HEAT AND MASS

TRANSFER
LAB REPORTS
SUBMITTED TO: DR. WAJID SALEEM
SUBMITTED BY: M. FAIZAN NAVEED
REGISTRATION NO: 2017 – ME – 92
LAB SESSION: 1
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate and Film Boiling.
1.1 Apparatus:
• Refrigerant 11
• Boiling Heat Transfer Unit

1.2 Related Theory:

In this experiment we examined the boiling of Refrigerant 11. We observed that boiling occurs when heat is
supplied to the refrigerant. In fact, state of boiling depends upon the amount of energy supplied. Three states
of boiling were observed. Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated
to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted
on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere.
Boiling has been divided into three types as follows:
• Convective Boiling
• Nucleate Boiling
• Film Boiling

1.2.1 Convective Boiling:

The requirement for boiling of pure substances to occur is that Twall = Tsat . In real experiments, boiling
does not occur until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation temperature. The surface
temperature must be somewhat above the saturation temperature to sustain vapor formation. In this Boiling
mode, vapor will be observed over the water surface, but usually no bubbles will be observed. As the
superheated temperature is increased, bubbles inception will eventually occur. Fluid motion is determined
principally by natural convection currents.

1.2.2 Nucleate Boiling:

The most common type of local boiling encountered in nuclear facilities is nucleate boiling. In nucleate
boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer surface and then break away and are carried into the main
stream of the fluid. Such movement enhances heat transfer because the heat generated at the surface is carried
directly into the fluid stream. Once in the main fluid stream, the bubbles collapse because the bulk
temperature of the fluid is not as high as the heat transfer surface temperature where the bubbles were created.
This heat transfer process is sometimes desirable because the energy created at the heat transfer surface is
quickly and efficiently “carried” away.

1.2.3 Film Boiling:

 1.3 Procedure:
i. Start the equipment. Adjust the condenser water supply.
ii. The Liquid use is Refrigerant 11.
iii. Increase the power input from 0 to 20 watts and observe the boiling process.
iv. Increase the heat supply to 50 watts and again observe the boiling process.
v. Increase the power supply to 200 watts and again observe / study the boiling procedure.
vi. Make sure that the pressure inside the chamber is maintained constant throughout.

1.4 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 2
To Investigate the Fourier’s Law for Linear Conduction of heat
along a Simple Bar.
2.1 Apparatus:
• DC Supply.
• Material = Brass.
• Electric Heater
• Thermistors
• Connecting Wires
• Digital Panel

Figure 1: Linear Heat Conduction set -up

2.2 Related Theory:

In this experiment, Heat transfer in simple linear bar is examined through conduction. Conduction is driven
by the Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction. We will discuss it later on.

2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity:

The property of the material to conduct heat is called Thermal Conductivity. Conduction is a microscopic
level study of movement of the particles. Thermal Conductivity is driven by Fourier’s Law of Conduction.
The materials with low thermal conductivity allow less conduction as compared to the materials with high
thermal conductivity. Heat Sink applications consists of the materials with high thermal conductivity while
thermally insulated applications consist of material having low thermal conductivity. Thermal Conductivity
may also depend on the temperature. If Reciprocal of Thermal Conductivity is taken Thermal resistivity can
be found. i.e. thermal resistivity = 1/thermal conductivity.

2.2.2 Fourier’s Law:

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction is given by:

Q = -k A dT/dx.
Where

K= Thermal Conductivity

A = Cross-Sectional Area

dT/dx = Temperature Gradient

The heat transfer is always in a direction normal to the Cross – Sectional Area (A) and there is no effect of
thickness of solid in this direction on the heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the
area of Cross-Section.

Greater the area, greater will be the rate of heat transfer and vice a versa.

Q ∝A

The negative sign in the Fourier’s equation symbolizes that the heat transfer is in the direction of negative
temperature gradient and it serves to make the heat transfer positive.

• Assumptions in Fourier’s equation:

For the simplification in the calculations, we make some assumptions for Fourier’s Law. The following are
some:

• Steady State Heat Conduction.

• Heat flow in one direction.
• Isothermal bounding Surfaces.
• ‘K’ (Thermal Conductivity) of the material is constant.
• Significance of Fourier equation:

The Fourier equation plays a significant role and is being used broadly in physics. The following are the
reasons for its significance:

• It is valid for all matter.

