MODULE-5: Knowledge Management, Artificial

Intelligence And Expert Systems

Compiled by: Prof. Hrishikesh

Tendulkar
[email protected]

Vidyalankar School of
Information Technology
Wadala (E), Mumbai
www.vsit.edu.in
 Certificate

This is to certify that the e-book titled “BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE” comprises all elementary
learning tools for a better understating of the relevant concepts. This e-book is
comprehensively compiled as per the predefined eight parameters and guidelines.

Signature Date: 02-04-2021

Mr. Hrishikesh Tendulkar
Assistant Professor
Department of IT

DISCLAIMER: The information contained in this e-book is compiled and distributed for
educational purposes only. This e-book has been designed to help learners understand relevant
concepts with a more dynamic interface. The compiler of this e-book and Vidyalankar Institute
of Technology give full and due credit to the authors of the contents, developers and all
websites from wherever information has been sourced. We acknowledge our gratitude towards
the websites YouTube, Wikipedia, and Google search engine. No commercial benefits are
being drawn from this project.
 Unit V

• Contents

• Knowledge Management: Introduction to Knowledge Management, Organizational

Learning and Transformation, Knowledge Management Activities, Approaches to
Knowledge Management, Information Technology (IT) In Knowledge Management,
Knowledge Management Systems Implementation, Roles of People in Knowledge
Management
• Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems Concepts and Definitions of Artificial
Intelligence, Artificial Intelligence Versus Natural Intelligence, Basic Concepts of
Expert Systems, Applications of Expert Systems, Structure of Expert Systems,
Knowledge Engineering, Development of Expert Systems

• Recommended Books
• Text Books And Reference Books
• Business Intelligence: Data Mining and Optimization for Decision Making, Carlo
Vercellis, Wiley, First, 2009
• Decision support and Business Intelligence Systems , Efraim Turban, Ramesh
Sharda, Dursun Delen , Pearson , Ninth, 2011
• Fundamental of Business Intelligence, Grossmann W, Rinderle-Ma, Springer, First,
2015

Prerequisites Linkage
Unit V Sem. I Sem. Sem. III Sem. IV Sem. V Sem. MSc IT
II VI Sem. I
Knowledge Discrete - Data Computer Artificial - Data
Management Mathematics Structures Oriented Intelligenc Science
, Artificial Statistical e (Sem I),
Intelligence Technique Big Data
and Expert Analytics
Systems (Sem II),
Machine
Learning,
Robotic
Process
Automation
(Sem III),
Deep
Learning
(Sem IV)
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Knowledge Management first came up in mid-1990 and many organizations have tried to use
it and failed to reap benefits. Knowledge Management strategy aims to enhance its
operations by leveraging internal and external expertise and assets, supporting exchange of
knowledge among individuals and groups

Introduction to Knowledge Management

Knowledge Management gives importance and value to identify organizations knowledge
assets and sharing them throughout the organization. The deployment of KM systems leads
to significantly lower operating costs, higher efficiency and more collaboration throughout the
organization. The application of IT tools to facilitate the creation, storage, transfer and
application of previous organization knowledge is a new and major initiative in many
organizations. Knowledge management is a process that helps organizations identify, select,
organize, disseminate and transfer important information and expertise that are the part of
the organizations memory and that typically reside within the organization in an unstructured
manner. Knowledge management is the systematic and active management of ideas,
information, and knowledge residing in an organization’s employees. The structuring of
knowledge enables effective and efficient problem solving, dynamic learning, strategic
planning and decision making. KM initiatives focus on identifying knowledge, explicating in
such a way that it can be shared in a formal manner and leveraging its value through reuse.
Knowledge is information that is contextual, relevant and actionable. It has the following
characteristics
Extraordinary leverage an increasing returns – Knowledge is not subject to diminishing
returns. When it is used it is not decreased rather it is increased. Its consumers can add to it,
thus increasing its value
Fragmentation, leakage and the need to refresh – As knowledge grows it branches and
fragments. Knowledge is dynamic. Thus an organization must continually refresh its
knowledge base to maintain it as a source of competitive knowledge
Uncertain value – It is difficult to estimate the impact of an investment in knowledge. There
are too many intangible aspects that cannot be easily quantified.
Value of sharing – It is difficult to estimate the value of sharing one’s knowledge or even
who will benefit most from it.

The term intellectual capital often used as synonym for knowledge implies that there is
financial value to knowledge. Explicit knowledge deals with more objectives, rational and
technical knowledge. Tacit knowledge is usually in the domain of subjective, cognitive and
experimental learning. It is highly personal and difficult to formalize. Explicit knowledge
comprises the policies, procedural guides, white papers, reports, designs, products,
strategies, goals, mission and core competencies of an enterprise and its IT infrastructure. It
is knowledge that has been codified in a form that can be distributed to others or transformed
into a process or strategy without interpersonal interaction. For example a description of how
to process a job application will be documented in a firm’s human resources policy manual.
Explicit knowledge has also been called leaky knowledge because of the ease with which it
can leave an individual, a document or an organization due to the fact that it can be readily
and accurately documented. Tacit knowledge is the cumulative store of the experiences,
mental maps, insights, acumen, expertise, knowhow, trade secrets, skill sets, understanding
and learning that an organization has as well as the organizational culture that has
embedded in the past and present experiences of the organizations people, process and
values. Tacit knowledge also referred to as embedded knowledge is usually either localized
within the brain of an individual or embedded in the group interactions within a department or
a branch office. Tacit knowledge typically involves expertise or high skill levels.

Management Information System departments have focussed on capturing; storing,

managing and reporting explicit knowledge.KM systems refer to the use of modern IT like
internet, web etc to systematize, enhance KM. KM systems are intended to help an
organization cope with turnover, rapid change, and downsizing by making the expertise of the
organizations human capital widely accessible.

Organizational Learning and Transformation

Learning organization refers to an organizations capability of learning from its past
experience. Learning involves an interaction between experience and competence.
Communities of practice provide not only a context for newcomers to learn but also a context
for new insights to be transformed into knowledge. To build a learning organization three
critical issues must be tackled, determining the vision of learning, determining how the firm is
to work and assessing the rate and level of learning.

A learning organization must have organizational memory and a means to sane and share its
organizational knowledge. Individuals ideally tap into these past procedures and policies for
knowledge when faced with issues or problems. A KMS can capture the new knowledge and
make it available in its enhanced form.

