ME5752 - MECHATRONICS

UNIT I – INTRODUCTION AND SENSORS

Sunilkumar KR
T.F., DoME, CEG, AU
 Introduction
• A mechatronics engineer unites the principles of mechanics,
electronics, and computing to generate a simpler, more economical
and reliable system.

• The term "mechatronics" was coined by Tetsuro Mori, the senior

engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa in 1969.

• EXAMPLE: An industrial robot is a prime example of a mechatronics

system; it includes aspects of electronics, mechanics, and computing
to do its day-to-day jobs.
 Definition
• Mechatronics was first introduced and registered by a Japanish
engineer called Tesuro Mori of Yaskawa Electric

• 2 definitions for Mechatronics - offered by Institution of Electrical

Engineers
➢The synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics
and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacture of
products and processes

➢The design and manufacture of products and systems possessing both

a mechanical functionality and an integrated algorithmic control
Venn diagram overview of Mechatronics (Simple)

Mechanical Electro- Electrical

Engineering Mechanics Engineering

Mechatronics
Electronic
Mechanical Software &
Software Microcon
CAD/CAM -trollers

Computer
Science
Venn diagram overview of Mechatronics (Detailed)
 Key Elements of Mechatronics

• Physical Systems Modeling.

• Sensors and Actuators.
• Signals and Systems.
• Computers and Logic Systems.
• Software and Data Acquisition.
Key Elements of Mechatronics
System
Measurement System
Open Loop System
Closed Loop System
Automatic closed loop control of water level
Sequential Control System
• Actions are strictly ordered in a time or event driven sequence
 Need for Mechatronics

• Mechatronics is seen as a prime career path for mechanical engineers

of the future

• Mechanical engineers with a mechatronics background will have a

better chance of becoming managers

• Classically trained mechanical engineers will run the risk of being left
out of the interesting work.
 Requirements of a Mechatronics Engineer
There are four broad skills a mechatronic engineer must have;

1. Mechanical engineering
2. Electrical/Electronics engineering
3. Software engineering/programming (firmware)
4. Controls engineering

• A typical mechatronic engineer will have depth/expert knowledge in one (1) of the above skills, and
a broad or general working knowledge of the other three (3).

• A good mechatronic engineer will have depth/expert knowledge in two (2) of the above skills, and a
broad and/or general/working knowledge of the other two (2).

• A great mechatronic engineer will have depth/expert knowledge in three (3) of the above skills, and
a general/working knowledge of the final skill (1).

• A rock-star mechatronic engineer will have a depth/expert knowledge in all four (4) skills!!!
Four Classes of Mechatronics
Four Classes of Mechatronics
Four Classes of Mechatronics
 Classification of Mechatronics

• Manufacturing Mechatronics
• Automobile Mechatronics
• Medical Mechatronics
• Mechatronics for Office Automation
 Applications of Mechatronics
• Machine vision • Medical mechatronics, medical imaging
• Automation and robotics systems
• Servo-mechanics • Structural dynamic systems
• Sensing and control systems • Transportation and vehicular systems
• Automotive engineering, automotive • Mechatronics as the new language of the
equipment in the design of subsystems automobile
such as anti-lock braking systems • Diagnostic, reliability, and control system
• Computer-machine controls, such as techniques
computer driven machines like IE CNC • Computer aided and integrated
milling machines manufacturing systems
• Expert systems • Computer-aided design
• Industrial goods • Engineering and manufacturing systems
• Consumer products • Packaging
 Transducer Vs Sensor
Transducer Sensor

Transducer is a device that can A sensor is a device that can detect

convert energy from one form to a physical quantity and convert the
another data into an electrical signal

Transducers can convert between

A sensor merely measures a
any forms of energy, they can be
quantity and cannot, by itself, give
used to provide feedback to the
feedback to the system
system
Transducer always involves a
Sensor may or may not have a
conversion and also has signal
conversion and it only senses
conditioning involved

The terms can often be used interchangeably without

problem in most cases.
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors

Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics

i. Range and Span i. Response time
ii. Error ii. Time Constant
iii. Accuracy iii. Rise Time
iv. Sensitivity iv. Settling Time
v. Hysteresis error
vi. Non linearity error
vii. Repeatability and Reproducibility
viii. Stability
ix. Dead band/time
x. Resolution
xi. Output Impedance
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
i. Range and Span
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value. Thus,
for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of
0 to 50 kN and a span of 50 kN.