• Transport property ‘K’ is defined by Fourier’s equation.
• K may be different in X, Y or Z – directions.
• ‘K’ is a function temperature i.e. K = a + bT + cT2.
• K is measured experimentally for different material with units (Watt/moC).
• In gases, KTG (Kinetic Theory of Gases) may predict that K is strong dependent of temperature
(generally) K in gases varies as square root of T i.e. K ∝ √T.

2.2.3 Thermistors:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more than a standard resistor.
This word is a combination or blend of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are used widely in current limiters,
temperature sensors (Negative temperature co-efficient, self- resetting overcurrent protectors and self-
regulating heating elements.

Figure 2: A Thermistor

http://amarketreporter.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Thermistors-Market.jpg

Thermistors are divided into two types fundamentally:

• Negative Temperature Co-efficient:

Thermistor having a negative temperature co-efficient shows an inverse relation between temperature and
resistance i.e. its resistance goes on decreasing as the temperature increases. It is used as a temperature sensor,
or in a series circuit as an inrush current limiter.
 Figure 3: NTC Thermistor

https://5.imimg.com/data5/HI/WP/WL/SELLER-21614932/ntc-thermistor-500x500.jpg

• Positive Temperature Co-efficient:

Thermistors with positive temperature co-efficient shows a direct relationship between temperature and
resistance i.e. resistance increases as the temperature increases and these are commonly used in series circuits
and used to protect the circuit against overcurrent conditions as resettable fuses.

Figure 4: PTC Thermistor

https://3.imimg.com/data3/BR/DS/MY-3737749/ptc-thermistors-for-overcurrent-protection-500x500.jpg
 2.3 Procedure:
vii. First, we have to make sure that the main supply is initially off.
viii. Allow a fair amount of cold water to flow through the test unit.
ix. Turn the knob of the heater in the anti-clockwise direction, which is present on the power supply and
main switch, the digital reading / values will be illuminated.
x. Select a transitional position for the heater power control and allow enough time in order to get correct
readings without any fluctuations.
xi. Record the temperature (T) at all nine sensor points and the input power reading on the watt meter (Q).
xii. While keeping the equilibrium temperature below 100oC, repeat the procedure for the other input powers
and also allow enough time to readings to get them into stability/ steady state conditions.
xiii. Plot the temperature profile along the length of the core and obtain the slope dT/dx.
xiv. Find ‘K’ thermal conductivity of Brass material.

2.4 Observations and Calculations:

2.5 Graph
 Effect of Temperature on Thermal
Conductivity of Brass
Thermal Conductivity (W/moC)

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Temperature difference (oC)

Graph showing the Relation between Thermal Conductivity Temperature Difference

2.6 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 3
To Study the effect of Conduction of Heat Along Composite Bar and
Evaluate Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient.
3.1 Apparatus:
• D.C Supply.
• Composite Metal Bar.
• Electric Heater.
• Thermistors.
• Digital Panel.
• Connecting Wires.

Figure 1: Experimental Set Up in the Laboratory

Picture taken from the laboratory UET Lahore Mechanical Engineering Department

3.2 Related Theory:

In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender composite bar like the one in
Figure 1. Assume that the bar is of length L, due to an imposed temperature differential along the bar. Our
composite bar is such that it has is a sandwich of one material with other. This can be shown in the figure
below.

Figure 2: ABA Type Composite Bar

Heat Flow is driven by the Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction is given by:

Q = -k A dT/dx.
Where

K= Thermal Conductivity

A = Cross-Sectional Area

dT/dx = Temperature Gradient

3.2.1 Overall Heat Transfer Co-Efficient:

Where U is taken with respect to Specified Surface

If multiple materials are present in the analysis would proceed as follows: The temperature gradients in the
three materials are shown, and the heat flow may be written. Note that the heat flow must be the same through
all sections.

Q = -ka A (T2 – T1) / xa = -kb A (T3 – T2) / xb = -kc A (T4 – T3) / xc

 Figure 3: Showing A Composite Bar ABA Type and Thermal Resistance Circuit.

In the above figure all the resistances for conduction and convection are given. They are attached in series so
their resultant resistance will be sum of all individual resistances. Hence,

q = Δ Toverall / Σ Rth

q = UA Δ Toverall

Where

U = 1 / (xa / ka) + (xb / kb) + (xc / kc) + 2 Rc

Where Rc = Contact Resistance between two Composite Material

3.3 Procedure:
3.4 Observations and Calculations:

3.5 Graph:

3.6 Comments:
LAB SESSION: 4
To Study the Effect of Heat transfer for Different Geometries in Free
and Forced Convection.
4.1 Apparatus:
• Flow meters
• Thermometers
• Thick walled cylinder with electric heater.
• Water cooled condenser coil
• Pressure gauges.
• Flow Control Valve.