Organizational learning is the development of new knowledge and insights that have the
potential to influence an organizational behavior. Learning skills include openness to new
perspectives, awareness of personal biases, exposure to unfiltered data and a sense of
humility. IT plays a critical role in organizational learning and management must place
emphasis on this area to foster it. Because organizations are becoming more virtual in their
operations they must develop the methods for effective organizational learning.

An organizations ability to learn, develop memory and share knowledge is dependent on its
culture. Over the time organizations learn what works and what does not. As the lessons
become old they become part of organizational culture. New employees learn the culture
from their mentors along with knowhow. Strong culture usually produces good results and
various incomes. Sharing initiatives and motivations are critical for the success of KM.
Following are the reasons due to which people does not want to share knowledge
• General lack of time to share knowledge and time to identify colleagues in need of specific
knowledge
• Apprehension or fear that sharing may reduce people’s job security
• Low awareness and realization of the value and benefit of the knowledge others process
• Dominance in sharing explicit over tacit knowledge such as knowhow and experience that
requires hands-on learning, observation, dialogue and interactive problem solving
• Use of strong hierarchy, position based status and formal power
• Insufficient capture, evaluation, feedback, communication and tolerance of past mistakes
that would enhance individual and organizational learning effects
• Differences in experience level
• Lack of contact time and interaction between knowledge sources and recipients
• Poor verbal or written communication and interpersonal skills
• Age and/or gender differences
• Lack of social network
• Differences in education level
• Ownership of intellectual property due to fear of not receiving recognition and accreditation
from managers and colleagues
• Lack of trust in people because they may misuse the knowledge or take unjust credit for it
• Lack of trust in the accuracy and credibility of knowledge due to source
• Differences in national culture or ethnic backgrounds and values and beliefs associated
with it
Knowledge Management Activities
Due to the changing dynamics and intense competition organizations need to leverage
intellectual resources in order to reduce the loss of intellectual capital due to people leaving
the company as well as to reduce the cost by decreasing the number of times the company
has to solve the same problem repeatedly. Companies use business intelligence to reveal
opportunities and create revenue generating programs to exploit them. Most KM initiatives
aim to make knowledge visible, to develop knowledge intensive culture and to build
knowledge infrastructure.

Knowledge creation is the generation of new insights, ideas and routines. It is interplay
between tacit and explicit knowledge and growing spiral as the knowledge moves among the
individual, group and organizational levels. The four modes of knowledge creation are
socialization, externalization, internalization and combination. The socialization mode refers
to the conversion of tacit knowledge to new tacit knowledge through social interactions and
shared experience among organization members. The combination mode refers to the
creation of new explicit knowledge by merging, categorizing, reclassifying and synthesizing
existing explicit knowledge. The other modes involve interactions and conversions between
tacit and explicit knowledge. Externalization refers to converting tacit knowledge to new
explicit knowledge. Internalization refers to creation of new tacit knowledge from explicit
knowledge.

Knowledge sharing is the willful explication of one person’s ideas, insights, solution,
experiences to another individual via a computer based system or directly. In many
organizations information and knowledge are not considered organizational resources to be
shared but individual competitive weapons to be kept private. Organizational members may
share personal knowledge with trepidation; they perceive that they are of less value if their
knowledge is part of organizational public domain. Research in organizational learning and
knowledge management suggest that some facilitating conditions include trust, interest and
shared knowledge.

Knowledge seeking also refereed as knowledge sourcing is the search for and use of
internal organizational knowledge. Lack of time or lack of reward may hinder the seeking of
knowledge. Individuals sometimes prefer not to reuse the knowledge if they feel that their
own performance review is based on originality or creativity of ideas. Individuals may engage
in knowledge creation, sharing and seeking with or without the use of IT tools
Topic – Knowledge Management

Source - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ny78qImWLVY
Approaches to Knowledge Management
There are two approaches to knowledge management
Process Approach – It attempts to codify organizational knowledge through formalized
controls, processes and technologies. Organizations that adopt this approach implement
explicit policies governing how knowledge is to be collected, stored and disseminated
throughout the organization. This approach frequently involves the use of IT, such as
intranets, data warehousing, knowledge repositories, decision support tools and groupware
to enhance the quality and speed of knowledge creation and distribution in organization. The
main criticisms of the process approach are that it fails to capture much of the tacit
knowledge embedded in firms and it forces individuals into fixed patterns of thinking. This
approach is favored by firms that sell relatively standard products that fill common needs.

Practice Approach – It assumes that a great deal of organizational knowledge is tacit in

nature and those formal controls, processes and technologies are not suited for transmitting
this type of understanding. Rather than build formal systems to manage knowledge, the focus
of this approach is to build the social environments or communities of practice necessary to
facilitate the sharing of tacit understanding. These communities are informal social groups
that meet regularly to share ideas, insights and best practices. This approach is typically
adopted by the companies that provide highly customized solutions to unique problems. For
these firms knowledge is shared mostly through person-to-person contact. The valuable
knowledge for these firms is tacit in nature which is difficult to capture, express and manage,
because of which the explicit knowledge that points to how to find the appropriate tacit
knowledge is made available to an appropriate set of individuals who need it. Consulting
firms generally fall into this category. The challenge is to develop methods to make the
valuable tacit knowledge explicit capture it and contribute it to and transfer it from a
knowledge repository in KMS. Several consulting firms store pointers to experts within the
KMS and tips, procedures and best practices as the context in which they work.
Hybrid Approach – Most organizations use a hybrid of process and practice approach. In
development process when it may not be clear how to extract tacit knowledge the practice
approach is used so that a repository stores only explicit knowledge that is relatively easy to
document. The tacit knowledge initially stored in the repository is contact information about
the experts and their areas of expertise. Such information is listed so that people in the
organization can find sources of expertise.

