Kohn, B. Et Al. (2005)

Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry
Vol. 58, pp. 527-565, 2005 20

Copyright © Mineralogical Society of America
Visualizing Thermotectonic and Denudation Histories

Using Apatite Fission Track Thermochronology
Barry P. Kohn1, Andrew J.W. Gleadow1, Roderick W. Brown2,
Kerry Gallagher3, Matevz Lorencak1 and Wayne P. Noble1
1
School of Earth Sciences
The University of Melbourne
Melbourne, Australia 3010
2
Division of Earth Sciences, Centre for Geosciences
University of Glasgow
Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
3
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Imperial College London, South Kensington
London SW7 2AS, England
INTRODUCTION
Thermochronology, the use of temperature-sensitive radiometric dating methods to
reconstruct the time-temperature histories of rocks, has proved to be an important means of
constraining a variety of geological processes. In general, different depths within the Earth’s
crust are characterized by different temperature regimes and processes. Within the upper
crustal environment, temperature can often be used as a proxy for depth, so that reconstructed
cooling histories may reveal a record of rock movement towards the surface. That portion
of this process which involves temperature variations within the uppermost ~150–200 °C of
crustal depth has been the basis for the application of low temperature thermochronology
to a range of interdisciplinary problems in the Earth Sciences. The last fifteen or so years
have sparked widespread interest in this field and this proliferation has been driven in
part by advances in analytical techniques, numerical modeling, and fundamental changes
of perspectives on the significance of radioisotopic ages (e.g., McDougall and Harrison
1999; Gleadow et al. 2002a; Farley 2002). One area of rapidly growing interest, which has
provided unprecedented insights in this regard, has been the quantification in time and space
of surface processes and shallow crustal tectonism using low temperature thermochronology,
often combined with complementary techniques structural analysis, geomorphic, numerical
modeling, and cosmogenic isotope studies (e.g., House et al. 1998; Ehlers and Farley 2003;
Belton et al. 2004; Ehlers 2005).
One of the best established and most sensitive low temperature thermochronology
methods available for reconstructing such histories in the upper ~3–5 km of the continental
crust, over time scales of millions to hundreds of millions of years, is apatite fission track
(AFT) thermochronology which responds to temperatures of typically <110 ± 10 °C.
As for other thermochronological methods, fission track analysis involves a geological
dating technique in which the retention of radioactive decay products is sensitive to elevated
temperatures. Monitoring the degree to which a particular dating system has remained
closed with respect to retention of the daughter products enables the history of exposure to
elevated temperatures in the geological environment to be quantified. In many cases, such
thermochronometers give rise to apparent ages, which only rarely relate to the time the system
1529-6466/05/0058-0020$05.00 DOI: 10.2138/rmg.2005.58.20
528 Kohn, Gleadow, Brown, Gallagher, Lorencak & Noble
was initiated. These apparent ages reflect the record of the thermal and tectonic processes
which have controlled the evolution of such environments and the resulting long-term
denudation patterns at the Earth’s surface, rather than the original formation or depositional
ages of the rocks involved. In most cases, the apparent AFT ages obtained are “mixed” ages,
which reflect some integrated product of the low temperature thermal history of the crust.
Only in relatively few situations do they directly date a particular discrete geological event
involving rapid cooling. Therefore, the significance of regional AFT patterns is not always
obvious and non-specialists have often found such seemingly intractable and unwieldy data
difficult to interpret, resulting in an inability to fully visualize the implications of the results.
In this paper we show how large regional AFT data sets assembled from surface samples
collected from southeastern Canada, southern and eastern Africa, and southeastern Australia,
can be presented in ways that their patterns of variation can be readily understood. This allows
useful geological information to be extracted in a format that can be readily combined with
other large-scale data sets, e.g., digital elevation and heat flow. The terranes investigated
mainly comprise crystalline rocks where conventional stratigraphic markers and cross-cutting
relationships which might be useful for reconstructing their regional Phanerozoic tectonic
and exhumation history are largely absent. Imaging and visualizing that part of the thermal
history information contained in the AFT data therefore provides a regional framework, for
quantifying the spatial coherence and variability in the timing and magnitude of cooling and
crustal denudation, through a part of geological time, hitherto largely unconstrained in these
terranes.
APATITE FISSION TRACK THERMOCHRONOLOGY

