Chapter 3: Soil

· Soil and its Origin

· Types of Soil
· Characteristics of Soils
· Classification for Soils
· Composition of Soil
· Soil Reaction to Density
· In-Place Density and Unit Weight
· Relative Density

Soil
Soil and its Origin
From the earliest civilization up to the present time, soil is the most important material that influenced
mankind in his struggle for survival. The material where man grows his food, build his homes, roads, and ultimately
his final destination. The soil referred to in this study, is the material used to build with, or on that acts in combination
with other forces of nature to make structures and land forms. The material classified under the field of Geotechnics.
Soil may be defined as the accumulation of unconsolidated sediments and deposits of solid particles as a result
of the integration of rocks. On the other hand, rocks may be defined as natural aggregate of minerals connected by
strong bonding of attractive forces classified as consolidated materials. Scientifically, most of the non-organic
materials identified as soil has originated from rocks as the parent material. Rock types are classified into three major
classes in accordance with their own origin or method of formations:
1. Igneous rock.
2. Sedimentary rock.
3. Metamorphic rock.

Igneous Rock is the result from the cooling and hardening of molten rock called magma that has originated from
deep within the earth. The rapid cooling of molten magma called lava which was blown up by volcano solidifies into
small crystal and possesses fine interlocking texture. The molten lavas that rapidly cooled on the earth surface are
volcanic rock types called basalts, rhyolites and andesites. The molten rocks that were trapped deep below the surface
of the earth, cooled slowly, and the mineral components forms into large interlocking crystals and coarse textured
rocks classified as plutonic types of which, granite is the most common.
Sedimentary Rocks are formed from accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of certain organisms that
have harden by pressure or cemented by materials. Sedimentary rocks include limestone and dolostone, shale,
conglomerate and breccia. Shales are formed from deposited clay and silt particles. Sandstone is predominantly quartz
cemented together with mostly silica, but sometimes with calcium carbonate of iron compounds. Conglomerate and
breccia are similar to sandstone.
Metamorphic Rocks are rocks resulted from metamorphism due to changes in temperature, pressure and plastic
flow, changing the original rock structure and mineral composition of the rock. Under this processes, limestone is
change to marble, sandstone to quartzite, shale to slate or phylite.
The process of rock changing to soil and soil to rock and alteration of rocks are continues and occurring
simultaneously. The process of changes or alterations takes place over a long period of time, and there is no set
sequence wherein changes occur.
There are numerous types of rocks to enumerate, but the construction industry and Engineer's concerned are not
generally affluent with the name of rocks but with their properties, specially in-place properties such as hardness,
strength, durability, soundness and all other properties needed to build on or built with.

Categories of Soil
Soil can be divided into two categories, namely:
1. Residual soil
2. Transported soil

Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks or accumulation of organic materials
remained at the location of their origin. Weathering process may be attributed to mechanical, chemical or solution
weathering.
Mechanical weathering refers to physical disintegration due to effects of wind, rain, running water or tectonic
forces (earthquake).
Chemical and solution weathering, is decomposition of rock due to chemical reactions that occur as a result of
exposure to atmosphere, temperature changes, reaction with water or other materials. Likewise, climate, topography,
drainage and vegetative cover have great influences on the chemical or solution weathering process.
 Transported Soils are those materials transported from their place of origin. Transportation may result due to the
effects of gravity, wind, water, glaciers of human activity.

Types of Soil
The major categories of soils are gravel, send, silt and clay. Gravel and sand are universally known as coarse
grain soil because of their individual particles that are large enough to distinguish without magnification. On the other
hand, silt and clay are considered fine grain soil because of their tiny particles.
Particles larger than gravel are commonly referred to as cobbles or boulders. Thus, it is apparent that particles
size alone is the basis of classifying sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders. On the other hand, fined grain soil is classified
as either silt or clay not on the basis of particle size but on the plasticity or non-plasticity of the materials.
Over a varying range of moisture content, clay soil is plastic and sticky. When dried, possesses strong
resistance to crushing. Silt soil has little or no plasticity and when dried has very little or no strength at all. If small
amount of moist silt sample is shaken on the palm of the hand, water will appear on the surface of the sample but
disappear when shaking stops. This phenomenon is called dilatancy. Sand mixed with silt is classified as silty sand,
whereas, silt and clay mixture with mostly clay is called silty clay.