Range - A to B

Span = B - A
A B

ii. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured.
Error = measured value — true value
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
iii. Accuracy
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement system might
be wrong. It is thus the summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur,
as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated.

A temperature-measuring instrument might, for example, be specified as having an

accuracy of +20C. This would mean that the reading given by the instrument can be
expected to lie within + or —20C of the true value.

Accuracy is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale

deflection. The percentage of full-scale deflection term results from when the
outputs of measuring systems were displayed almost exclusively on a circular or
linear scale.

A sensor might, for example, be specified as having an accuracy of +5% of full

range output. Thus if the range of the sensor was, say, 0 to 2000C, then the reading
given can be expected to be within + or —100C of the true reading.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
iv. Sensitivity

The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output you get per unit input,

Sensitivity = Ouput/Input.

For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/oC.

This term is also frequently used to indicate the sensitivity to inputs other than that being
measured, i.e. environmental changes. Thus there can be the sensitivity of the transducer to
temperature changes in the environment or perhaps fluctuations in the mains voltage supply.
A transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as having a temperature
sensitivity of +0.1% of the reading per oc change in temperature.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
v. Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being
measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This effect is called
hysteresis.

Figure shows such an output with the hysteresis error as the maximum
difference in output for increasing and decreasing values.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics

vi. Non-linearity error

For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and output is assumed
over the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to
give a straight line. Few transducers, however, have a truly linear relationship and
thus errors occur as a result of the assumption of linearity. The error is defined as the
maximum difference from the straight line. Various methods are used for the
numerical expression of the non-linearity error.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
vii. Repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its
ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value. The
error resulting from the same output not being given with repeated applications is
usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output

A transducer for the measurement of angular velocity typically might be quoted as

having a repeatability of +-0.01% of the full range at a particular angular velocity
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics
viii. Stability
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term drift is often used to describe the change in
output that occurs over time. The drift may be expressed as a percentage of the full range
output. The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero
input.

ix. Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is
no output.
For example, bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor might mean that there is no
output until the input has reached a particular velocity threshold. The dead time is the
length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to respond and
change.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Static Characteristics

x. Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range, the output signals for
some sensors may change in small steps.
A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output going
up in steps as the potentiometer slider moves from one wire turn to the next.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an
observable change in the output.

xi. Output impedance

When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an electronic
circuit it is necessary to know the output impedance since this impedance is
being connected in either series or parallel with that circuit. The inclusion of
the sensor can thus significantly modify the behavior of the system to which
it is connected.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Dynamic Characteristics
Response time
This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a
step input, is applied to the transducer up to the
point at which the transducer gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g.
95%, of the
value of the input. For example, if a mercury- in-glass
thermometer is put into a hot liquid there can be
quite an appreciable time lapse, perhaps as much as
100 s or more, before the thermometer indicates 95%
of the actual temperature of the liquid.
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors
Dynamic Characteristics

ii. Time constant

This is the 63.2% response time. A thermocouple in air might have a
time constant of perhaps 40 to 100 s. The time constant is a
measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to
changes in its input: the bigger the time constant the slower will be
its reaction to a changing input signal.
iii. Rise time
This is the time for the output to rise to some specified percentage
of the steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the time
taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90
or 95% of the steady-state value.
iv. Settling time
This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage. e.g. 2%, of the steady,-state value.
Classification of Sensors
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of
movement of an object.
Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in
relation to some reference point.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace
when an object has moved with in particular critical distance of a
transducer.
Classification of Sensors
B. Velocity and motion
• Incremental encoder
• Tachogenerator
• Pyroelectric sensors
C. Force
• Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
• Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Tactile sensor
Classification of Sensors
E. Liquid flow
• Orifice plate
• Turbine meter
F. Liquid level
• Floats
• Differential pressure
Classification of Sensors
G. Temperature
• Bimetallic strips
• Resistance temperature detectors
• Thermistors
• Thermo-diodes and transistors
• Thermocouples
• Light sensors
• Photo diodes
• Photo resistors
• Photo transistor
Potentiometer Sensor
Introduction
• Potentiometer is one of the common sensor for position
measurements
• It relates the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in
resistance