Best Practices - Best practices are the activities and methods that the most effective
organizations use to operate and manage various functions. Various levels of best practices
are
• A good idea that is not yet proven but makes intuitive sense
• A good practice, an implemented technique, a methodology, a procedure or a process that
has improved business results
• A local best practice, a best approach for all or a large part of the organization based on
analysis of hard data
• An industry best practice, similar to the third level but using hard data from the industry

Knowledge Repositories – It is neither a database nor a knowledge base but it stores

knowledge that is often text based and has very different characteristics. It is also referred as
organizational knowledge base. It contains all the organizational knowledge. Capturing and
storing knowledge are the goals for a knowledge repository. The structure of the repository is
highly dependent on the types of knowledge it stores. The repository can range from simply a
list of frequently asked questions and solutions to a listing of individuals with their expertise
and contact information to detailed best practices for a large organization

Most knowledge repositories are developed using several different storing mechanisms
depending on the types and amount of knowledge to be maintained and used. Each has
strengths and weakness when used for different purposes within a KMS. The most important
aspects and difficult issues are making the contribution of knowledge relatively easy for the
contributor and determining a good method for cataloguing the knowledge. Typical
development approaches include developing a large scale Internet based system or
purchasing a formal electronic document management system or a knowledge management
suite. The structure and development of the knowledge repository are a function of the
specific technology used for the KMS

Information Technology (IT) In Knowledge Management

The two primary functions of IT in knowledge management are retrieval and communication.
IT also extends the reach and the range of knowledge use and enhances the speed of
knowledge transfer. Networks facilitate collaboration in KM.

KMS cycle – A functioning KMS follows six steps in cycle as seen in the figure below. The
reason for the cycle is that knowledge is dynamically refined over time. The knowledge in a
good KMS is never finished because the environment over time and the knowledge must be
updated to reflect the changes.

The cycle works as follows

1. Create knowledge – Knowledge is created as people determine new ways of doing things
or develop knowhow. Sometimes external knowledge is brought in. Some of these new
ways may become best practices.
2. Capture knowledge – New knowledge must be identified as valuable and be represented
in a reasonable way.
3. Refine knowledge – New knowledge must be placed in context so that it is actionable.
This is where human insights must be captured along with explicit facts.
4. Store knowledge – Useful knowledge must be stored in a reasonable format in a
knowledge repository so that others in the organization can access it
5. Manage knowledge – Like a library repository must be kept current. It must be reviewed
to verify that is relevant and accurate
6. Disseminate knowledge – Knowledge must be made available in a useful format to
anyone in the organization who needs it anywhere and anytime
As knowledge is disseminated, individuals develop, create and identify new knowledge or
update old knowledge which they replenish in the system.

Components of KMS – KM is more a methodology applied to business practices than a

technology or a product and IT is crucial to the success of every KMS. IT enables knowledge
management by providing the enterprise architecture on which it is built. KMS are built using
three sets of technologies
Communication technologies – It allows users to access needed knowledge and to
communicate with each other. Internets and other Web based tools provide communication
capabilities.
Collaboration technologies – It provides the means to perform group work. Groups can
work together on common documents at the same time or at different times at same places
or different places. These technologies are especially important for members of community of
practice working on knowledge contributions. Other capabilities such as electronic
brainstorming and enhance group work involve experts working with individuals trying to
apply their knowledge
Storage and retrieval technologies – These technologies originally meant using a
database management system (DBMS) for storing and manging knowledge. These worked
well for storing explicit knowledge. However capturing, storing and managing tacit knowledge
requires special set of tools. Electronic document management systems and specialized
storage systems that are part of collaborative computing systems fill this void. These storage
systems have come to be known as knowledge repositories. Following table describes the
difference between the three technologies

Technologies that support knowledge management – Several technologies have made

significant advances in knowledge management like
Artificial Intelligence (AI) – AI tools and methods are embedded in number of KMS either
vendors or system developers. AI methods can assist in identifying expertise, eliciting
knowledge automatically and semi-automatically, and interfacing through natural language
processing and intelligently searching through intelligent agents. AI methods are used in
KMS to the following
• Assist in and enhance searching knowledge
• Help establish knowledge profiles of individuals and groups
• Help determine the relative importance of knowledge when it is contributed to and
accessed from the knowledge repository
 • Scan emails, documents and databases to perform knowledge discovery, determine
meaningful relationships, glean knowledge or induce rules for expert systems
• Identify patterns in data
• Forecast future results by using existing knowledge
• Provide advice directly from knowledge by using neural networks or expert systems
• Provide a natural language or voice command driven user interface for a KMS
Intelligent Agents – These are the software systems that learn how users work and provide
assistance in their daily task. They are used to elicit and identify knowledge. The following
are some examples
• IBM (ibm.com) offers an intelligent data mining family, including Intelligent Decision Server
(IDS) for finding and analysing massive amounts of enterprise data
• Gentia (Planning Sciences International, gentia.com) uses intelligent agents to facilitate
data mining with Web access and data warehouse facilities.
Combining intelligent agents with enterprise knowledge portals is a powerful technique which
can deliver to users exactly what they need to perform their tasks. The intelligent agent
learns what the user prefers to see and how the user organises it. Then the intelligent agent
takes over to provide that information at the desktop.

Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) – It is a process used to search for and extract
useful information from volumes of documents and data. It includes tasks such as knowledge
extraction, data archaeology, data exploration, data pattern processing, data dredging and
information harvesting. All these activities are conducted automatically and allow quick
discovery even by non-programmers. Data and document mining is ideal for eliciting
knowledge from databases, documents, e-mail and so on. Data are often buried deep within
very large databases, data warehouses, text documents or knowledge repositories all of
which may contain information and knowledge gathered over many years. KDD can also be
used to identify the meaning of data or text, using knowledge management tools that scan
documents and email to build up an expertise profile of a firm’s employees. Data mining can
speed up analysis by providing needed knowledge

eXtensible Markup Language (XML) – XML enables standard representations of data

structures so that data can be processed appropriately by heterogeneous systems without
case-by-case programming. This method suits ecommerce applications and supply chain
management (SCM) systems that operate across enterprise boundaries. XML can not only
automate processes and reduce paper work it can also unite business patterns and supply
chains for better collaboration and knowledge transfer. XML based messages can be taken
from back end repositories and fed out through the portal interface and back again. A portal
that uses XML allows the company to communicate better with its customers, linking them in
a virtual demand chain where changes in customer requirements are immediately reflected in
production plans. Wide adoption of XML can pretty much solve the problem of integrating
data from disparate sources. Due to its potential to tremendously simplify systems
integration, XML may become the universal language that all portal vendors embrace.