The general principles of AFT thermochronology, the interpretation of data and their
application to geological problems have been outlined in several works (e.g., Wagner and
Van den haute 1992; Brown et al. 1994b; Gallagher et al. 1998; Gleadow and Brown 2000;
Gleadow et al. 2002a; Tagami and O’Sullivan 2005; Donelick et al. 2005). The process of
annealing and the ability to adequately constrain the thermal response of that behavior through
experiments on laboratory timescales is the key to the investigation of thermal histories by
fission track studies. Briefly, AFT annealing is a thermally activated process occurring over a
range of temperatures typically up to ~100–120 °C over geological time scales. With increased
levels of annealing, fission tracks become progressively shorter and once a rock cools to
the temperature range of relative track stability the tracks retain most of their full initial
length. During annealing, tracks will shorten to lengths largely controlled by the maximum
paleotemperature to which they have been exposed, so that fission track lengths can be used to
provide a measure of the amount of annealing that has occurred. Each individual track is added
by a radioactive decay event at a different time, and thus experiences a different fraction of the
thermal history. Hence, the lengths of individual tracks are related to the paleotemperatures
experienced by samples over different time intervals. Because of the numerous possible time-
temperature paths experienced by a particular sample, it is clear that an AFT age alone can be
interpreted in a number of ways (e.g., Gleadow and Brown 2000). Considering the AFT age
and length data together however, reflect a combination of the time over which tracks have
been retained as well as the thermal history of the host rock over that period. Integration of
the age and track length parameters can therefore place rigorous constraints on the history of
cooling through the fission track annealing zone, e.g., fast or slow cooling or more complex
types (Gleadow et al. 1986). Since apatite is the mineral for which annealing systematics are
best understood and because it typically contains uranium in the 1–100 ppm range and is a
common accessory mineral in many rock types, AFT thermochronology is almost universally
applicable to large areas of the Earth’s continental crust.
Visualizing Thermotectonic & Denudation Histories 529
THERMAL HISTORY MODELING

The kinetics of fission track annealing can be studied at higher temperatures for times
ranging from hours to years in the laboratory using controlled heating experiments on fresh,
neutron-induced 235U fission tracks. These are essentially identical to the natural 238U tracks
used in geological dating. Such laboratory annealing studies have given rise to quantitative
models of fission track annealing in apatite (e.g., Laslett et al. 1987; Corrigan 1991; Crowley
et al. 1991; Carlson et al. 1999; Donelick et al. 1999). These annealing models can in turn be
used to calculate the AFT age and track length distribution with the least amount of variance
that would result from any given thermal history on a geological time scale (e.g., Green et al.
1989; Ketcham et al. 1999). In order to extract the most plausible thermal histories from the
observed AFT data inversion modeling procedures are used. For modeling purposes various
mathematical approaches for sampling time-temperature space have been described (e.g.,
Corrigan, 1991; Lutz and Omar 1991; Gallagher 1995; Willett 1997) and several software
applications have been developed to automate the procedure (e.g., Crowley 1993; Gallagher
1995; Issler 1996; Ketcham et al. 2000; Ketcham 2005). Where possible any additional
geological information and temperature information can also be incorporated into models to
provide more relevant time-temperature constraints.
For the studies described here we have adopted the approach of Gallagher (1995)
which uses the algorithm reported by Laslett et al. (1987) to simulate the time-temperature
dependence of fission track annealing in apatite as determined from a detailed set of laboratory
experiments. The modeling procedure uses a stochastic search method for exploring a wide
range of possible thermal histories with statistical testing of the predicted fission track age and
length parameters against the observed values. Since the possible solutions that satisfactorily
match the observed data are not necessarily unique, a guided search by means of a genetic
algorithm (Gallagher and Sambridge 1994) is used to sort through a large search (typically
thousands) of potential thermal history histories. The maximum likelihood or probability
of each time-temperature path is assessed, providing rapid convergence towards an optimal
fit of the observed data. The model thermal history procedure can be refined to be locally
optimal and it is then possible to also define the confidence limits around a path (Fig. 1).
The application of such inverse approaches to AFT modeling has generally focused on the
thermal history inference for individual samples. Increasingly however, there is a necessity
to consider the results of thermal history modeling in a more regional context, using larger
sample arrays.
REGIONAL APATITE FISSION TRACK DATA ARRAYS

An important consequence of fission track annealing is that fission track ages in general,
gradually decrease from some observed value at the Earth’s surface to an apparent value of
zero at the depth where no fission tracks are retained. The depth to the base of this fission track
annealing zone will depend on the geothermal gradient and the annealing properties of the
particular apatites being studied (see below). The shape of an AFT age profile, such as may be
obtained in an area of high relief or from a deep borehole, will reflect the thermal history of the
rocks as they cooled through the annealing zone. Such profiles will vary for different thermal
history styles (Gleadow and Brown 2000).
The importance of such vertical arrays of samples is that they contain more information
than that which can be obtained from any individual sample alone (Gallagher et al. 2005).
Because of the fixed geometric relationship that the samples have to each other, in most cases
they are constrained to have followed essentially parallel temperature-time histories. Such
a sampling approach does not lend itself so readily to large continental regions where there
Thermal History Modeling

0
20
a)
40
60
80
Temperature (°C)
100
120
160 128 96 64 32 0
Best Thermal History

0
20 b)
40 95%
60
80
100 95%
120
160 128 96 64 32 0
Time (Ma)
Fission Track Length Distribution

20
c)
Number
Predicted
10
Observed
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Track Length (µm)
Observed FT data: Predicted FT data:

Age : 69.6 Ma Age : 69.7 Ma
Mean length: 12.24 µm Mean length: 12.16 µm
S.D.: 2.47 µm S.D.: 2.51 µm
Figure 1. Time-temperature inversion modeling of apatite fission track data. Panel (a) searching
time-temperature space, here defined by two boxes, using a Monte Carlo approach for a best-fit two
stage thermal history from some 10,000 randomly generated paths. The dark grey paths are those that
satisfactorily match the measured apatite fission track data (age, mean confined track length and confined
track length distribution). Panel (b) shows the optimal-fit thermal history path determined by employing
a guided search by means of a genetic algorithm (Gallagher and Sambridge 1994) and assessment of the
maximum likelihood of each path, with the 95% confidence limits around key points on the path. Panel (c)
histogram showing the observed track-length distribution compared with that predicted from the optimal-
fit thermal history path. The lowermost panel shows a numerical comparison of the input observed fission
track data and the predicted estimates of fission-track age, mean track length and standard deviation of the
track length distribution arising from the best-fit thermal history path shown in (b) above.
is relatively little relief (or minimal deep borehole data) and for which the assumption of a
common cooling history is clearly not appropriate. An alternative approach, suitable for the
rapid interpretation of large regional data sets of outcrop samples, is to sequentially model the
thermal histories for all samples in an array using a common search strategy. In this case the
thermal histories are not constrained by neighboring samples, as they would be in a vertical
profile but are free to vary independently from each other. However, using common search
parameters (e.g., fission track age, mean track length and track length distribution) and model
time-temperature space encourages consistency between the thermal histories for different
samples, and will reveal similarities if such information is implicit in the data. The results
of this modeling approach can then be interpolated spatially to link the paleotemperatures
for individual samples over a consistent set of time steps. Note that this approach does not
quantitatively link the thermal histories of nearby samples as in the partition modeling
approach described by Gallagher et al. (2005). However, this does represent an end member
case in that each sample is effectively allocated a separate partition.
QUANTIFYING LONG-TERM DENUDATION

AFT thermal history information may be related to thermal relaxation following
increased heat-flow (for example related to rifting), to localized magmatism, hot fluid flow or
to denudation at the land surface. Thermal modeling studies have thus far indicated however,
that the direct thermal effects of rifting are unlikely to be significant within the shallow crust
environment (≤ ~10 km) of the onshore regions of margins (e.g., Buck et al. 1988, Gallagher
et al. 1994b, Brown et al. 1994a). The movement of hydrothermal fluids in former cover
successions or structural pathways in crystalline basement may influence the AFT pattern in
some cases but generally this is viewed as a more localized effect (e.g., Steckler et al. 1993;
Duddy et al. 1994; Gleadow and Brown 2000; Gleadow et al. 2002b). Magmatism, also,
is mostly restricted locally rather than regionally in the areas reported here. Hence, most
cooling in the near-surface environment is dominated by tectonic and erosional denudation.
Therefore, a principal assumption in our studies is that it is usually the amount of denudation
and the pattern of tectonic offsets that causes the variation in apparent AFT ages at the land
surface. Consequently, AFT data can be used to reconstruct regional denudation patterns (e.g.,
Gallagher and Brown 1999a,b).
Assumptions and uncertainties
Paleotemperatures, heat flow and thermal conductivities. Estimates of long-term
denudation are made by converting temperature histories (typically estimated to have an
uncertainty of ~10 °C for the paleotemperature at any given point) to an equivalent depth
history by making assumptions regarding past heat flow and surface temperatures, as well
