptions they have about language
learning (e.g., translating words literally).
Error Correction Techniques
• Self-correction with the teacher's help
• Pinpointing: You indicate the mistake.
• Cuing: Giving a hint
• Repetition: Again please
• Rephrasing the question
• Peer-correction: In pairs, in groups, individually
• Teacher Correction: It must be done selectively (focus on form in
drills; focus on meaning in communication)
• Direct correction of errors
• Indirect correction of errors (S: Jack goed/T: Oh, Jack went)

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 Module 14

Teaching Pronunciation
Introduction
Pronunciation refers to the ability to use correct sounds, stress, and
intonation in words and longer utterances. This is an important but often
overlooked area of teaching. Students may be able to say something
correctly, but they are unable to make themselves understood because of
their pronunciation. It is made more difficult as written English, unlike
some other languages, is not phonetic. In other words, the spelling of the
word does not necessarily specify how it should be pronounced.
Many teachers neglect teaching pronunciation. Some argue that
students will naturally acquire good pronunciation skills through other skills;
other teachers claim that they do not have enough time to focus on
pronunciation, but most of these teachers who neglect pronunciation just do
not feel comfortable teaching it. All students will tell you, however, that this
is one of the areas that causes them some difficulty. Moreover, most
students find pronunciation activities enjoyable and useful.

Basic Concepts:
• Stress: What speakers use to distinguish stressed syllables from
unstressed syllables.
• Intonation: It is the music of the language. It represents how oral
language production goes up and down.

Factors That Influence Pronunciation Learning

• The learner’s mother tongue.
• Aptitude for imitating and producing sounds.
• The learner’s age: (2-12  accent free; 15 +  foreign accent)
• Exposure: (Quantity: Length of exposure and intensity of
exposure. Quality: The language model).
• Motivation: Strong motivation leads to genuine investment of
time and effort, which results in improved pronunciation.
• Attitude: (Positive attitude leads to a better pronunciation,
whereas a negative one leads to foreign accent).

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Common Pronunciation problems for Arab Learners of English

A. Problems with Sounds:

• Sounds that do not exist in Arabic. /e/, /ei/, /p/…etc.
• Confusion of similar sounds.
 P/B Pet/Bet
 V/F View/Few
 ð/z This/Zoo
 θ/s Think/Sink
• Consonant clusters. Street /sitriːt/

B. Orthography vs. Pronunciation

enough, though, through, cough, knot, pneumonia

C. Plural Form
books /s/ after a voiceless consonant
beds /z/ after a voiced consonant or vowel
glasses /Iz/ after a sibilant

D. The "ed" ending of regular past verbs

• /t/: kicked, laughed, stopped, wished (after voiceless consonants)
• /d/: showed, learned, killed, raised (after voiced consonants)
• /Id/: heated, wanted, needed, decided (after /t/ and /d/)

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 Stress and Intonation

A. Stress
Word Stress
 DEsert /ˈdezərt/ deSErt /dɪˈzɜːrt/
 SUBject /ˈsʌbdʒɪkt/ subject /səbˈdʒekt/
 REbel /ˈrebəl/ reBEL /rɪˈbel/
 PROject ˈ/prɑːdʒekt/ proJECT /prəˈdʒekt/

Word Stress Exercise

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 Sentence Stress

B. Intonation
• It is very important in expressing meaning and showing feelings.
• There are two main types of intonation patterns:
Rising intonation: Yes/No questions and surprise statements
(Is he your friend? Really?)
Falling Intonation: Statements, commands, and information
questions (I’m a teacher of English. Listen to me. What is your
favorite subject?)

Intonation Questions Exercise

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 Pronunciation Activities
A. Minimal pair drills
/I/ /e/
fill fell
lit let
sit set
till tell
will well
bit bet
wit wet
pin pen

B. Same or Different
He bit me.
He beat me. (different)
Ali beats her.
Ali beats her. (same)

Did he live?
Did he leave? (different)

C. Word Stress in Sentences

A number of Arab countries exPORT oil.
Oil is a very important EXport of Arabic countries.

Sami is a Muslim CONvert.

Two years ago, he decided to conVERT to Islam

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D. Phonetic Puzzle

E. Guess the Word

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 Module 15
Teaching Vocabulary

Introduction
Learning vocabulary is a very complex process which requires
knowledge of form, meaning, usage, and use. Form refers to spelling
and pronunciation. Meaning refers to knowledge of the various kinds
of meaning such as the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning, the
idiomatic meaning. Usage refers to knowledge of collocation and
connotation (collocation: car, driver, accident; connotation: as loyal as
a dog; *Example: My car was badly injured in the accident). Use
refers the rules of appropriateness.