Web 2.0. – It has evolved from a tool for disseminating information and conducting business
to a platform for facilitating new ways of information sharing, collaboration and
communication in the digital age. A new vocabulary has emerged as mashups, social
networks, media sharing sites, RSS, blogs and wikis have come to characterize the genre of
interactive applications collectively known as Web 2.0. These technologies rea expected to
give KM a strong boost by making it easy and natural for everyone to share knowledge over
the Web. The ultimate value of Web 2.0 is its ability to foster greater responsiveness, better
knowledge capture and sharing and ultimately more effective collective intelligence.
Topic – Knowledge Representation and Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence

Source - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9iN3O_oL2ac

Knowledge Management Systems Implementation

The challenges with the KMS are to identify and integrate the three technologies to meet the
knowledge management needs of the organization. The earliest KMS were developed with
networked technology, collaborative computing tools and databases. They were constructed
from a variety of off the shelf IT components.
Knowledge management products and vendors – Technology tools that support KM are
called knowware. Most knowledge management software packages include one or more of
the following tools like collaborative computing tools, knowledge servers, enterprise
knowledge portals, electronic document management systems, knowledge harvesting tools,
search engines and knowledge management suites. Many packages provide several tools
because they are necessary in an effective KMS. KMS can be purchased in whole or in parts
from software development companies and enterprise information system (EIS) vendors.
Software development companies and EIS vendors – They offer various knowledge
management packages from individual tools to knowledge management suites. The variety of
knowware that is readily available on the market allows companies to find tools that meet
their unique KM needs.
Knowledge servers – It contains the main knowledge management software including the
knowledge repository and provides access to other knowledge information and data. The
server provides a central location for searching and accessing information from many
sources there by enabling the efficient distribution of time-sensitive information.
Enterprise knowledge portals – These are the doorways into many KMS. They have
evolved from the concepts underlying GSS, web browsers and DBMS. EKP is an ideal way to
configure KMS. Most EKP combine data integration, reporting mechanisms and
collaboration, while a server handles document and knowledge management. An enterprise
information portal is a virtual place for online users which aggregates each user total
information needs, data and documents emails.
Electronic Document Management (EDM) – These systems use the document in electronic
form. EDM systems allow the user to access needed documents via a Web browser over
internet. EDM systems enable organizations to better manage documents and workflow for
smoother operations. Many KMS use an EDM system as knowledge repository
Knowledge harvesting tools – Tools for capturing knowledge unobtrusively are helpful
because they allow a knowledge contributor to be minimally in the knowledge harvesting
efforts. Embedding this type of tool in KMS is an ideal approach to knowledge capture.
Search engines – They perform the function of locating and retrieving necessary documents
from the repository
Knowledge management suites – These are complete out of box knowledge management
solutions. A knowledge management suite must access internal databases and other
external knowledge sources so some integration is required to make the software truly
functional. Using a knowledge management suite is a powerful approach to develop a KMS
because it has one user interface and one data repository and is from one vendor.
Knowledge management consulting firms – All the major consulting firms have massive
internal knowledge management initiatives. These become products after they succeed
internally and provide assistance in establishing KMS and measuring their effectiveness.
Most management consulting firms define their knowledge management offerings as
services.
Knowledge management asps – ASPs have evolved as a form of KMS outsourcing on the
Web. There are many ASPs for ecommerce on the market. As a hosted ASP solution,
communispace is easy to rapidly deploy within organizations. Communispace contains a rich
assortment of interactions, activities and tools that connect people to the colleagues, who can
best help them make decisions, solve problems and learn quickly. Communispace is
designed to build trust online; it attempts to make a community self-conscious about taking
responsibility for its action and knowledge.
Integration of KMS with Other Business Information Systems – NMS must be integrated
with other enterprise and information systems in an organization. Through the structure of the
organizational culture KMS and its activities can be directly integrated into a firm’s business
process. KMS can be developed on a knowledge platform or server consisting of various
technologies.
Integration of KMS with DSS/BI systems – KMS do not involve running models to solve
problems which are done in DSS/BI systems. KMS provides help in solving problems by
applying knowledge part of the solution may involve running models. A KMS can integrate
into a set of models and data and it can activate them if a specific problem calls for it
Integration of KMS with AI – KM has natural relationship with AI models and software
although it is not an AI method. AI and KMS can be integrated in number of ways like if the
knowledge stored in KMS is to be represented and used as a sequence of if-then-else rules;
an expert system becomes a part of KMS. An expert system could also assist a user in
identifying how to apply a chunk of knowledge in KMS. Natural language processing assists
the computer in understanding what a user is searching for. Artificial neural networks help to
understand text to determine the applicability of specific chunk of knowledge as it applies to a
particular problem. The most common integration of AI and KM is in identifying and
classifying expertise by examining email messages and documents
Integration of KMS with Databases and Information Systems – KMS uses knowledge
repository sometimes constructed out of a database system or an EDM system it can
automatically integrate to this part of the firm’s information system. KMS also attempt to
glean knowledge from documents and databases through AI methods in a process known as
KDD. This knowledge is then represented textually within the knowledge repository
Integration of KMS with CRM systems – CRM systems help users in dealing with
customers. It can develop usable profiles of customers and predict their needs so that an
organization can increase sales and better serve its clients. KMS provides tacit knowledge to
people who use CRM directly in working with customers.
Integration with Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems – The supply chain is often
considered to be the logistics end of business. If the products do not move out of
organization the organization will fail and hence it is necessary to optimize supply chain and
manage it properly. SCM can benefit from integration with KMS because there are many
issues and problems with the supply chain that require the company to combine tacit and
explicit knowledge there by increasing SCM’s performance
Integration of KMS with Corporate Intranets and Extranets – KMS is not integrated with
intranets and extranets but typically developed on them as the communications platform.
Extranets are specifically designed to enhance the collaboration of firm with its suppliers and
customers. If KMS integrates into extranets and intranets knowledge can flow more freely
and can also be captured directly