Linear/Slide Potentiometer
Rotary Potentiometer
Potentiometer Sensor
Principle and Construction
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by
using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)

• The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the principle of

conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a
resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this
conductive body, acting as a movable electric contact.
Potentiometer Sensor
Working
• During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive
element. A voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact
with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the figure
below. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider
over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated
against the output voltage VA.
VA = I.RA
But I = VS / (RA + RB)
Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB)
As we know that R = ρ L / A,
where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor
and A is area of cross section
VA = VS LA / (LA + LB)
Potentiometer Sensor
Linear and Rotary Configuration
Potentiometer Sensor (Continued)
Commercially available potentiometers
Potentiometer Sensor (Continued)
Applications
• Position sensing/Feedback (Servo Controls)
• Audio/Volume Controls
• Lighting Dimmer Controls
• Machine-tool controls
• Elevators
• Liquid-level assemblies
• Forklift trucks
• Automobile throttle controls.
In manufacturing, these are used in
• Control of injection moulding machines,
• Woodworking machinery,
• Printing,
• Spraying,
• Robotics
Strain Gauge Sensors
• The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a
strip of semiconductor material which is wafer-like and can be stuck onto
surfaces like a postage stamp
Strain Gauge Sensors
• Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance
as per the equation.
∆R
αϵ
R

∆R
=G ϵ
R

• It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure.

Strain Gauge Sensors
• These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy)
and are bonded to a backing material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or
glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to the
workpiece by using suitable adhesive such as epox, etc.
• As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external
loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change
in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance
bridge as shown in Figure.
Strain Gauge Sensors
• In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
=
𝑅1 𝑅3

where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R1 and R3 are known

constant value resistors. R2 is adjustable resistance.
• Wheatstone bridge circuit is used for converting the strains into
voltage changes, that can be then fed into micro-controller.
 Strain Gauge Sensors
Construction and Working
• Wheatstone bridge circuit is used for
converting the strains into voltage
changes, that can be then fed into
micro-controller.
• Wheatstone bridge is four resistors
connected in a square. When the
bridge is perfectly balanced the
output voltage would be 0, but if one
of the resistors slightly changes, the
bridge produces significant
measurable voltage.
• When used with a strain gauge, one of
the resistors in the bridge will be
replaced by the sensor and when the
strain gauge undergoes dimensional
changes, it will unbalance the
Wheatstone bridge proportional to
the strain.
Strain Gauge Sensors
Calibration (TARE)
• The measured deformation or
displacement by the stain gauge
is calibrated against change in
resistance of adjustable resistor
R2 which makes the voltage
across nodes A and B equal to
zero.
Strain Gauge as Load Cell

Strain gauge based sensors work on the

principle of change in electrical resistance.
When, a mechanical element subjects to a
tension or a compression the electric
resistance of the material changes. This is used
to measure the force acted upon the element.
Strain gauge load cell comprises of cylindrical
tube to which strain gauges are attached. A
load applied on the top collar of the cylinder
compress the strain gauge element which
changes its electrical resistance. Generally
strain gauges are used to measure forces up to
10 MN. The non-linearity and repeatability
errors of this transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.
Strain Gauge as Fluid pressure Sensor
Chemical, petroleum, power industry
often need to monitor fluid pressure.
Various types of instruments such as
diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are
used to monitor the fluid pressure.
Specially designed strain gauges doped
in diaphragms are generally used to
measure the inlet manifold pressure in
applications such as automobiles.
Application of pressurized fluid displaces
the diaphragm. This displacement is
measured by the stain gauges in terms of
radial and/or lateral strains. These strain
gauges are connected to form the arms
of a Wheatstone bridge.
 Strain Gauge Sensors
Sensitivity issues
• Strain gauge is insensitive to lateral
forces, so direction of bonding with
the material should be carefully
considered.

• Strain gauge is sensitive to

temperature changes, so care should
be taken to avoid temperature
changes
Strain Gauge Sensors
Applications
• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis.

• They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending
and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and
strain measurement.

• Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotive.