as the thermal conductivity of the material eroded (Gallagher and Brown 1999a; Gleadow
and Brown 2000; Brown et al. 2002). Where vertical profiles are available paleogeothermal
gradients may be estimated for time modeled maximum paleotemperatures prior to the onset
of cooling (e.g., Brown et al. 2002; Gallagher et al. 2005). For most situations however, where
only surface samples are available, it is difficult to constrain past paleogeothermal gradients
and the thermal conductivity of the missing section explicitly, unless some form of joint
modeling can be used (Gallagher et al. 2005). Region specific geothermal gradients may be
extracted from the global heat flow data set of Pollack et al. (1993) and these data suggest
that the range of continental gradients in Precambrian and Paleozoic crystalline terranes is
relatively restricted (with a mean between ~20–30 °C·km−1) and that large anomalies are
usually localized. Further, errors arising from anomalous transient thermal gradients could be
significant, but even in extreme cases are unlikely to be greater than a factor of ~2 (Gleadow
and Brown 2000). In sedimentary basins where thermal conductivities are generally lower
however, geothermal gradients may be more variable and it may also be possible to estimate
past gradients in conjunction with vitrinite reflectance studies (e.g., Bray et al. 1992).
Results using a constant as opposed to a spatially variable present day heat flow show that
in general, the timing of enhanced episodes of denudation do not differ markedly, although the
magnitude may vary (Kohn et al. 2002a; Gunnell et al. 2003; see also Fig. 2). This assumption
along with others (e.g., assumed constant thermal conductivity of the eroded section, surface
temperature and paleogeothermal gradient) clearly limit the accuracy of long-term denudation
rate estimates, which are considered here only as a first-order approximation (see also Brown
and Summerfield 1997).
60
a) Tasmania (constant Q) b) Tasmania (variable Q)
Denudation rate (m/m.y.)
50
14.5 µm
40
16.3 µm
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)
100 140
c) W. India - lowlands (16.3 µm) d) W. India - lowlands (14.5 µm)
120
Denudation rate (m/m.y.)
140 m/m.y.
80
Spatial average 100 Spatial average
Individual samples Individual samples
Weighted individual Weighted individual
60 samples 80 samples
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)
Figure 2. Long-term smoothed (spatially averaged) denudation chronology plots for Tasmania (a and b,
modified after Kohn et al. 2002) and the lowlands of western peninsular India (c and d, modified after
Gunnell et al. 2003). The spatial average (bold curve in all plots and light curve in plots a and b) is based
on interpolating the results over each study area; the individual sample curve (very light curve in plot b and
dashed curve, plots c and d) is the unweighted mean of the denudation chronology at individual locations;
the weighted sample curve (plots c and d, thin solid line) is the mean denudation at individual locations,
weighted by the uncertainty in the inferred thermal history for each location. The shaded area (plots c
and d) is the standard error on the weighted mean estimate and is considered to indicate the magnitude of
uncertainty inherent in the modeling procedure. Plots (a) and (b) also compare the effects of spatially and
temporally constant heat flow (60 mW·m−2) and spatially variable but temporally constant (i.e., present
day pattern) heat flow (Q). Use of different heat flow parameters leads to differences in magnitude of
denudation rates but with no marked change in the timing of periods of accelerated denudation. The effect
on denudation chronology of using initial track lengths of 16.3 µm (light line) and 14.5 µm (bold line) are
also shown (plots a and b, and plot c versus d). The utilization of initial track lengths of 16.3 µm for thermal
history modeling leads to the inference of major cooling and hence dramatically increased denudation rates
during the mid to late Tertiary (see text for further discussion).
If paleogeothermal gradients were elevated at the time of a particular period of denudation