Roles of People in Knowledge Management

Following are the people involved in making KMS a great success
Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO) – Most of the firms developing KMS have created this role
at the senior level. The objectives of CKO are to maximize the firm’s knowledge assets,
design and implement KM strategies effectively. The CKO is responsible for developing
processes that facilitate knowledge transfer. A CKO must do the following
• Set knowledge management strategic priorities
• Establish a knowledge repository of best practices
• Gain a commitment from senior executives to support a learning environment
• Teach information seekers how to ask better and smarter questions
• Establish a process for managing intellectual assets
• Obtain customer satisfaction information in near real time
• Globalize knowledge management
The CKO is responsible for defining the area of knowledge within the firm that will be the
focal point, based on the firm’s mission and objectives. A CKO is responsible for
standardizing the enterprise vocabulary and controlling the knowledge directory. The CKO is
also responsible for creating an infrastructure and cultural environment for knowledge
sharing. A CKO needs the following skills and attributes
• Interpersonal communication skills to convince employees to adopt cultural changes
• Leadership skills to convey knowledge management vision and passion for it
• Business acumen to relate knowledge management efforts to efficiency and profitability
• Strategic thinking skills to relate knowledge management efforts to larger goals
• Collaboration skills to work with various departments and persuade them to work together
• The ability to institute effective educational programs
• An understanding of IT and its role in advancing knowledge management

The CEO, Officers and Mangers of the Organization – CEO is responsible for
championing a knowledge management effort. He ensures that a competent and capable
CKO is found and that the CKO can obtain all resources needed for the project. CEO must
also gain organization wide support for contributions to and use of the KMS. CEO must also
prepare the organization for the cultural changes that are about to occur. CEO is a primary
change agent of the organisation.

The officers generally must make available to the CKO the resources needed to get the job
done. The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) must ensure that the financal resources are
available. The Chief Operating Officer (COO) must ensure that people beginto embed
knolwledge management practices into their daily work processes. The Chief Informaion
Officer (CIO) is responsible for the IT vision of the oragnization and for the IT architecture.
Managers must also support knowledge management effort and provide access to sources of
knowledge. In many KMS managers are an integral part of the communities of practice. A
Community Of Practice (COP) is a group of people in an organization with acommon
professional interest. All KMS users should each be in atleast one COP. Properly creating
and nurturing COP is one key to KMS success. COP owns the knowledge that it cintributes
because it manages the knowledge on its way into the system and must approve
modifications to it. The COP is responsible for the accuracy and timeliness of the knowledge
it contributes and for identifying its potential use. COP makes organization run smoothly
because they enable knowledge flow

KMS Developers – These are the team menbers who actually develop the system. They
work for the CKO. Some are organizational experts who develop strategies to promote and
manage the organizational culture shift. Others are involved in system software and
hardware, selection, programming etc.

KMS Staff – KMS requires full staff ato catalogue and mange knowledge. This staff is either
located at the firm’s headquarters or dispersed in knowledge centers throughout the
organization. Some KMS staff are functional area experts who are now cataloging and
apprioving knowledge contributions and pushing the knowledge to clients and employees
who can use the knowledge.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS
A system that integrates knowledge from experts is commonly called Knowledge Based
Decision Support System (KBDSS) or an Intelligent Decision Support System (IDSS). The
foundation for building such systems is the tools and techniques that have been developed in
the area of artificial intelligence and expert systems

Concepts and Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

Most of the technologies use qualitative knowledge rather than numeric and or mathematical
models to provide the needed support; hence they are referred to as Knowledge Based
Systems (KBS). The overarching field of study that encompasses these technologies and
underlying applications is called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI is an area of computer science
which is concerned with study of human thought process and the representation and
duplication of those thought process in machines. The abilities of AI are
• Learning or understanding from experience
• Making sense out of ambiguous or contradictory messages
• Responding quickly and successfully to anew situation
• Using reasoning in solving problems and directing conduct effectively
• Dealing with perplexing situations
• Understanding and inferring in a rational way
• Applying knowledge to manipulate the environment
• Thinking and reasoning
• Recognizing and judging the relative importance of different elements in a situation

Characteristics of Artificial Intelligence – AI can build machines that mimic human

intelligence as well as they increase the productivity and quality by automating many tasks
that require human intelligence. AI techniques usually have the following characteristics
Symbolic Processing – AI is the branch of computer science that deals primarily with
symbolic, non-algorithmic methods of problem solving. This definition focusses on two
characteristics
Numeric versus symbolic – Symbolic processing is at the core of AI hence AI can use
numbers as well as symbols.
Algorithmic versus heuristic – Algorithmic is a step by step procedure and many human
reasoning processes are non-algorithmic. In other words our mental activities consist of more
than just step by step procedures. Human thinking relies more on rules, opinions and gut
feelings
Heuristics – AI deals with the ways of representing knowledge using symbols with heuristics
methods for processing information. By using heuristics we do not have to rethink completely
what to do every time we encounter a similar problem. Many AI methods use heuristics to
reduce the complexity of problem solving.
Inferencing – AI also uses reasoning capabilities that can build high level knowledge using
existing knowledge represented as heuristics in the form of rules. Inference is a process of
deriving a logical outcome from a given set of facts and rules.
Machine Learning – AI systems do not have the same learning capabilities that humans
have rather they have simplistic learning capabilities called machine learning. Machine
learning allows computer systems to monitor and sense their environmental factors and
adjust their behaviour to react to changes. Machine learning is a scientific discipline that is
concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to learn
based on data coming from sensors or databases.

Artificial Intelligence Versus Natural Intelligence

Advantages of AI over Natural Intelligence
• AI is more permanent. Natural language is perishable from a commercial standpoint in that
workers can change their place of employment or forget information. However AI is
permanent as long as the computer systems and programs remain unchanged.
• AI offers ease of duplication and dissemination. Transferring knowledge from one person
to another is a lengthy process. However when knowledge is embedded in a computer
system it can easily be transferred from one computer to another computer
• AI can be less expensive than natural intelligence. In many circumstances buying
computer services costs less than having corresponding human power.
• AI is consistent and thorough whereas natural intelligence is erratic because people do not
perform consistently
• AI can be documented. Decisions made by the computer system can be easily
documented by tracing the activities of the system which is not possible in natural
intelligence.
• AI can perform certain tasks better than any human.
Advantages of Natural Intelligence over AI are
• Natural intelligence is creative whereas AI is uninspired. The ability to acquire knowledge
is inherent with human beings but with AI knowledge must be built into a carefully
constructed system constructed by large number of assumptions.
• Natural intelligence enables people to benefit form and use sensory experience directly in
a synergistic way whereas AI systems must work with numeric and/or symbolic inputs in a
sequential manner with predetermined representational forms.

Basic Concepts of Expert Systems

Expert Systems (ES) are computer based information systems that use expert knowledge to
attain high-level decision performance in a narrowly defined problem domain. ES has been
used in medical diagnosis, taxation, credit analysis, environmental monitoring etc.