• In particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools,

hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.
Capacitive sensor
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used
to measure the linear displacements from few millimeters to
hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one
capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might
take in two forms:

a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
Capacitive sensor
Types
Capacitive sensor
Capacitance
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

εr εo 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

• where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the

plates,
• εo permittivity of free space,
• A area of overlap between two plates and
• d the plate separation
Capacitive sensor
as a Displacement sensor
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element/workpiece of which displacement is to be
measured, separation in between the plate changes. This can be given as,
ε r εo 𝐴
𝐶1 =
𝑑+𝑥
ε r εo 𝐴
𝐶2 =
𝑑−𝑥

• When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting

out-of balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x
Capacitive sensor
as a Displacement sensor

• As the central plate moves sideways and away due to the movement
of the element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured,
area of overlap of plate changes. This can be given as,

εr εo 𝐴1
𝐶1 =
𝑑

εr εo 𝐴2
𝐶2 =
𝑑
Capacitive sensor
Applications
• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
o to measure shape errors in the part being produced
o to analyse and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such
as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by
measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
• Assembly line testing
o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400
mm in general.

• It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.

The construction of a LVDT sensor is shown below.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Construction
• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.
• The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.
• Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
• A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed
inside the insulated tube.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Working Principle
• Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electromagnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion
in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Working Principle
• If the core is displaced from the central position as shown in Figure, more in
secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1
than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic
core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in
proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices
such as low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured
by using LVDT sensors.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
DC LVDT
• The DC LVDT is provided with onboard oscillator, carrier amplifier,
and demodulator circuitry.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Advantages
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility.
• It is generally used as an absolute position sensor.
• Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements
of the sensor, it is highly reliable.
• These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in
Servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine tools.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Applications
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed
fordispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Eddy Current Sensor
• Eddy Current
Eddy currents (I) induced in a conductive metal plate (C) as it moves to
right under a magnet (N). The magnetic field (B, green) is directed
down through the plate.
Eddy Current

• Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by

a changing magnetic field in the conductor, due to Faraday’s law of
induction. Eddy currents flow in closed loops within conductors, in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
• They can be induced within nearby stationary conductors (not neccesarily a
magnetic element) by a time-varying magnetic field created by an AC
electromagnet or transformer, for example, or by relative motion between
a magnet and a nearby conductor.
• The magnitude of the current in a given loop is proportional to the strength
of the magnetic field, the area of the loop, and the rate of change of flux,
and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the material.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials. They comprise of
a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.

Figure below shows the construction of eddy current proximity switch.

Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
• When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an alternative
magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy
currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the
magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of
alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-
determined level of change in current.
• Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size,
highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
• Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating
element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
Eddy Current Position Sensor
Position displacement Eddy Current sensors are basically position
measuring devices. Their outputs always indicate the size of the gap
between the sensor's probe and the target. When the probe is
stationary, any changes in the output are directly interpreted as
changes in position of the target.

Applications of Eddy Current Position Sensor Target

• Automation requiring precise location element

• Machine tool monitoring Sensor Probe

• Final assembly of precision

- equipment such as disk drives
Eddy Current Vibration Sensor
Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating element, requires some form of noncontact measurement.
Eddy-Current sensors are useful whether the environment is clean or
dirty and the motions are relatively small. Eddy-current sensors also
have high frequency response (up to 80 kHz) to sense high-speed
motion.
Vibrating
Element
Applications of Eddy Current Vibration Sensor (Target
element)
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
Sensor Probe
Hall Effect Sensor
Hall Effect

Hall effect sensors work on the principle that

when a beam of charge particles passes
through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the current beam is deflected
from its straight line path. Thus one side of
the disc will become negatively charged and
the other side will be of positive charge. This
charge separation generates a potential
difference which is the measure of distance
of magnetic field from the disc carrying
current.
Hall Effect Sensor
Hall Effect Fluid Level Sensor

The typical application of Hall effect sensor

is the measurement of fluid level in a
container. The container comprises of a
float with a permanent magnet attached at
its top. An electric circuit with a current
carrying disc is mounted in the casing.
When the fluid level increases, the magnet
will come close to the disc and a potential
difference generates. This voltage triggers a
Hall Effect Fluid Level Sensor
switch to stop the fluid to come inside the
container.
Hall Effect Sensor
Applications
• These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the
detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary
signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their
non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment
contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them
quite popular in industrial automation.
Temperature Sensors
Bimetallic Strips Case 1 – To trigger alarm on contact

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in

controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two
different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion.