4.2 Related Theory:

Fins:
 Figure 1: Showing A Flat Plate and A Finned Surface

This Experiment is based upon the examination of the heat transfer through Free Convection. Convection is
driven by the Newton Laws.

4.2.1 Convection:
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which takes place due to the movement of fluids. Convection is
usually a dominant mode of heat transfer in fluids (Liquids and Gases) Actually Convection mode of heat
transfer involves both the combined processes Unknown Conduction (heat diffusion) and Advection
(when molecular level activity is ignored or it is assumed to be zero mean heat is transferring by bulk
fluid flow only).

Convection can be forced by means other than buoyancy forces (e.g. a water pump in an automobile engine).
Thermal Expansion of fluid is a forced convection process. In other cases, natural buoyancy forces alone are
responsible for the motion of the fluids which is called as Natural Convection. In natural convection,
increment in temperature reduces the density of the fluid, due to which motion of the fluid originates by
pressure and forces as fluids of distinct densities are affected by gravity (or any g-force).

For example, when we placed the water filled pan on a stove to heat it, hot water from the bottom rises,
displacing the colder denser water due to which it falls, after heating has stopped, mixing and conduction
results from natural convection in an area of identical densities and temperatures.

Convective Heat Transfer is governed or driven by the Newton’s Law of Convective Heat Transfer.

Newton’s Law of Convection is given by:

Q = - h A (T Surface - T∞)

Where
h = Convective Co-efficient

A = Cross-Sectional Area

T∞ = Ambient Temperature

T Surface = Surface Temperature

The Convective Co-efficient is a measure of how effectively a fluid is carrying amount of heat to and from
the surface. The factors on which h relies upon are: Fluid Density, Velocity and Viscosity. In general, Fluids
having higher velocity and higher density have greater Convective Co-efficient h.

• Types of Convection:
• Natural Convection:

Figure 2: Natural / Free Convection

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/sy1L7peYU_0/hqdefault.jpg

• Forced Convection:

In Forced Convection, heat transfer takes place by using some source like fan, stirring and pumps, creating
an artificially induced convection current. Air in contact with the hot surface is heated by the surface and
 rises due to decrement in the fluid density. The higher the temperature of the surface greater will be the
convection currents and more heat (power) will be dissipated. If more power is supplied to the concerned
surface, its temperature goes on increasing in order to dissipate the power to reach thermal equilibrium.

Figure 3: Forced Convection

https://www.cradle-cfd.com/dcms_media/image/a0053.png

4.3 Procedure:
xv. Install the insert and adjust the cooling water flow rate and the heater power.
xvi. Switch on the unit and adjust the desired temperature drop through the power setting on the control and
the display unit.
xvii. When the thermal conduction process reaches a steady state i.e. the temperature values becomes stable
note the results and the electrical power supply to the heater.

4.4 Observations and Calculations:

Table 1: (For Flat Plate)
Table 2: (For Extended Surface)

4.5 Graph:

Fluid velocity vs. temp. diff.

12
Temp. outlet - temp. inlet (0C)

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Velocity (m/s)
 Graph for Table 1

Fluid Velocity vs. Temperature Difference

16
Temp. Outlet - Temp. Inlet (0C)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Velocity (m/s)

Graph for Table 2

4.6 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 5
To Determine the Relationship between Power I/P and Surface
Temperature in Forced Convection.
5.1 Apparatus:
• Flow meters
• Thermometers
• Thick walled cylinder with electric heater.
• Water cooled condenser coil
• Pressure gauges.
• Flow Control Valve.

Figure 1: Experimental Set Up

5.2 Related Theory:

Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms the basis of most
industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and prediction of heat transfer
coefficients for such circumstances by studying the temperature profiles and heat flux in an air duct with
associated flat and extended transfer surfaces. The vertical duct is so constructed that the air temperature and
velocity can be readily measured and a variety of ‘plug in’ systems of heated solid surfaces of known
dimensions can be presented to the air stream for detailed study. A fan attached at to the top of the duct
provides the air stream, for forced convection experiments.