Experts – An expert is person who has special knowledge, judgement, experience and skills
to put his or her knowledge in action to provide sound advice and to solve complex problems
in a narrowly defined area. An expert knows which facts are important and also understands
and explains the dependency relationship among those facts. Typically human experts are
capable of doing the following
• Recognizing and formulating a problem
• Solving a problem quickly and correctly
• Explaining a solution
• Learning from experience
• Restructuring knowledge
• Breaking rules if necessary
• Determining relevance and associations
• Declining gracefully

Expertise – Expertise is the expensive task specific knowledge that experts possess. The
level of the expertise determines the performance of a decision. It is often acquired through
training, reading and experience in practice. It includes explicit knowledge such as theories
learned from a textbook or in classroom and implicit knowledge gained from experience. The
following is the list of possible knowledge types
• Theories about the problem domain
• Rules and procedures regarding the general problem domain
• Heuristics about what to do in a given problem solution
• Global strategies for solving these types of problems
• Metaknowledge
• Facts about the problem area
Expertise often includes following characteristics
• Usually associated with a high degree of intelligence but it is not always associated with
the smartest person
• Usually associated with a vast quantity of knowledge
• Based on learning from past success and mistakes
• Based on the knowledge that is well stored, organized and quickly retrievable from an
expert who has excellent recall of patterns from previous experiences.

Features of ES
ES must have following features
Expertise – ES must possess expertise that enables it to make expert level decisions. The
system must exhibit expert performance with adequate robustness
Symbolic reasoning – In ES knowledge must be represented symbolically and the primary
reasoning mechanism must be symbolic. Typical symbolic reasoning mechanisms include
backward chaining and forward chaining
Deep knowledge – It concerns the level of expertise in a knowledge base. The knowledge
base must contain complex knowledge not easily found among nonexperts
Self-knowledge – ES must be able to examine their own reasoning and provide proper
explanations as to why a particular conclusion was reached. ES also need to be able to learn
from their success and failures as well as from other sources.
The development of ES is divided into two generations one which uses if-then rules to
represent and store knowledge and the second generation which uses fuzzy logic, neural
networks or genetic algorithms with rule based inference to achieve a higher level of decision
performance

Comparison between Conventional System and Expert System

ES are not exactly replica of the real experts. Compared to the real experts they have
advantages and shortcomings. The following table shows a simple comparison between
human experts and ES on several key features

Topic – Expert System in Artificial Intelligence

Source - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3cOU_ljfr8&t=128s

Applications of Expert Systems

Classical applications of ES – Early ES applications were in the science domain. Some of
them are as follows
DENDRAL – This project was initiated in 1965 and used a set of knowledge or rule based
reasoning commands to deduce the likely molecular structure of organic chemical
compounds from known chemical analyses and mass spectrometry data. DENDRAL proved
to be fundamentally important in demonstrating how rule based reasoning could be
developed into powerful knowledge engineering tools and led to the development of other
rule based reasoning programs
MYCIN – It is a rule based ES that diagnoses bacterial infections of the blood. It was
developed by a group of researchers in 1970. By asking questions and backward chaining
through a rule base of 500 rules, MYCIN can recognize approximately 100 causes of
bacterial infections which allow the system to recommend effective drug prescriptions
XCON – It is a rule based system which helps rules to determine the optimal system
configuration that fit consumer requirements. The system was able to handle a customer
request within 1 minute that typically took the sales team 20 to 30 minutes. With the ES
service accuracy increased from to 98% from 68%
Credit analysis system – ES have been developed to support the needs of commercial
leading institutions. ES can help a lender analyse a customer’s credit record and determine a
proper credit line. Rules in the knowledge base can also help asses risk and risk
management policies.
Pension fund advisors – The system maintains an up to date knowledge base to give
participants advice concerning the impact of regulation changes and conformance with new
standards
Automated help desk – This browser based tool enables small business to deal with
customer request more efficiently. Incoming emails automatically pass into the rule engine
and then sent to proper technician based on defined priority and status. The solution also
assists help desk technicians in resolving problems and tracking issues more efficiently.
Homeland security – It is designed to assess terrorists threats and provide assessment of
vulnerability to terrorist attack, indicators of terrorist surveillance activity and guidance for
managing interactions with potential terrorists.
Market surveillance system – It uses data mining rule based inference, knowledge based
data representation and NLP to monitor the stock markets and future markets for suspicious
patterns. The system generates 50 to 60 alerts per day for review by several groups of
regulatory analysts and investigators.
Business process reengineering systems – Reengineering involves the exploitation of
information technology to improve business processes. KBS are used in analysing the
workflow for business process reengineering.

Areas for ES application – ES have been applied commercially in a number of areas,

including the following
Finance – Includes insurance evaluation, credit analysis, tax planning, fraud prevention,
financial report analysis, financial planning and performance evaluation
Data processing – Includes system planning, equipment selection, equipment maintenance,
vendor evaluation and network management
Marketing – Includes CRM, market analysis, product planning and market planning
Human resource – Examples are human resources planning, performance evaluation, staff
scheduling, pension management and legal advising
Manufacturing- Includes production planning, quality management, product design, plant
site selection and equipment maintenance and repair
Health care management – Developed for bioinformatics and other health care
management issues