In one case, On heating the strips bend into

curved strips with the metal with higher
coefficient of expansion on the outside of the
curve. As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in
closer proximity of the small magnet and further
touches. Then the electric circuit completes and
generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips
help to protect the desired application from
heating above the pre-set value of temperature.
Temperature Sensors
Bimetallic Strips
Case 2 – To cut off on heating

• In this case, As the strips

bend, the contact breaks
and the electric circuit
becomes open so supply
is cut off.
• In this way bimetallic
strips help to protect the
desired application from
heating above the
threshold temperature.
Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature detectors
• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a
metal changes due to change in its temperature. On heating
up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear
relationship given by

• where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the

temperature at 0⁰C and α is the constant for the metal
termed as temperature coefficient of resistance.
 Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature detectors

• The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100

Ω at 0 °C.
• Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as RTD
materials.
• The range of temperature measurement is decided by
the region, where the resistance-temperature
characteristics are approximately linear.
• The resistance versus temperature characteristics of
these materials is shown in graph.
• Platinum has a linear range of operation upto 650oC,
while the useful range for Copper and Nickel are 120oC
and 300oC respectively.
Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature detectors
Construction
The figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected
to a Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and
protected by a sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though
the coil. As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is
detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature detectors
Construction
For industrial use, bare metal wires cannot be used for
temperature measurement. They must be protected from
mechanical hazards such as material decomposition, tearing
and other physical damages. The salient features of
construction of an industrial RTD are as follows:
• The resistance wire is often put in a stainless steel well for
protection against mechanical hazards. This is also useful
from the point of view of maintenance, since a defective
sensor can be replaced by a good one while the plant is in
operation.
• Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like mica Cross Section view of
is placed in between the well and the resistance material. RTD
• The resistance wire should be carefully wound over mica
sheet so that no strain is developed due to length expansion
of the wire.
Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature detectors
Applications
RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are
generally made of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys.
Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is
used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace.
Other applications are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
• Thermistors follow the principle of change in resistance with change
in temperature.
• The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material
such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium,
cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic
containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds.
• As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number
of electrons able to move about increases which results in more
current in the material and reduced resistance.
• Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit
nonlinear response characteristics.
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
• Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe
or chip. The figure shows the construction of a bead type thermistor.
It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with
ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit
through two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are
contained in a stainless steel tube.
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
• Thermistors can be of two types:
(a) Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors
(b) Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors
Their resistance-temperature characteristics are shown below.
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
• The NTC thermistors is more common in practice. Essentially, they are
made from oxides of iron, manganese, magnesium etc. Their
characteristics can be expressed as:

where, RT is the resistance at temperature T (K)

R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)
T0 is the reference temperature, normally 25oC
β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the
nominal value is taken as 4000.
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
Characteristics
• Useful range of thermistors is normally -100 oC to +300 oC.
• A single thermistor is not suitable for the whole range of
measurement.
• Moreover, existing thermistors are not interchangeable. There is a
marked spread in nominal resistance and the temperature coefficient
between two thermistors of same type. So, if a defective thermistor is
to be replaced by a new thermistor similar type, a fresh calibration
has to be carried out before use.
Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
Types
• Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of 1K, 2K,
10K, 20K, 100K etc. The nominal values indicate the resistance value
at 25o C. Thermistors are available in different forms: bead type, rod
type and disc type etc. The small size of the sensing element makes it
suitable for measurement of temperature at a point. The time
constant is also very small due to the small thermal mass involved.