compared to those of the present day then the actual magnitude of denudation would be lower
(as would the calculated long-term denudation rate). For the terranes reported here we have not
considered variations of heat flow with time, as we have no constraints on how this may have
occurred, except perhaps at some of the rifted continental margins. As mentioned previously
however, the influence of rift-related heat flow variations tend to be relatively minor in the rift
flanks where some of the onshore samples studied were collected (e.g., southeastern Australia,
southern and eastern Africa) and is expected to be even less significant elsewhere.
Compositional variations. Annealing properties of fission tracks in apatite vary with
duration of heating, chemical composition (Gleadow and Duddy 1981; Green et al. 1985;
Barbarand et al. 2003) and mineralogical properties (Carlson et al. 1999). The total annealing
temperature for chlorine-rich apatites for example, occur at higher temperatures ~110–150 °C
compared to that in the more common fluorine-rich apatites ~90–100 °C (e.g., Green et al.
1985; Burtner et al. 1994). Although chlorine substitution probably exerts the most important
effect, the possible influence of other trace elements (including rare earths) has also been
reported (Barbarand et al. 2003).
In the regions studied the rocks sampled are of limited compositional range (mostly
granites and granodiorites) and the apatites they contain are mainly fluorine-rich apatite. This
has been confirmed by electron microprobe analyses of a representative sampling of grains
(mostly < 0.2 wt% chlorine) and the qualitative consideration of apatite solubility in that the
track etching rate and etch pit size are known to correlate with chlorine content (Donelick
1993; Barbarand et al. 2003). Fast etching grains, likely to be of more extreme composition
and hence displaying different annealing properties (Burtner et al. 1994; Carlson et al. 1999),
were generally avoided for the AFT analyses presented here. However, in the case study from
southern Canada some higher chlorine content apatites were observed and their effect on the
measured AFT parameters can be clearly seen (Plate I). For other areas studied we consider
that the annealing properties of the apatites analyzed represent a coherent set in terms of
their annealing properties and do not depart to a significant degree from the Durango apatite
composition of ~ 0.4 wt% chlorine upon which the Laslett et al. (1987) annealing model is
based. It is probable that the average chlorine content will be lower than this Durango apatite
value suggesting that paleotemperatures reconstructed on this basis may be too high in some
cases, possibly by as much as ~ 10–15 °C, but are unlikely to be too low.
Modeling strategies. The annealing model of Laslett et al. (1987), the model adopted
here to obtain long-term denudation rates, is formulated in terms of the current measured track
length normalized to an initial track length. This is referred to as the reduced track length and is
defined as r = l/l0, where l and l0 are the annealed and “unannealed” track lengths, respectively.
In applications of the original model formulation, using an initial track length of 16.3 µm,
the lack of low temperature annealing typically leads to the inference of major cooling in the
geologically recent past (Kohn et al. 2002; Gunnell et al. 2003). This can be alleviated partly
by considering what the initial track length parameter represents in these annealing models.
Mean spontaneous track lengths from rapidly cooled geological samples rarely exceed ~14.5
to 15 µm while the mean lengths from “unannealed” induced tracks are typically 16.3 ± 0.9 µm
(Gleadow et al. 1986; Green 1988). Donelick et al. (1990) showed that the initial length of
induced tracks is not constant over very short times and that room temperature annealing
occurs in a matter of days. It is clear then, that the generally assumed initial track length is
itself a variable, implying that 16.3 µm may not be the relevant unannealed track length over
geological timescales. Hence, for geological timescales, spontaneous tracks may effectively
be ~10% shorter than that observed on laboratory timescales for induced tracks (Gleadow et
al. 1986; Laslett and Galbraith 1996, Ketcham et al. 1999). As a consequence, the Laslett et
al. (1987) model, based on the laboratory determined initial length does not appear to predict
sufficient annealing at temperatures lower than ~50–60 °C.
As a model calibrated for reduced track lengths depends strongly on the assumed initial
track length we have compared the effect of two initial track length values, i.e., 16.3 and 14.5
µm on the modeled thermal histories of two different terranes (Fig. 2). The former value is that
inferred for induced tracks, while the latter is consistent with the maximum value typically
observed from spontaneous tracks in surface geological samples, assumed to have undergone
little post-formation thermal disturbance. In considering regional denudation in this work we
have used the latter value. It is acknowledged that this is a departure from an initial length of
16.3 µm upon which the Laslett et al. (1987) model is based and that further refinement and
treatment of initial length estimates to account for the observed amount of annealing is required.
Strategic approaches to tackle this problem have been outlined by Gunnell et al. (2003).
Data for each sample from southern Africa, eastern Africa and southeastern Australia
were modeled to produce optimal data fitting thermal histories. As we are dealing entirely
with surface or very shallow samples, we used a scheme to encourage cooling in the thermal
history by starting models at high temperature and fixing the present day surface temperature
appropriate for the relevant study area. The points in-between can show cooling followed by
reheating (e.g., a saw tooth pattern). Rapid temperature variations are damped out as these
are poorly constrained by the original data and cannot resolve well the amount of cooling
below the subsequent reheating event. Further, any temperature points less than the maximum
of a more recent reheating event are moved so that the cooling only proceeds to 5 °C below
the subsequent reheating maximum, but such that the rate of the previous cooling event is
maintained. If there is more than one point in the cooling episode it is removed, as it makes
no difference to the data fit relative to the damped thermal history. This approach implicitly
minimizes variations in the thermal history that are unconstrained by the observed data, e.g.,
multiple episodes of heating and cooling.
Regional-scale imaging
A flow chart showing the various possible inputs and outputs which can be used
in applying fission track modeling to the imaging of thermal history, denudation and
paleotopography estimates is shown in Figure 3. By combining denudation information
with digital elevation data, it is possible to model the evolution of paleotopography. The
paleotopography is estimated by “backstacking” the amount of section removed by denudation
in a given time period onto the current surface elevation at that location and allowing the back-
stacked column to regain isostatic equilibrium (Brown 1991). This is achieved by using a
regional flexural isostasy using a thin plate model with an effective elastic thickness of 25 km
(Gallagher and Brown 1999b). Estimating the paleotopography between data points requires
adding the inferred overburden to a smoothed topographic surface and applying an isostatic
correction. Such reconstructed “paleoelevation” estimates need to be interpreted with some
caution as they only reflect the passive response to denudation unloading and do not take into
account any possible transient episodes of tectonic uplift, subsidence relative to the present
land surface or correction for local deformation and/or faulting.
As a consequence of propagating multiple sources of uncertainty from earlier stages, the
farther removed the information sought is from the primary fission track data (Fig. 3), the
greater will be the cumulative uncertainties associated with them. These include the analytical
uncertainties inherent in the data and the annealing model adopted, as well as uncertainties
in assumptions regarding paleoheat flow, thermal conductivity, surface temperatures, thermal
equilibrium in the crust when converting temperature to depth/denudation and isostatic
mechanisms when calculating paleoelevation. Subject to an awareness of these various
uncertainties a set of images can be constructed for any particular time-slice for which the
INPUTS Fission Track Data OUTPUTS
Fission track annealing model

