Quantum Physics

Kumkum Sanyal

Applied Physics Section

Thadomal Shahani Engineering College.
Bandra West, Mumbai - 400050
[email protected]

April 4, 2021
 Unit 01 : Quantum Physics

Prerequisites :
( Photoelectric effect, Dual nature of radiation, Matter
waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation,
Davisson-Germer experiment).
Contents :
• de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves
• Properties of matter waves, wave packet
• Phase velocity and Group velocity
• Wave function and it’s Physical interpretation
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle
• Schrodinger’s time dependent and time independent wave
equation
• Particle trapped in one dimensional infinite potential well

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 de Broglie Hypothesis

• All moving objects are associated with waves.

• These waves are known as matter waves.
• de Broglie wavelength λ = h
p
Here h →Planck’s constant, 6.63x10−34 J.s.
and p = mv → momentum of the particle.
• de Broglie wavelength thus relates the particle nature with
the wave nature of matter.
• de Broglie wavelength for
1. An accelerated charge particle λ = √ h
2mqV
q → charge, V → potential difference.
h
2. A particle in thermal equilibrium λ = √3mK
BT
KB →Boltzman constant; T →temperature in absolute scale.
3. A particle with kinetic energy K.E λ = √ h
2m(K.E)

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 The Bohr Atom

Bohr’s postulate of angular momentum quantization in

hydrogen atom model was a natural consequence of de Broglie
hypothesis.
• A moving electron in its circular orbit behaves
like a particle wave.
• An electron can circle a nucleus only if its orbit
contains an integral number of de Broglie
wavelengths.
• Condition for orbit stability nλ = 2πrn n = 1, 2, 3, ...
rn →the radius of the orbit containing n wavelengths,
n →the quantum number of the orbit.
• Now λ = ph
nh
Therefore angular momentum Ln = rn p = 2π

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 Particle in a box
• Consider a particle that bounces back and forth between
two infinitely hard walls separated by a distance L.
• The particle does not loose energy each time it strikes a
wall.
• The situation is like a standing wave in a string stretched
between the walls.
• de Broglie wavelength of trapped particle
λn = 2Ln
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
• The kinetic energy(K.E) of the particle is thus
restricted.
(mv)2 h2
K.E = 2m = 2mλ 2

• The potential energy is taken to be zero within

the walls.
Thus the total energy of the trapped particle is quantized.
n2 h2
En = 8mL 2

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 Three general conclusions

1. A trapped particle cannot have an arbitrary energy as a free

particle can.
The confinement leads to restrictions on the wave function
which in turn allow only certain specific values of the
energy.
2. A trapped particle cannot have zero energy.
The situation correspond to infinite wavelength in a finite
length, so not possible.
3. This quantization of energy is conspicuous only when m and L
are also small.
This happens because of the presence of h the Planck’s
constant.

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 Waves of probability
• Wave means some dimentioned physical quantity that
varies periodically in space and time.
• The quantity whose variation makes the matter wave is the
wave function Ψ.
• Ψ mathematically describes the wave characteristics of a
particle.
• The wave function Ψ itself has no physical significance,
not an observable quantity.
• The value of the wave function associated with a moving
particle at a particular point(x, y, z) in space at time t is
related to the likelihood of finding the particle there at that
time.
• The wave function Ψ is thus a complex-valued probability
amplitude.
• The probabilities of the results of measurements made on
the particle can be derived from Ψ.
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 Probability Density
• To comprehend the dual nature of light, Einstein
interpreted the square of the optical wave amplitude to be
the probability density for the occurrence of photons.
• Max Born extended this idea to the Ψ function.
• |Ψ|2 must represent the probability density for particles.
• The probability of experimentally finding the particle described
by the wave function Ψ at the point(x, y, z) at the time t is
proportional to the value of |Ψ|2 there at time t.
• Born’s development of quantum theory of atomic
scattering processes verified this concept.
• A large value of |Ψ|2 means the strong possibility of the
particle’s presence.
• As long as |Ψ|2 is not actually zero somewhere there is a
definite chance, however small, of detecting it there.
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 Describing a wave
• A wave is described mathematically by the wave formula
y = A cos (ωt − kx)
Here ω = 2πν is the angular frequency and
k = 2π
λ is the wave number.
• This formula describes an indefinite series of waves all
with same amplitude A.
• The amplitude of the de Broglie wave reflects the
probability that the particle will be found at a particular
point in space at a particular time.
• Therefore the wave representation of a moving particle
should correspond to a wave packet or wave group.
• The interference of individual waves of different
wavelengths in the group will result in the variation of the
amplitude that defines the group shape.