Basic Concepts
• Collocation: The way in which words are used together regularly
(perform an operation/* perform a discussion.
• Passive Vocabulary: Words that L2 learners understand in spoken
and spoken discourse, but they are not used productively yet.
• Active Vocabulary: Words that L2 learners can retrieve, process,
and use productively in spoken and written discourse.
Guessing from Context
Read the following text and guess the meaning of the words in italics
A country girl was walking along the snerd with a roggle of milk on her
head. She began saying to herself, “the money for which I will sell this milk
will make me enough money to increase my trund of eggs to three hundred.
These eggs will produce the same number of chickens, and I will be able to
sell the chickens for a large wunk of money. Before long, I will have enough
money to live a rich and fallentious life. All the young men will want to
marry me, but I will refuse them all with a ribble of the head – like this…”
As she ribbled her head, the roggle fell to the ground and all the milk
ran in a white stream along the snerd, carrying her plans with it.
Key:
Snerd = road roggle = can trund = stock
Wunk = sum fallentious = luxurious ribbled = shook

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Types of Vocabulary
Content vs. Function Words:
Content words: An open-ended list of verbs, nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs.
Function words: A closed class of words (about 200 words in English)
which serve grammatical functions. Examples of function words are
prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and auxiliaries.
Passive vs. Active Vocabulary:
Passive words: Vocabulary needed for recognition and comprehension.
Students have to recognize them when occurring in context.
Active words: Vocabulary utilized in everyday speech. Teaching should
focus on pronunciation, form, collocation, and meaning.
Planned vs. Unplanned Vocabulary:
Planned Vocabulary: Planned vocabulary teaching refers to the teaching of
vocabulary items which the teacher has decided to teach during the course of
the lesson.
Unplanned Vocabulary: Unplanned vocabulary teaching refers to the
teaching of vocabulary items that come up without warning in the course of
a lesson.

Collocation
Collocation deals with words which naturally occur together.
Example 1: A completion exercise
A ……………………. of cigarettes.
A …………………….. of tea.
A ……………………… of wine.
A ………………………. of matches.

Example 2:
Swim like a …………….
Sharp as a ………………
Strong as a ………………

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 The Three C's Approach for Teaching Vocabulary

A.Convey Meaning:
• Word definitions in L2
• Elicitation
• Translation into L1
• Examples
• Miming & gestures
• Visual aids: Realia, plastic replicas, pictures, drawings, posters, flash
cards
• Word relations: Synonyms, antonyms
• Word roots and affixes (prefixes, suffixes)
Contra = against dict = speak/say tion = state/act
Contradiction = speaking against

B. Check Understanding:
• Concept check questions: Asking questions which elicit
understanding or lack of it.
Example: Boring
Do you like boring teachers? Is this lesson boring? Are you
boring?
• Fill-in the blank & multiple choice
Example:
I need a drink. I'm so -------------.
Please ------------ me a telegram. (receive, send, buy, discuss)
• Matching pairs/ exercises: a target word in Column A and a
synonym, an antonym, a definition, or a picture in Column B.

Sorting exercises:
Example: Circle the odd word
Animals: mammals, fish, reptiles
Foods: vegetable, meat, fruit
• Picture identification: Draw a picture and ask students to identify
it.
• Word-identification: Define a word and ask students to identify
it.
• Rearrangement of scrambled words into sentences
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 • Word-formation exercises:
Example:
He intends to become a doctor. Do you know what his ----------
------------ are?
• Sentence making: Students are asked to use the word in a
sentence.

C. Consolidate:
• Reviewing the new words orally
• Dictating the new words to students
• Using the new words productively
• Problem-solving: Design a TV schedule for a TV station
• Writing: Students reconstruct or write a short story using the new
words.
• Role-play: In groups, students design a role-play which includes the
new words.
• Games: The teacher said "Simon said“
• Guess what it is game: I can see/think of something beginning with
"M" what is it? Yea/No answers accepted only.
• Cloze exercises: Words are deleted from a passage at regular
intervals. The teacher can include the first letter of each deleted
word.

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 Module 16
Test Design & Administration

Introduction
Testing is an important part of every teaching and learning
experience. Tests are important for the language course, the students, and
the teacher. Tests provide a clear indication that the class has reached a
“station” in learning, thus contributing to a sense of structure in the course as
a whole. Tests also give students information on what they know, so that
they also have an awareness of what they need to learn or review. In
addition, tests give the teacher information about what the students have
mastered and, thus, specify the language items that need further attention.