Geological constraints, e.g. weathering
geochronology, stratigraphy
Fission track profiles

Paleothermometric indicators Timing of cooling
e.g. vitrinite reflectance and heating episodes
Thermal History
Heat flow data Paleotemperatures, cooling

rates, paleothermal gradients
Paleosurface temperature
Thermal conductivity of
removed section
Time integrated denudation flux
Denudation
Isostasy
Volume of section removed
Surface elevation
Effective elastic thickness
Present day digital terrain model Paleodrainage evolution
Paleotopography
Paleogeography
Figure 3. Flow chart showing the sequence of steps and possible inputs which can be used to determine
geologically useful outputs from regional apatite fission track data. It is also possible to display as images
the regional thermal history, magnitude of denudation and paleotopography for different time slices (see
text and Fig. 4 and Plates II-IV). Sources of error are cumulative so that uncertainties increase with
each step away from the original apatite fission track data (see text for further discussion on sources of
uncertainty) (modified after Kohn et al. 2002; Gleadow et al. 2002a).
modeled temperature remains within the AFT annealing window (Fig. 4). The resulting
individual time-temperature solutions can then be “stacked” and visualized as a sequence
of regional time-slice images which, when combined into a computer animation depict how
temperature, denudation and elevation of present day surface rocks have varied during their
passage through the upper crust (e.g., Gleadow et al. 1996; Gallagher and Brown 1999a,b;
Kohn et al. 2002). Although such images are extremely useful for visualizing the evolving
thermal history for large regional data sets, they can only be considered as broad estimations
because the process of bulk modeling and interpolation removes some of the detail that can be
obtained during an assessment of the thermal histories of individual samples.
To produce the images, interpolation of the modeled data was carried out with Generic
Mapping Tools software (Wessel and Smith 1991) using an adjustable tension, continuous
curvature surface gridding algorithm (Smith and Wessel 1990). Interpolation was performed
Temperature °C
0 120
0 0
1 1
2 2
Time
3 3
4 4
Figure 4. Derivation of paleotemperature images. Following the sequential thermal history modeling of
samples within a regional subset, a series of time-temperature curves (white lines, left panel) are derived.
Then for different nominal time slices (1-4) paleotemperatures for different samples (filled circles) can be
spatially interpolated on a regional map and compiled as a series of time-slice image stacks. Such stacks
can then be visualized as a time sequence (and also as a digital movie) showing how temperature of present
day surface rocks has varied through time. Such stacks can also be extended to image denudation and
paleotopography (see Fig. 3 and text).
across regional data sets for any particular parameter in a time-slice, e.g., paleotopography, but
masked to exclude regions where no data were available within a specifically defined distance.
Denudation chronologies
Thermal and denudation histories inferred from AFT data can also be summarized and
made more accessible by presenting the results in terms of their spatially integrated denudation
rate history. Whereas results from previously published work tend to emphasize the detailed
aspects of cooling histories of individual samples, the more regional representation quantifies
the average denudation rate as a function of time from multiple samples. This approach takes
the denudation chronology inferred for each sample and uses a nearest neighbor interpolation
method (Sambridge et al. 1995) to produce a spatial grid of denudation at each time scale.
This grid is then integrated spatially at successive time-slices to derive a regional denudation
chronology. This scheme satisfies the observed data exactly, and uses weighting based on the
spatial distribution of the data points to perform interpolation. This method does not rely on
splines (e.g., Mitas and Mitasova 1995), and so does not suffer from the common problem
of unconstrained features in the interpolated field. For the case histories presented from
Tasmania, southeastern Australia and the lowlands seaward of the Western Ghats escarpment,
India (Fig. 2) we interpolated the model results (e.g., paleotemperature, denudation) onto a
grid, with a spacing of approximately 10 km. We generated these spatial grids for the results
at 2 Ma intervals back to 300 Ma.
One easy way of representing the results is to integrate the spatial denudation information
for each time interval, to produce the locally averaged denudation rate as a function of time,
or denudation chronology (e.g., Gallagher and Brown 1999a,b). In Figure 2 we represent
the denudation chronologies both as the raw integrated estimates and five point smoothing
(i.e., over 10 Ma) on these estimates. The smoothing (the spatial average) is used because,
although discrete short cooling episodes (and by inference denudation) can occur, there is
some uncertainty on the timing, which is not incorporated into the interpolation/integration
process. Thus, the amplitude of such rapid cooling/denudation may not be as high as implied
by the raw estimates, or as rapid (Fig. 2b-d). The smoothed curves serve to highlight this
implicit uncertainty.
Clearly, as we are using interpolation, there will be some uncertainty and possible artifacts
in the denudation chronology as a consequence of the interpolation procedure (e.g., Brown
et al. 2001). There are various ways to assess this procedure, for example cross-validation
and bootstrapping (Efron and Tibshirani 1993) or using kriging as the interpolation scheme
(Isaaks and Srivastava 1989). We illustrate one very simple approach for western peninsular
India (Fig. 2c,d) where we compare the denudation chronology determined from spatial
interpolation and integration, with the denudation chronology averaged over the individual
samples, with no interpolation. We also show a weighted average denudation curve, where the
weighting is equivalent to the uncertainty on the individual thermal histories for each sample.
Our motivation for this is that features, which consistently appear in the different estimates of
the denudation chronology, are not likely to be artifacts of the interpolation process.
In making such first-order long-term denudation reconstructions some of the assumptions
as detailed above should be borne in mind, as all of them will introduce uncertainties. Such
assumptions clearly limit the accuracy of the denudation magnitude and rates, although the
timing of enhanced denudation phases appears to be robust to physically reasonable variations
in these parameters.
REGIONAL APATITE FISSION TRACK DATA ARRAYS