5.2.1 Convection:
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which takes place due to the movement of fluids. Convective Heat
Transfer is governed or driven by the Newton’s Law of Convective Heat Transfer.

Newton’s Law of Convection is given by:

Q = - h A (T Surface - T∞)

Where

h = Convective Co-efficient

A = Cross-Sectional Area

T∞ = Ambient Temperature

T Surface = Surface Temperature

The Convective Co-efficient is a measure of how effectively a fluid is carrying amount of heat to and from
the surface. The factors on which h relies upon are: Fluid Density, Velocity and Viscosity. In general, Fluids
having higher velocity and higher density have greater Convective Co-efficient h.

• Types of Convection:
• Natural Convection:

In Natural Convection, heat transfer takes place by the differences between fluid densities which results due
to temperature changes. A best example of free or natural convection is boiling of water, also if the fluid is
air and it flows without any external source, it is also an example of natural convection. Best example of it is
flowing of outside air due to pressure difference.

Figure 2: Natural / Free Convection

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/sy1L7peYU_0/hqdefault.jpg
 • Forced Convection:

In Forced Convection, heat transfer takes place by using some external source like a blower can be used for
this purpose in order to create motion of air. If the velocity of the fluid is negligible then it is a natural
convection, because forced convection depends on the Reynold’s Number (which is function of velocity) On
the other hand, free/ natural convection depends on Rayleigh Number.

Figure 3: Forced Convection

https://www.cradle-cfd.com/dcms_media/image/a0053.png

5.3 Procedure:
xviii. Place the heat exchanger on the test bed.
xix. At First, record the ambient or surrounding air temperature (Ta).
xx. Adjust the power input to the heater to 50 Watts.
xxi. Allow adequate time in order to achieve non – fluctuating or steady conditions.
xxii. Calibrate the fan speed control to give the reading of 0.5m/s on the thermal anemometer, again allow
adequate time before noting the heated plate temperature to get more precise steady values.
xxiii. Repeat the procedure at 1 m/s and 1.5 m/s.

Air Heated Air Temperature

Heat Difference
Speed Temperature surface Temperature Temperature
Transfer
at inlet Temperature at outlet Tinlet - Toutlet Difference
V
Q
(m/s)
Tinlet TH Toutlet TH – Tinlet
(W)
(⁰C) (⁰C) (⁰C)
 0 30 30 44 37 7 14
1 30 30 40 33 3 10
2 30 30 35 32 2 5
3 30 30 33 31 1 3

5.4 Observations and Calculations:

Air Heated Air Temperature

Heat Difference
Speed Temperature surface Temperature Temperature
Transfer
at inlet Temperature at outlet Tinlet - Toutlet Difference
V
Q
(m/s)
Tinlet TH Toutlet TH – Tinlet
(W)
(⁰C) (⁰C) (⁰C)

0 41 31 57 39 8 26
1 41 31 41 33 2 10
2 41 31 40 32 1 9
3 41 31 38 31 0 7
5.5 Graph

Fluid velocity vs. Temp. Diff. (Q=30W)

8
Temp. outlet - temp. inlet (0C)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Velocity (m/s)
 Fluid Velocity vs. Temp. Diff. (Q=41W)
9
Temp. Outlet - Temp. Inlet (0C)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Velocity (m/s)

5.6 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 6
To Determine the Relationship between Power I/P and Surface
Temperature in Free Convection.
6.1 Apparatus:
• Flow meters
• Thermometers
• Thick walled cylinder with electric heater.
• Water cooled condenser coil
• Pressure gauges.
• Flow Control Valve.

6.2 Related Theory:

This Experiment is based upon the examination of the heat transfer through Free Convection. Convection is
driven by the Newton Laws.

6.2.1 Convection:
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which takes place due to the movement of fluids. Convection is
usually a dominant mode of heat transfer in fluids (Liquids and Gases) Actually Convection mode of heat
transfer involves both the combined processes Unknown Conduction (heat diffusion) and Advection
(when molecular level activity is ignored or it is assumed to be zero mean heat is transferring by bulk
fluid flow only).

Convection can be forced by means other than buoyancy forces (e.g. a water pump in an automobile engine).
Thermal Expansion of fluid is a forced convection process. In other cases, natural buoyancy forces alone are
responsible for the motion of the fluids which is called as Natural Convection. In natural convection,
increment in temperature reduces the density of the fluid, due to which motion of the fluid originates by
pressure and forces as fluids of distinct densities are affected by gravity (or any g-force).