Basic Concepts
An Achievement Test: It measures how much of the material taught in a
given course, or part of one, has in fact been learned.
A Proficiency Test: It measures the overall language proficiency of testees,
without reference to a particular course.
Diagnostic Test: It reveals the strong and weak points of a learner’s
knowledge.
A Discrete-Point Test: It consists of separate items, each of which focuses
on a specific point.
An Integrative Test: It involves whole pieces of discourse and tests a
relatively broad command of the language (e.g., a cloze test; an essay).
A Subjective Test: A test in which students’ answers vary and, therefore,
there is an element of a subjective judgement on the part of the tester.
An Objective Test: A test in which students’ answers do not vary and,
therefore

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 Characteristics of Good Tests
 Validity: A valid test measures what it is intended to measure. If test
scores reflect actual ability in the tested skills, we can assume that the
test is fairly valid for our purposes.
 Reliability: A reliable test produces consistent results on different
occasions when the conditions of the test are similar.
 Practicality: A test may be valid and reliable but still beyond our
means or facilities. Thus, in the preparation of a test we must keep in
mind a number of practical considerations such as ease of
administration and scoring, ease of interpretation, and economy.

Questions on Test Administration

Before the Test
• How far in advance do you announce the test?
• How much do you tell the class about what is going to be in it, and about
the criteria for marking?
• How much information do you need to give them about the time, place, any
limitations and rules?
• Do you give them any “tips” about how best to cope with the test format?
• Do you expect them to prepare at home, or do you give them some class
time for preparation?
Giving the Test
• How important is it for you yourself to administer the test?
• Assuming that you do. What do you say before giving out the test papers?
• Do you add anything when the papers have been distributed, but students
have not yet started work?
• During the test, are you absolutely passive or are you interacting with the
students in any way?

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 After the Test
• How long does it take you to mark and return the papers?
• Do you then go through them in class?
• Do you demand any follow-up work on the part of students?

Types of Questions
A. Objective Questions
Multiple-Choice Questions
The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), from
which the testee has to select the right one.
Example: A person who writes books is called:
A. a booker C. an editor
B. an author D. a publisher
True/False
A statement is given which is to be marked (T)rue or (F)alse.
Example:
Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. (T/F)
Gap-Filling
The testee has to complete a sentence with a word from a list or (memory).
Examples:
They ------------ to Australia in 1980.
An --------------- is someone who writes books.

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Matching:
The testees link a word or phrase in Column A with another word or phrase
in Column B.
Example: Match the words in column A with their meanings in column B.
A B
----1. large a. small
----2. unhappy b. many
----3. a lot c. big
----4. little d. sad

Cloze
Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (e.g., every 7th word).
Testees supply the missing words. The first two or three lines are given with
no gaps.
Example:
The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu last week. He spent
most of it lying on the sofa watching -------------- when he wasn’t sleeping!
His exams ----------- in two weeks, so he is ------------ about missing school
but has managed to ------------ quite a lot in spite of -------------- ill.

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 B. Subjective Questions
Short Answer Questions
Questions which follow a reading passage (written) or appear in interviews
(oral).
Essay Questions
Testees are given a topic, such as “Childhood Memories” and are asked to
write an essay of a specific length.
Transformation
Testees have to change a sentence according to some given information
(e.g., put the sentence in the past tense).
Example: Put the following sentence into the past tense:
I go to school by bus.
Rewriting
Testees rewrite a sentence, incorporating a given change of expression, but
preserving the basic meaning.
Example:
He came to the meeting in spite of his illness.
Although ---------------------------------------------- .
Translation
Testees translate words or sentences to or from the target language.
Dictation
Testees write down words or sentences.
Procedure:
First reading at normal speed. Testees just listen.
Second reading at slower pace to allow testees enough time to write.
Third reading at normal speed for testees to complete the missing words.

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Guidelines for Test Preparation
Validity: Questions test what they are supposed to test.
Clarity: Instructions are clear and sometimes a sample is given.
Do-ability: Questions are not too difficult or tricky.
Marking: Distribution of grades is given after the instructions for each
question.
Interest: Choose interesting and motivating questions.
Heterogeneity: The test includes both easy and difficult items. Lower-level
students are able to answer a substantial part of the test, while the higher-
level ones have a chance to show what they know.

Types of Testing
Formal Testing: quizzes, tests, mid-course exams, final exams.
Informal Testing: assignments, class participation, questions and answers,
exercises, group tasks.

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