Southern Canadian Shield – record of a foreland basin across a craton
Geological overview. The Canadian Shield in Ontario consists mainly of the Archaean
Superior Province and Proterozoic Southern Province (Fig. 5). To the southeast, the craton is
bordered by the 1–1.3 Ga Grenville Province. The geological development of the shield has
been discussed by Hoffman (1988), Thurston et al. (1991) and Lucas and St-Onge (1998).
Southeastern Ontario was subjected to rifting during the Late Proterozoic, resulting in the
formation of graben structures such as the Ottawa-Bonnechère and Lake Timiskaming grabens
(e.g., Kumarapelli 1985 and Fig. 5). Transition to a compressional regime followed during
the Paleozoic, characterized by accretion of the Appalachian Orogen to the southeast. Three
principal orogenic phases are usually distinguished: the Late Ordovician Taconic orogeny, the
Late Devonian Acadian orogeny and the Carboniferous-Permian Alleghenian orogeny. On the
shield itself, a number of structural arches developed during the Paleozoic. These represent
areas of repeated cratonic uplift and criss-cross the craton in dominant northeast and northwest
trends; basement arch movements may have been triggered and controlled by plate motions
and related orogenic activity at or beyond the margins of the craton (e.g., Sanford et al. 1985
and Fig. 5). Paleozoic intracratonic basins; Moose River Basin to the north, Williston Basin to
the west and Michigan Basin to the south are located in depressions between the arches and
surround the craton (Fig. 5), their formation is however poorly understood. While today the
basins are deeply eroded, outliers of Mid-Ordovician sediments in Eastern Ontario suggest a
greater paleo-extent of sediments and burial of parts of the craton during the Paleozoic.
Present day heat flow of both the Superior and Grenville Provinces is similar, with
average values of 42 ± 10 mW·m−2 and 41±11 mW·m−2, respectively (Guillou-Frottier et al.
1995; Mareschal et al. 2000). Major spatial and temporal variations are not observed, and the
study area can be considered as a single heat flow province (Guillou-Frottier et al. 1995).
538
96W 88W 80W 72W
ch
Ar Structural arch
ria
Ma
tta Graben boundary
Se
nrie
LTG: Lake Timiskaming Gr
ve
He
rn
pe OBG: Ottawa-Bonnechere Gr
Ar
Ca
ch
Orogenic front
Berens River
52N 52N
Moose River
Basin
ch
Figure 5. Geological Ar
map of the southeastern Lake Nipigon le
WINNIPEG da
Canadian shield and er
as
adjacent sedimentary Fr
basins, showing major Williston
tectonic units, struc-
tures and apatite fission 48N Basin LTG 48N
Lake Superior A rch
track sample locations. an
r enti
SUDBURY u
Archaean Superior Province La
OBG
Proterozoic Southern Province OTTAWA
Grenville Province Lake Huron
c h
Appalachian Orogen Ar
n
ui
Kohn, Gleadow, Brown, Gallagher, Lorencak & Noble
44N Phanerozoic sediments nq 44N

go
Michigan Al
Sample location
Basin 0 100 200 km
Brent impact crater
96W 88W 80W 72W

Sampling for this regional reconnaissance study focused on the exposed part of the
Canadian Shield and the Grenville Province across Ontario, following major roads and
extending from easternmost Manitoba to Ottawa (Fig. 5). Fernando Corfu also provided a
series of apatite samples from the Berens River province in western Ontario (Fig. 5), from
which U-Pb apatite studies had been previously carried out (Corfu and Stone 1998). Regional
surface sampling is complemented by 19 samples from a 3440 m deep drillhole in the Sudbury
Igneous Complex (Lorencak et al. 2004).
Fission track results. AFT analysis was carried out on 93 samples and the regional
distribution of central fission track ages and mean track lengths for apatites are shown in Plate
Ia and b respectively. Apparent AFT ages range from ~600–140 Ma and all are considerably
younger than the age of crystallization or metamorphism of their host rocks. The oldest ages
are found north of Lake Superior, mainly ~500 Ma and these decrease to ~350–400 Ma
towards western Ontario and the Berens River area. A similar decrease in age is observed
towards the east; northeast of Lake Superior and north of Lake Huron, where most apparent
AFT ages fall around ~350–400 Ma. This pattern changes progressively towards southeastern
Ontario. There, a relatively rapid decrease in apparent AFT ages across the southern Superior
and Grenville Provinces, with the youngest ages of ~140−160 Ma are observed in the vicinity
of the present-day sedimentary cover of the shield.
Apatite chemistry was determined by electron microprobe analysis on representative
samples and also estimated qualitatively from etch pit diameters in other samples. Most
samples are fluorapatite with only a trace of chlorine (up to 0.03 wt%). The exception is from
a few samples surrounding Lake Nipigon in central Ontario (Plate I) from the Nipigon diabase,
where apatite chlorine content of up to 1.0 wt% was measured.
Mean horizontal confined track lengths (HCTL) range from 13.8–10.5 µm. Most fall
into the range of ~11.5–12.2 µm across much of central and western Ontario. One noticeable
exception is the few samples from the relatively chlorine-rich apatites of the Nipigon diabase.
A second group of relatively long mean HCTL is noticeable in the northeast of the study area
along the Fraserdale Arch. Similarly to the apparent AFT ages however, the most prominent
change in the mean HCTL pattern is observed towards the southeast, where the increase in
mean track lengths mirrors the decrease of AFT ages.
Thermotectonic history. Thermal histories of areas in the study region featuring the oldest
apparent AFT ages, immediately north of Lake Superior and between the Cape Henrietta
Maria and Fraserdale Arches (Plate Ia) are difficult to constrain due to the lack of independent
geological observations. Time-temperature models suggest a mid-Paleozoic heating-cooling
event, during which some of the tracks were partially annealed, followed by cooling during the
Late Paleozoic. Further north and west, where the apparent AFT ages decrease to ~350−400
Ma, cooling was probably significantly slower and extended into the Mesozoic.
By contrast, in the eastern half of Ontario geological information provides more independent
controls for the modeled thermal histories. In the Lake Timiskaming Graben in eastern Ontario,
Mid-Ordovician clastic sediments directly overlie the crystalline basement, implying that the
present day outcrops of the shield must have been close to the surface in early Paleozoic time.
Similarly, undeformed sediments of the same age range fill the ~450 Ma Brent impact crater in
southeastern Ontario (Fig. 5). Such constraints can be included into time-temperature models,
such as applied to the Sudbury profile (Figs. 5 and 6) (Lorencak et al. 2004).
In the northeastern corner of the study area, along the Fraserdale Arch, a few samples
display greater mean track lengths, but with apparent AFT ages in a range similar to the
surrounding region (Plate Ia). Models suggest peak paleotemperatures of near-total annealing
during Silurian-Early Devonian time, followed by Carboniferous cooling.
C O S D C P Tr J K T
T(°C)
20
40
60
80 PAZ
100
120 T A
Time [Ma] 600 480 360 240 120 0
T: Taconic A: Alleghenian orogeny