For example, when we placed the water filled pan on a stove to heat it, hot water from the bottom rises,
displacing the colder denser water due to which it falls, after heating has stopped, mixing and conduction
results from natural convection in an area of identical densities and temperatures.
Convective Heat Transfer is governed or driven by the Newton’s Law of Convective Heat Transfer.

Newton’s Law of Convection is given by:

Q = - h A (T Surface - T∞)

Where

h = Convective Co-efficient

A = Cross-Sectional Area

T∞ = Ambient Temperature

T Surface = Surface Temperature

The Convective Co-efficient is a measure of how effectively a fluid is carrying amount of heat to and from
the surface. The factors on which h relies upon are: Fluid Density, Velocity and Viscosity. In general, Fluids
having higher velocity and higher density have greater Convective Co-efficient h.

• Types of Convection:
• Natural Convection:

Figure 2: Natural / Free Convection

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/sy1L7peYU_0/hqdefault.jpg
 • Forced Convection:

In Forced Convection, heat transfer takes place by using some source like fan, stirring and pumps, creating
an artificially induced convection current. Air in contact with the hot surface is heated by the surface and
rises due to decrement in the fluid density. The higher the temperature of the surface greater will be the
convection currents and more heat (power) will be dissipated. If more power is supplied to the concerned
surface, its temperature goes on increasing in order to dissipate the power to reach thermal equilibrium.

Figure 3: Forced Convection

https://www.cradle-cfd.com/dcms_media/image/a0053.png

6.3 Procedure:
xxiv. Install the insert and adjust the cooling water flow rate and the heater power.
xxv. Switch on the unit and adjust the desired temperature drop through the power setting on the control and
the display unit.
xxvi. When the thermal conduction process reaches a steady state i.e. the temperature values becomes stable
note the results and the electrical power supply to the heater.

6.4 Observations and Calculations:

6.5 Graph:

6.6 Comments:
LAB SESSION: 7
To Demonstrate the Working Principle of Concentric Tube Heat
Exchanger under Parallel Flow Conditions.
7.1 Apparatus:
• Flow meters
• Thermometers
• Thick walled cylinder with electric heater.
• Water cooled condenser coil
• Pressure gauges.
• Flow Control Valve.

Figure 1: Experimental Set Up for Parallel Flow

7.2 Related Theory:
This Experiment is based upon Heat Exchangers.

7.2.1 Heat Exchanger:

Figure 2: Tubular Heat Exchanger

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Tubular_heat_exchanger.png/220px-
Tubular_heat_exchanger.png

7.2.2 Classification Of Heat Exchangers:

Heat exchangers are classified on the basis of Flow arrangement and type of construction

• On the Basis of Flow Arrangement:

Parallel Flow Heat exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger both the fluids hot and cold enters from the same inlet, moves in the same
direction and discharged from the same outlet.

Figure 3 :Scheme of parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Figure 4 : Showing graphical relation between Hot and Cold Fluids

Counter Flow Heat Exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger, both the fluid enters from opposite inlets and also flows in the opposite
directions and discharge from different ends.
Figure 5: Scheme of Counter Flow Heat Exchanger and Showing graphical relation between Hot and Cold Fluids

Cross Flow Heat exchanger:

Figure 6 : Unmixed And Mixed Cross Flow Heat Exchangers Flow Paths

• On the Basis of Construction:

Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchangers:

Baffles also placed in the shell to maintain the uniform spacing between the tubes.

Figure 7: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

 Figure 8: Sectional View of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

7.3 Procedure:

7.4 Observations and Calculations:

Flow Flow
rate of rate of
cold hot TH,I TH,M TH,O TC,I TC,M TC,O
water water
(0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C)
Vc VH
(m3/s) (m3/s)
2 3 62 58 55 30 36 42
7.5 Graph:

Temperature vs. Surface area

70
60
Temperature (0C)

50
40
30 Hot Water temp.
Cold Water temp.
20
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Surface Area of Tube (mm2)

7.6 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 8
To Demonstrate the Working Principle of Concentric Tube Heat
Exchanger under Counter Flow Conditions.
8.1 Apparatus:
• Flow meters
• Thermometers
• Thick walled cylinder with electric heater.
• Water cooled condenser coil
• Pressure gauges.
• Flow Control Valve.