Bead Type Thermistor Disc Type Thermistor Rod Type Thermistor

Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
Issues and their Solutions
• The nonlinear negative temperature characteristics also give rise to error
due to self-heating effect. When current is flowing through the thermistor,
the heat generated due to the I2 R - loss may increase the temperature of
the resistance element, which may further decrease the resistance and
increase the current further. This effect, if not tackled properly, may
damage the thermistor permanently. Essentially, the current flowing
should be restricted below the specified value to prevent this damage.
Alternatively, the thermistor may be excited by a constant current source.
• The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates problem for
temperature measurement, and it is often desired to linearise the
thermistor characteristics. This can be done by adding one fixed resistance
parallel to the thermistor. The resistance temperature characteristics of the
equivalent resistance would be more linear, but at the cost of sensitivity.
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Principle
• Seebeck Effect
In 1821 Thomas Seebeck, a German physicist discovered that when two dissimilar metal (Seebeck
used copper and bismuth) wires are joined at two ends to form a loop, a voltage is developed in the
circuit if the two junctions are kept at different temperatures. The pair of metals forming the circuit
is called a thermocouple . The effect is due to conversion of thermal energy to electrical energy.
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Principle
• Peltier Effect
In 1834 Jean Peltier, a french watch maker, discovered a thermoelectric effect. If
a current flows through a circuit containing junction of two dissimilar metals, it
leads to an absorption or liberation of heat at the junctions. Heat is given out or
absorbed depending on the pairs of metals and the direction of the current.
• Thomson Effect
William Thomson (later well known as Lord Kelvin) discovered a thermoelectric
effect which provides a link between Seebeck effect and Peltier effect. Thomson
found that when a current is passed through an wire of single homogeneous
material along which a temperature gradient exists, heat must be exchanged
with the surrounding in order that the original temperature gradient may be
maintained along the wire. (The exchange of heat is required at all places of the
circuit where a temperature gradient exists.)
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Principle, Construction and Working
• When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent
on the materials used and the temperature difference between hot and cold
junctions A typical thermocouple junction is shown in figure below.
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Principle, Construction and Working
• The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the
relationship:

• Where, T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C1 and

C2 are constants depending upon the materials and eo is the emf
produced.

• For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1copper = 62.1 and

C2 Constantan = 0.045.
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Types
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Materials used in Thermocouple
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Applications, Advantages and Disadvantage

• Applications
i. To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
ii. Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
iii. Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts

• Advantages
i. They are rugged and readings are consistent,
ii. They can measure over a wide range of temperature, and
iii. Their characteristics are almost linear with an accuracy of about 0.05%.

• Disadvantage
However, the major shortcoming of thermocouples is low sensitivity compared to other
temperature measuring devices (e.g. RTD, Thermistor).
Light Sensors
Photoresistor
Principle
• Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR).
• It has a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The
resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies inversely to the
amount of light incident upon it.
• Photoresistor follows the principle of photoconductivity
which results from the generation of mobile carriers when
photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Light Sensors
Photoresistor
Construction and Working
• The CdS resistor coil is mounted
on a ceramic substrate. This
assembly is encapsulated by a
resin material. The sensitive coil
electrodes are connected to the
control system though lead
wires. On incidence of high
intensity light on the electrodes,
the resistance of resistor coil
decreases which will be used
further to generate the
appropriate signal by the
microprocessor via lead wires.
Light Sensors
Photoresistor
Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light
sensors to automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor
technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles
and robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots
can be programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of
light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
Light Sensors
Photodiodes
Introduction
• A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that
consumes light energy to generate electric current.
• Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias
condition. Reverse bias means that the p-side of the photodiode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
• Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on
the photodiode it easily converts light into electric current.
Symbol of Photodiode
Light Sensors
Photodiodes
Construction
• It is constructed from single crystal silicon wafers. It
is a p-n junction device.
• The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and formed
by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping
material such as boron.
• Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched
between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon.
Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the
back surface is cathode.
• The incidence of light on anode generates a flow of
electron across the p-n junction which is the
measure of light intensity.
Light Sensors
Photodiodes
Working
• A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged electron
hole.
• If the light absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from
it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region.
• Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is
produced.
Light Sensors
Photodiodes
Applications of photodiodes
• Compact disc players
• Smoke detectors
• Space applications
• Photodiodes are used in medical applications such as computed
tomography, instruments to analyze samples
• Photodiodes are used for optical communications.
• Photodiodes are used to measure extremely low light intensities.
• Automobile Headlight Dimmer
• Smoke Detectors
• Bar Code Scanners
• Light Meters for Camera purpose
Optical Sensor
Optical Encoder
• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are widely used in
the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. The construction of an optical encoder comprises of a
disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light
passing thru the holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole
which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of
the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be
determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the
inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of
holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,

360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰
Optical Sensor
Optical Encoder
Optical Sensor
Optical Encoder
Optical Sensor
Optical Encoder

Linear Encoder Rotary Encoder

Optical Sensor
Optical Encoder