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 Interference of two waves
• Consider two waves having same amplitude but slightly
differing in the angular frequency and wave number, to
interfere.
y1 = A cos (ωt − kx)
y2 = A cos [(ω + ∆ω)t − (k + ∆k)x]
• Since ∆ω and ∆k are small compared with ω and k
respectively, we have
2ω + ∆ω ≈ 2ω
2k + ∆k ≈ 2k
• The resultant displacement is therefore
y = 2Acos(ωt − kx)cos( ∆ω ∆k
2 t − 2 x)
• The resultant wave represents a wave of angular frequency
ω and wave number k that has superimposed upon it a
modulation of angular frequency ∆ω 2 and wave number
∆k
2 .
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 Phase velocity and Group velocity
• The phase velocity vp of a wave is the rate at which the plane
of constant phase of the wave propagates in space.
• The group velocity vg of a wave is the rate at which the
overall shape(envelope) of the waves amplitude
propagates in space.
• A wave of frequency ω, wave number k
moves with phase velocity vp
2πν
vp = ωk = 2π/λ = νλ
• Another wave of frequency ∆ω , wave
2
number ∆k
2
moves with group velocity vg
d(2πν) 2
∆ω dω λ dω
vg = ∆k
≈ dk
= d(2π/λ)
= − 2π dλ
dv
Relation between vp and vg : vg = dω d
dk = dk (vp k) = vp − λ dλ
p

• The group velocity vg is less than the phase velocity vp in a

dispersive medium(where vp is a function of λ).
• The group velocity vg is equal to the phase velocity vp in a
non-dispersive medium(where vp is independent of λ).
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Phase velocity and Group velocity for matter wave
• Consider a particle of rest mass m0 moving with velocity v.
h
• The de Broglie wavelength is λ = mv ; k = 2π
λ and
mc 2
the frequency is ν = h ; ω = 2πν
• Here mass m = √ m02 2 and E = mc2
1−v /c
dω/dv
• de Broglie group velocity: vg = dωdk = dk/dv = v
• The group velocity vg of de Broglie waves associated with
a moving particle is same as the velocity of the particle.
2
• de Broglie phase velocity: vp = νλ = cv
• The phase velocity vp of de Broglie waves exceeds the
velocity of light c.
• vp has no physical significance.
• It is the motion of the wave group(vg ) that corresponds to
the motion of the particle or the body.
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 Uncertainty Principle

• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that

It is impossible to measure simultaneously and precisely
the position and momentum of an object.
• Same conclusion of uncertainty principle can be arrived at
from particle properties of waves or from the wave
properties of the particle.
• The relation between the uncertainties in the linear
position (4x) and linear momentum (4p) is given by:
h
4x 4 p ≥ 4π
• The variable pairs(angular position - angular mo-
mentum) and (energy - time) also follow the same principle.
h
4θ 4 Lθ ≥ 4π
h
4E 4 t ≥ 4π

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 Applications of Uncertainty Principle
• The limitation in the measurement process becomes
significant only on the atomic scale because of the presence
of h, Planck’s constant.
• Some important applications of this principle :
1. Energy of a particle in a box:
• Consider a particle of mass m in a one-dimensional box of
length L.
• The uncertainty in its position is 4x = L.
• From the uncertainty principle, we get 4p = h h
4π4x = 4πL .
• Kinetic energy is therefore:
p2 }2
K.E. = 2m = 8mL2
• This is the minimum kinetic energy of the particle in the
box.
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 Applications contd.