Characteristics of Soil
Soil consists largely of minerals formed by disintegration or decomposition of rocks. Disintegration or
decomposition into soil may be caused by the action of water or other natural forces like temperature change, or by
plant or animal life.
Soil contains humus and organic acids resulted from decay of vegetation. All soils contain water, either free or
absorbed in varying contents. Soil in most cases, are blend or mixture of particles of many sizes, shapes, and parent
rock materials making its behavior very difficult to predict.
It is very common to encounter five to ten or more distinct types of soil along a kilometer of road. Change of
soil types at frequent intervals has become a rule rather than exemption. Behavior of soil mass could be determined
based on the characteristics of individual soil particles such as:
1. Grain size
2. Grain shape
3. Surface texture and electrical surface charges, resulted from chemical composition and molecular structures.

Regardless of the differences in grain sizes as classified, the common objective is to establish a basis for relating
the particle size to soil behavior.

The General Characteristic and Classification of soil particles are enumerated as follows:
1. Gravel
2. Coarse sand
3. Fine sand
4. Silt grain
5. Clay
6. Colloidal Clay

Gravel consist of rock fragments more or less rounded by water action or abrasion classified according to the
following types:

a) Quartz is the hardest of common rock forming mineral.

b) Well Rounded Pebbles and Boulders - those that undergone long period of wear that become almost quartz.
c) Slightly Worm Gravel is rough and angular including other materials or rocs like granite, schist, basal or
limestone.

Fine Sand has particles that are more angular than the coarse and fine sand particles.
Coarse Sand is usually rounded like gravel with which it is found and generally contains the same materials.
Silt Sand is similar to fine sand with the same mineral composition. They are found as rock flour in glacial
moraines. It could be produced by chemical decay. Occasionally, silt contains:
1. Pumice
2. Loess
3. Materials foreign to the associated sand.

The presence of silt in fine soil could be detected by its grittiness when small amount is bitten between the teeth.
Clay is plate like, scale like, or rod like in shape as a result of chemical weathering. Because of their smaller sizes,
its performance is influenced by moisture and surface chemistry.
 Colloidal clay is a finer clay particle that remains suspended in water and does not settle under the force of
gravity.
Coarse Grain Materials. For most purposes, coarse grain materials are considered satisfactory construction
material. On the other hand, silty soil will create problems in areas where the ground has moisture movement due to
capillary action. Soil that contains clay would be troublesome, making the design and construction more difficult. As a
rule of thumb, soil with clay should not be used closer to the roadway surfaces.

Important Grain Shape Characteristics

1. Rounded particles extracted from the stream that has undergone wear, are considered strong materials.
2. Flat and flaky particles that were not subjected to wear, are weak and variable that is not suitable for various
used.
3. Angular or roughly cubical shape particles produced from crushing strong and tough rocks, increases the
resistance of soil mass to deformation when subjected to load, due to individually interlocking grains.
4. Generally, the rounded particle has the tendency to roll over each other when subjected to load.

Classification for Soils

Pedology is the science of soils. It is the basis for pedological classification under the principle that: "like soil
are developed on like slope when like materials are weathered in like fashion." Regardless of geographical locations
where slopes and climate are the same, the depth and nature of soil mantle, are also similar.
Under the pedological classifications, soils that were produced in like fashion from the same parent rock, is
assumed to possess similar engineering properties, that also requires similar engineering treatment. The number of
sample to be subjected for sampling could be less than what is usually required. The test results serves as check on
pedological classification contrary to the other classification methods that rely mostly on physical tests with little
attention to pedological information.
If like soils occur under like conditions of materials" the slope and weathering, the soil patterns or similar
landforms, are also developed. The surface drainage patterns and erosion characteristics, together with the color of the
soil, reflected the kinds and nature of the soil. Ridges with parallel axis may also reflect wind blown sand and silts.
The texture classification of soil depending on the grain size distributron is classified irito three groups,
namely: (a) sand (b) silt and (c) clay.