Figure 1: Experimental Set Up for Counter Flow

8.2 Related Theory:
This Experiment is based upon Heat Exchangers.

8.2.1 Heat Exchanger:

Figure 2: Tubular Heat Exchanger

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Tubular_heat_exchanger.png/220px-
Tubular_heat_exchanger.png

8.2.2 Classification of Heat Exchangers:

Heat exchangers are classified on the basis of Flow arrangement and type of construction

• On the Basis of Flow Arrangement:

Parallel Flow Heat exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger both the fluids hot and cold enters from the same inlet, moves in the same
direction and discharged from the same outlet.

Figure 3 :Scheme of parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Figure 4 : Showing graphical relation between Hot and Cold Fluids

Counter Flow Heat Exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger, both the fluid enters from opposite inlets and also flows in the opposite
directions and discharge from different ends.
Figure 5: Scheme of Counter Flow Heat Exchanger and Showing graphical relation between Hot and Cold Fluids

Cross Flow Heat exchanger:

Figure 6 : Unmixed And Mixed Cross Flow Heat Exchangers Flow Paths
• On the Basis of Construction:

Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchangers:

Baffles also placed in the shell to maintain the uniform spacing between the tubes.

Figure 7: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

 Figure 8: Sectional View of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

8.3 Procedure:

8.4 Observations and Calculations:

Flow Flow
rate of rate of
cold hot TH,I TH,M TH,O TC,I TC,M TC,O
water water
(0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C)
Vc VH
(m3/s) (m3/s)
2 3 65 60 57k 30 35 41
8.5 Graph:

Surface Area vs. Temp. Diff.

70
60
Temperature (0C)

50
40
30 Hot water temp.
Cold water temp.
20
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Surface area (mm2)

8.6 Comments:

LAB SESSION: 9
To Investigate the Effect of Change in Cross-Sectional Area on
Temperature Profile along a Thermal Conductor on Conduction
Heat Transfer Unit.
9.1 Apparatus:
• Conduction Heat Transfer Unit

9.2 Related Theory:

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction is given by:

Q = -k A dT/dx.

Where

K= Thermal Conductivity

A = Cross-Sectional Area

dT/dx = Temperature Gradient

The heat transfer is always in a direction normal to the Cross – Sectional Area (A) and there is no effect of
thickness of solid in this direction on the heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the
area of Cross-Section.

Greater the area, greater will be the rate of heat transfer and vice a versa.
When the rate of heat transfer is uniform then the change in cross – sectional area causes a change in the
temperature distribution across it. In order to keep heat transfer rate constant or uniform, the temperature
gradient will increase as the area decreases. This causes a sudden drop in the distribution curve. In other
words, gradient or slope increases.

A bar twice as wide conducts twice the amount of heat. Generally, the quantity of heat conducted Q is directly
proportional to the cross-sectional area A i.e,

Q ∝A

If the flow of heat is steady then,

Q = B1 = B2 = B3

K A1 (dT/dx)1 = K A2 (dT/dx)2

⇒ A1 (dT/dx)1 = A2 (dT/dx)2

In addition to temperature and cross-sectional area, another factor which affects the heat conduction is the
thickness of the material through which the heat transfer takes place. Heat transfers from one side of the
material to the other side by carrying out a series molecular - collisions. The thicker the material is more time
will be required to transfer the same amount of heat as from a thinner material. That is the reason behind
retrieving of a thicker blanket in cold winter nights to keep us warm.

9.3Procedure:
1. Place and lock a Brass rod B3 with diameter smaller as compared to the B1 (Hot) and B3 (Cold) brass
sections of apparatus.
2. Insert the temperature measuring knobs in the apparatus by carefully observing the numbers on the
temperature measuring instrument.
3. Switch ON the supply and set the power at 40 W.
4. Leave the apparatus for some time until the reading becomes stable and then note the temperature
readings.
5. Draw the temperature profile for hot and cold body by potting temperature against corresponding distance
values. And then take the slope.
9.4 Observations and Calculations:
For Q = 40W

x T
0.01 113
0.02 111
0.03 110
0.05 44
0.07 35
0.08 33
0.09 32

9.5 Graph
 Graph showing the Relation between Temperature and Distance

9.6 Comments:
i. We assumed that no heat is lost to the environment also the heat transfer rate is constant.
ii. Wait for some time to allow the thermistor readings to get stable.
iii. For a solid with uniform rate of heat transfer the temperature gradient and the cross – sectional area are
inversely proportional to each other.
iv. The sudden drop in the temperature curve shows an increase in the slop which is due to decrease in area
of the rod.