2. Non-existence of Electrons in the nucleus:

• The radius of an atomic nucleus is ∼ 10−14 m.
• The uncertainty in the position of the electron to be
confined within the nucleus is 4x = 2 × 10−14 m.
• The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron will be
h
then 4p = 4π4x = 2.6375 × 10−21 kg-m/sec.
• This is the minimum value of the momentum the electron
can posses inside the nucleus.
• The kinetic energy of the electron thus becomes
p2 (2.6375×10−21 )2
K.E = 2m = 2×9.1×10−31
J =23.89 × 106 ev ≈ 24Mev
• Electron can not posses this large amount of energy, hence
nuclei do not contain electrons.

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 Wave Function
• The quantity with which the quantum mechanics deals is
the wave function Ψ of an object.
• While Ψ has no physical meaning, |Ψ|2 evaluated at a
particular place and time gives the probability of the
presence of that object then and there.
• The quantities like the linear momentum, angular
momentum, energy of the object can be derived from Ψ.
• Quantum mechanics gives the most probable values of
these quantities.
• The problem of quantum mechanics is therefore to
determine Ψ when external forces control the motion of the
object.
• The mathematical form of wave functions is in general
complex with both real and imaginary parts.
• The probability density |Ψ|2 is therefore the product of Ψ
and its complex conjugate Ψ∗ .
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 Acceptability of the Wave Function

• The wave function Ψ which is to mathematically represent

a real moving object, must satisfy certain criteria.
• This is known as well-behaved behavior of Ψ.
1. Ψ must be finite, single-valued, continuous everywhere.
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
2. must be finite, single-valued, continuous
∂x , ∂y , ∂z
everywhere.
3. Ψ must be normalizable meaning Ψ must Rgo to 0 as
x → ±∞, y → ±∞, z → ±∞ in order that |Ψ|2 dV over all
space be a finite constant.
Thus the normalization
R +∞ condition gives us:
2
−∞ |Ψ| dV = 1
A wave function that obeys all the three above mentioned
criteria is an acceptable mathematical solution.

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 The Wave Equation

2 2
• The standard wave equation is : ∂ y2 = 12 ∂ 2y
∂x v ∂t
Here y is the wave variable that propagates in the x
direction with speed v.
• The solution must be of the form : y = F(t ± vx )
• Consider the wave equivalent of a free particle moving in a
straight path with constant speed along +x direction.
• The general solution in this case for undamped
monochromatic harmonic waves is : y = Ae−iω(t−x/v)
• This solution y is a complex quantity with real and
imaginary parts.
• The real part of the solution becomes relevant when we
consider the real physical wave.

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 Schrödinger’s Equation
• It is the fundamental differential equation of quantum
mechanics to determine Ψ.
• Here the wave function Ψ correspond to the wave variable
y of the wave equation.
• Since Ψ is not a measurable quantity itself, hence it can be
a complex quantity.
• Consider a free particle moving in the +ve x direction.
• The wave equivalent Ψ of this particle is therefore
Ψ = Ae−iω(t−x/v)
• Total energy E = hν = 2π}ν = }ω and
Wavelength λ = ph = 2π}
p
Et xp
• Therefore ωt = } and ωx/v = 2πx/λ = }
• Hence for free particle Ψ= Ae(−i/})(Et−xp)

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 Derivation Contd.

• Differentiate the expression of Ψ with respect to x twice :

∂2Ψ p2 2
∂x2
= − }2 Ψ =⇒ p2 Ψ = −}2 ∂∂xΨ2
• Differentiate same Ψ with respect to t once :
∂Ψ iE } ∂Ψ
∂t = − } Ψ =⇒ EΨ = − i ∂t
p 2
• Total energy E = 2m + U(x, t) where the function U(x, t)is
the potential energy.
• Multiplying both sides of the energy expression by the
wave function Ψ and substituting EΨ and p2 Ψ we obtain :
Time-Dependent One-Dimensional Schrödinger Equation