Structure of Expert Systems

ES can be viewed as having two environments the development environment which is used
by ES builder to build the necessary components of the ES and to populate the knowledge
base with appropriate representation of the expert knowledge and the consultation
environment which is used by the non-expert to obtain the advice and to solve problems
using the expert knowledge embedded into the system. The three major components that
appear in virtually every ES are the knowledge base, the inference engine and the user
interface. The ES contains the following additional components
• Knowledge Acquisition subsystem
• Blackboard (workplace)
• Explanation subsystem (justifier)
• Knowledge refining system
Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem – It is the accumulation, transfer and transformation of
problem solving expertise from experts or documented knowledge sources to computer
program for constructing and expanding the knowledge base. Potential sources of knowledge
include human experts, textbooks, multimedia documents, databases, special research
reports and information available on Web. Knowledge acquisition deals with issues such as
making tacit knowledge explicit and integrating knowledge from multiple sources. Acquiring
knowledge from experts is a complex task that often creates a bottleneck in ES construction.
In building large systems, a knowledge engineer or knowledge elicitation expert needs to
interact with one or more human experts in building the knowledge base. The knowledge
engineer helps the expert structure the problem area by interpreting and integrating human
answers to questions, drawing analogies, posing counter examples and bringing conceptual
difficulties to light
Knowledge Base – It is the foundation of ES. It contains the relevant knowledge necessary
for understanding, formulating and solving problems. A typical knowledge base has facts that
describe the characteristics of a specific problem situation and the theory of the problem area
and special heuristics or rules that represent the deep expert knowledge to solve specific
problems in a particular domain. The knowledge stored in the knowledge base of an ES is
often represented in special format so that it can be used by a software program to help
users solve a particular problem.
Inference Engine – It is the brain of an ES also known as the control structure or the rule
interpreter. This component is essentially a computer program that provides a methodology
for reasoning about information in the knowledge base and on the black board to formulate
appropriate conclusions. It provides directions about ow to use the systems knowledge v=by
developing the agenda that organizes and controls the steps taken to solve problems
whenever a consultation takes place.
User Interface – An ES contains a language processor for friendly problem oriented
communication between the user and the computer known as the user interface. This
communication can best be carried out in a natural language. Due to technological
constraints most existing systems use the graphical or textual question and answer approach
to interact with the user
Blackboard (Workplace) – It is an area of working memory set aside as a database for
description of the current problem. It is also used for recording intermediate results,
hypothesis and decisions. The types of decisions taken on a black board are plan, agenda
and solution.

Explanation Subsystem (Justifier) – It can trace the responsibility and explain the ES
behaviour by interactively answering the questions. In most ES the questions are answered
by sowing the rule that required asking a specific question and showing the sequence of the
rules that were used to derive the specific recommendations.

Knowledge Refining System – Human experts have a knowledge refining system that is
they can analyse their own knowledge and its effectiveness, learn from it and improve on it
for future consultations. Such evaluation is necessary in expert systems so that a program
can analyse the reasons for its success or failure which could lead to improvements resulting
in a more accurate knowledge base and more effective reasoning. The critical component of
a knowledge refinement system is the self-learning mechanism that allows it to adjust its
knowledge base and its processing of knowledge based on the evaluation of its recent past
performances.

Knowledge Engineering
The collection of intensive activities encompassing the acquisition of knowledge from human
experts and conversion of this knowledge into a repository are called knowledge engineering.
Knowledge engineering requires cooperation and close communication between the human
expert and the knowledge engineer to successfully codify and explicitly represent the rules
that a human expert uses to solve problems within a specific application domain. A major
goal of knowledge engineering is to help experts articulate how they do and what they do and
to document this knowledge in a reusable form. According to narrow perspective knowledge
engineering deals with the steps necessary to build the expert system and according to the
broad perspective the term describes the entire process of developing and maintaining any
intelligent systems. The following figure shows the process of knowledge engineering

A critical problem in the development of ES is the identification of the experts. This problem
can be solved by using multiple experts in the knowledge elicitation process. Some of the
advantages and shortcomings of multiple experts are given below
Four possible scenarios can be used when working with multiple experts
Individual experts – In this case several experts contribute knowledge individually. Using
multiple experts in this manner relieves the knowledge engineer of the stress associated with
multiple expert teams. However this approach requires that the knowledge engineer have a
means of resolving conflicts and handling multiple lines of reasoning.
Primary and secondary experts – A primary expert may be responsible for validating
information retrieved from other domain experts. Knowledge engineers may initially consult
the primary expert for guidance in domain familiarization, refinement of knowledge acquisition
plans and identification of potential secondary experts
Small groups – Several experts may be consulted together and asked to provide agreed
upon information. Working with small groups of experts allows the knowledge engineer to
observe alternative approaches to the solution of a problem and the key points made in the
discussion among experts
Panels – To meet the goals of ongoing development efforts a program may establish a
council of experts. The members of the council meet together at times for the purpose of
reviewing knowledge base development efforts, content and plans.

Production Rules – These are the most popular form of knowledge representation of an
expert system. It is represented in the form of condition/action pairs like
IF the stop light is red and you have stopped THEN the right turn is okay
Knowledge And Inference Rules – Knowledge rules or declarative rules state all the facts
and relationships about a problem. Inference rules or procedural rules offer advice on how to
solve a problem. The knowledge engineer separates the rules in which knowledge rules go to
knowledge base and inference rules become a part of inference engine. The knowledge rules
might look like
IF the inflation rate declines THEN the price of gold goes down
Inference rules might look like this
IF the data needed are not in the system THEN request them from the user
Inferencing – It is the process of using the rules in the knowledge base along with the known
facts to draw conclusions. It requires some logic embedded in a computer program to access
and manipulate the stored knowledge. This program controls the reasoning process and is
called inference engine or rule interpreter.
Development of Expert Systems
The development of ES includes the following parts
Defining the nature and the scope of the problem – This is the first step of ES where rule
based ES is appropriate when the nature of the problem is qualitative, knowledge is explicit,
and experts are available to solve the problems effectively and provide their knowledge.
Another important factor is to define a feasible scope. The current technology is still very
limited and is capable of solving smaller problems. Therefore the scope of the problem
should be specific and narrow.
Identifying proper experts – The next step is to find proper experts who have the
knowledge and are willing to assist in developing the knowledge base. No ES can be
designed without the strong support of knowledgeable and supportive experts. A proper
expert should have a thorough understanding of the problem-solving knowledge, the role of
the ES and decision support technology and good communication skills.
Acquiring knowledge – Knowledge acquisition is a time consuming and risky process.
Experts may be unwilling to share their knowledge because their knowledge is proprietary
and valuable or certain knowledge is tacit and the expert may not have the skill to dictate the
rules and considerations or they may be too busy to have enough time for communication or
certain knowledge may be confusing or contradictory in nature or the engineer may
misunderstand the expert and inaccurately document knowledge. The result of knowledge
acquisition is a knowledge base that can be represented in different formats like decision
trees or decision tables or if-then-else rules. The knowledge in the knowledge base must be
evaluated for its consistency and applicability