2 2
i} ∂Ψ } ∂ Ψ
∂t = − 2m ∂x2 + U(x, t)Ψ

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 Steady State Form
• Consider an environment which does not change with
time i.e. potential energy U(x, t) → U(x).
• Let Ψ(x, t) = ψ(x)e−iωt , ψ(x)is the space part.
2 2
• Then ∂ Ψ2 = ∂ ψ2 e−iωt and ∂Ψ ∂t = −iωψ(x)e
−iωt
∂x ∂x
• Substituting these in the time-dependent equation we get
Steady State Schrödinger equation in one dimension

2 2
} ∂ ψ
− 2m ∂x2
+ U(x) = Eψ

• This differential equation can have more than one

solutions.
• Each solution or wave function will correspond to a
specific value of energy.
• These are known as Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues.
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 Application: Particle in a well

• Consider again a particle confined to one-dimensional

potential well with infinitely high barriers at the ends.
• The potential energy inside the well is taken to be zero
while outside the well it is infinity.
• Here the aim is to find the wave-function ψn that
correspond to each energy level.
• The limit of existence of the particle and correspondingly
ψ is between x = 0 to x = L.
• Inside the well, Schrödinger equation becomes
d2 ψ 2m
dx2
+ }2
Eψ = 0
2
• Let k2 = 2m
}2
Therefore ddxψ2 + k2 ψ = 0
E
• The solution of this differential equation is
ψ = A sin kx + B cos kx A, B are constants

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 Particle in a well contd.
• Apply the boundary condition that ψ = 0 at x = 0.
• It demands B to be equal to zero thereby making the wave
function ψ = A sin kx.
• Next the condition ψ = 0 at x = L demands kL = nπ or
k2 L2 = n2 π 2 .
2 2
• Thus the energy becomes E = n h 2 .
8mL
• The unknown constant A in the wave function is to be
determined
RL 2 from normalization condition
2 L sin2 (kx)dx = 1
R
0 |ψ| dx = 1 =⇒ A 0
q
• Solving we get A = L 2

• Thus the wave function representing a particle bouncing

back and forth between
p two hard walls is given by
ψn (x) = 2/L sin (nπx/L)

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 Numerical problems - 1
1. Find the de Broglie wavelength of the 40KeV electrons
used in a certain electron microscope.
2. Find the kinetic energy of an electron whose de Broglie
wavelength is same as that of a 100KeV X-ray photon.
3. Green light has a wavelength of 550nm. Through what
potential difference must an electron be accelerated to
have this wavelength?
4. A proton and a deuteron have the same kinetic energy.
Which has a longer wavelength?
5. Find de Broglie wavelength of an electron in the first
Bohr’s orbit of hydrogen atom.
6. Identify the particle which, when accelerated through a
potential difference of 200V, has a de Broglie wavelength
0.716pm. Given mass of the particle 6.68 × 10−27 kg.
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 Numerical problems - 2
7. An electron has a speed of 1.0m/s with an accuracy of
0.05%. Calculate the uncertainty with which the position
of the electron can be located.
8. Life time of a nucleus in the excited state is 10−12 s.
Calculate the probable uncertainty in the energy and
frequency of a γ-ray photon emitted by it.
9. The position and momentum of 0.5KeV electron are
simultaneously determined. If its position is located
within 0.2nm, what is the percentage uncertainty in its
momentum?
10. Compare the uncertainties in the velocities of an electron
and a proton confined in a 1.0nm box.
11. A measurement establishes the position of a proton with
an accuracy of 1.0 × 10−11 m. Find the uncertainty in the
proton’s position 1.0s later.
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 Numerical problems - 3

12. The energy of an electron constrained to move in a one

dimensional box of length 4A◦ is 9.664 × 10−17 J. Find the
order of excited state and the momentum of the electron in
that state.
13. Obtain the minimum value of energy (in MeV) of a neutron
confined to a one-dimensional box 1.0 × 10−14 m wide.
14. A proton in a one-dimensional box has an energy of
400KeV in its first excited state. How wide is the box?
15. The wave function of a certain particle is ψ = Acos2 x for
− π2 < x < π2 . Find the value of A.
16. A particle limited to the x-axis has the wave function
Ψ = ax between x = 0 and x = 1; Ψ = 0 elsewhere. Find
the probability that the particle can be found between
x = 0.45 and x = 0.55.
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