Selecting the building tool – After the knowledge base is built the next step is to choose a
proper tool for implementing the system. There are three different kinds of tools
General purpose development environment – Most programming languages support the
if-then statement, therefore it is possible to use C++ to develop an ES for a particular
problem domain. Because these programming languages do not have built in inference
capabilities using them is very time consuming and costly affair. Prolog and LISP are two
languages for developing intelligent systems. It is easier to use them than C++ but they are
still specifically designed for professional programmers and are not very friendly. For recent
Web based applications Java and computer languages that support Web services are also
useful.
ES shells – This tool is specifically designed for ES development. An ES shell has built-in
inference capabilities and a user interface, but the knowledge base is empty. System
development is therefore a process of feeding the knowledge base with rules elicited from the
expert.
Tailored turn-key solutions – This tool is tailored to a specific domain and can be adapted
to similar application very quickly. This tool contains specific features often required for
developing applications in a particular domain. This tool must adjust or modify the base
system by tailoring the user interface or relatively small portion of the system to meet the
unique needs of an organization.
Choosing an ES tool – Choosing among these tools foe ES development depends on few
criteria’s. Tailored turn-key solutions are the most expensive option and one must consider
the total cost and not just the cost of the tool. Secondly one must determine whether the tool
provides the functionality you need and how easily it allows the development team to make
necessary changes. Thirdly you must consider the tools compatibility with the existing
information infrastructure in the organization. Finally you need to consider the reliability and
vendor support of the tool
Coding the system – After choosing the tool the development team can focus on coding the
knowledge base on the tools syntactic requirements. The major concern at this stage is
whether the coding process is efficiently and properly managed to avoid errors. Skilled
programmers are helpful and important.
Evaluating the system – After the ES system is built it must be evaluated. Evaluation
includes both verification and validation, verification ensures that the resulting knowledge
base contains knowledge exactly the same as that required from the expert. In other words
verification ensures that no error occurred at the coding stage. Validation ensures that the
system can solve the problem correctly. In other words validation checks whether the
knowledge acquired form the expert can indeed solve the problem effectively

• Graded Questions
1. What is Knowledge Management?
2. What are the characteristics of Knowledge Management?
3. Write a short note on Explicit knowledge and Tacit knowledge
4. What are the reasons due to which people does not want to share knowledge?
5. Explain in brief what is knowledge creation?
6. What is knowledge sharing and knowledge seeking?
7. What is process approach in knowledge management
8. What is practice approach in knowledge management?
9. What are the best practices in knowledge management?
10. Write a short note on KMS cycle
11. What are the different AI methods used in KMS
12. Explain in brief Intelligent Agents
13. Write a short note on knowledge discovery in databases
14. How can KMS be integrated with AI?
15. What is the purpose of CKO?

• Multiple Choice Questions

1 _______________ strategy aims to enhance its operations by leveraging internal

and external expertise and assets, supporting exchange of knowledge among
individuals and groups
a Knowledge Management b Expert System
c Artificial Intelligence d All Of These

2 Knowledge is not subject to diminishing returns. When it is used it is not decreased

rather it is increased. Its consumers can add to it, thus increasing its value is
__________________
a Fragmentation, leakage and b Extraordinary leverage an increasing
the need to refresh returns
c Uncertain value d Value of sharing

3 An organization must continually refresh its knowledge base to maintain it as a source

of competitive knowledge is ______________
a Fragmentation, leakage and b Extraordinary leverage an increasing returns
the need to refresh
c Uncertain value d Value of sharing

4 It is difficult to estimate the impact of an investment in knowledge is ______________

a Fragmentation, leakage and b Extraordinary leverage an increasing returns
the need to refresh
c Uncertain value d Value of sharing

5 It is difficult to estimate the value of sharing one’s knowledge or even who will benefit
most from it means ________________.
a Fragmentation, leakage and b Extraordinary leverage an increasing returns
the need to refresh
c Uncertain value d Value of sharing
6 ______________ deals with more objectives, rational and technical knowledge.
a Explicit knowledge b Expressive knowledge
c Tacit knowledge d All of these

7 _________ is usually in the domain of subjective, cognitive and experimental learning.

a Explicit knowledge b Expressive knowledge
c Tacit knowledge d All of these

8 __________ is interplay between tacit and explicit knowledge and growing spiral as
the knowledge moves among the individual, group and organizational levels.
a Knowledge Creation b Knowledge Sharing
c Knowledge Seeking d Knowledge Operating

9 ___________is the wilful explication of one person’s ideas, insights, solution,

experiences to another individual via a computer based system or directly
a Knowledge Creation b Knowledge Sharing
c Knowledge Seeking d Knowledge Operating

10 _____________also refereed as knowledge sourcing is the search for and use of

internal organizational knowledge.
a Knowledge Creation b Knowledge Sharing
c Knowledge Seeking d Knowledge Operating

11 _____________ is neither a database nor a knowledge base but it stores knowledge

that is often text based and has very different characteristics.
a Process Approach b Practice Approach
c Hybrid Approach d Knowledge Repository

12 ___________ is a process used to search for and extract useful information from
volumes of documents and data.
a Knowledge discovery in b Extensible markup language
databases
c Intelligent Agents d Web 2,0

13 ___________ enables standard representations of data structures so that data can

be processed appropriately by heterogeneous systems without case-by-case
programming.
a Knowledge discovery in b Extensible mark-up language
databases
c Intelligent Agents d Web 2,0

14 ___________ has evolved from a tool for disseminating information and conducting
business to a platform for facilitating new ways of information sharing, collaboration
and communication in the digital age.
a Knowledge discovery in b Extensible markup language
databases
c Intelligent Agents d Web 2,0

15 ___________ contains the main knowledge management software including the

knowledge repository and provides access to other knowledge information and data
a Enterprise knowledge b Electronic document management
portals
c Knowledge servers d Knowledge harvesting tools
16 ________ attempts to codify organizational knowledge through formalized controls,
processes, and technologies
a Process approach b Practice approach
c Hybrid approach d Project approach

17 ___________assumes that a great deal of organizational knowledge is tacit in nature

and those formal controls, processes and technologies are not suited for transmitting this
type of understanding.
a Process approach b Practice approach
c Hybrid approach d Project approach

18 In __________ step of KMS cycle knowledge is created as people determine new ways
of doing things or develop knowhow.
a Capture Knowledge b Refine Knowledge
c Create Knowledge d Store Knowledge

19 In _________ step of KMS cycle new knowledge must be identified as valuable and be
represented in a reasonable way.
a Capture Knowledge b Refine Knowledge
c Create Knowledge d Store Knowledge

20 In _______ step of KMS cycle new knowledge must be placed in context so that it is
actionable
a Capture Knowledge b Refine Knowledge
c Create Knowledge d Store Knowledge