Acadian orogeny
Figure 6. Modeled t-T paths from a near-surface sample in the Sudbury drill hole. Three equally possible
best-fit paths are shown, all overlapping within 95% confidence intervals (represented by shaded areas) and
each determined from 1500 model iterations, following the procedure of Gallagher (1995). Timing of the
three main stages of the Appalachian orogeny are shown for comparison. PAZ = apatite partial annealing
zone (modified after Lorencak et al. 2004).
Progressing towards the south however, observed track length distributions change.
While most of the region north of Lake Huron retains the record of a Paleozoic thermal event,
progressive younger thermal overprinting is observed. This is documented by the decrease of
apparent AFT ages towards the southeast (Plate Ia), until complete resetting is attained in the
Grenville Province, as indicated by Mesozoic AFT ages and a significant increase in mean
HCTL (Plate Ib).
Geological implications of the thermal event, reflected in the AFT data from southeast
Ontario, can be found in the Michigan Basin immediately south of the study area. The basin
contains ~4.5 km of Paleozoic sediments ranging in age from Late Cambrian to Pennsylvanian
(Fischer et al. 1988). Only ~200 m of Pennsylvanian age section is preserved and this is
directly overlain by local, thin Jurassic red beds. Nevertheless, evidence from organic
indicators suggests a greater overburden existed in late Paleozoic time. Vitrinite reflectance
values (R0) of the surface rocks are >0.55 and the Thermal Alteration Index values (TAI) >2.5
(Cercone 1984; Cercone and Pollack 1991). In the central and northern part of the basin, the
oil window (R0 >0.65 or TAI >0.65) extends up to 500 m below the present surface (Cercone
1984). Hydrocarbons from Silurian and Devonian strata similarly require either higher
paleotemperatures for their in-situ generation or alternatively their upward migration by up
to 2 km, in some cases through impermeable salt beds (Nunn et al. 1984). On the shield itself,
AFT studies carried out on a vertical profile from a 3440 m deep drill hole in Sudbury suggest
Permo-Triassic heating followed by Late Triassic-Early Jurassic cooling (Lorencak et al.
2004). This cycle has also been previously observed using AFT analysis in other parts of the
shield and the Michigan Basin (Crowley 1991).
The present data set also records Permo-Triassic heating followed by Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic cooling; this is in accord with the geological observations described above and with
the timing suggested by previous work. The most likely cause for a regionally coherent AFT
a) 100W 96W 92W 88W 84W 80W 76W 72W

Manitoba Ontario Quebec
54N
350
52N
Ma
450
400
0
40
35
0
0
500
550
40
50N
0
40
50
0
500
350
450
40
0 450
0
35
48N
30
0 400
250
200 350
46N
300
USA 250
44N
35
0 200
150
42N
b) 100W 96W 92W 88W 84W 80W 76W 72W

Manitoba Ontario Quebec
54N
52N
11.5
µm
12
.5
12
13
50N 13.5
12
.5
12
12
13.0
.5
48N
11
.5
11 11
.5 12.5
12
12.5
46N 12.0
USA
11.5
44N
11.0
42N
Plate I. Interpolated contour plots of apatite fission track results from surface samples across the
southeastern Canadian shield showing: (a) the distribution of apparent apatite fission track “central” ages,
and (b) the mean horizontal confined fission track lengths (HCTL) in microns (modified after Lorencak
2003). See also caption for Plate III for information on contouring procedure.
a) Paleotemperature (°C)
110 110 110

90 90 90
70 70 70
50 50 50
20 030 Ma 20 090 Ma 20 150 Ma
b) Denudation (km)
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 030 Ma 0 090 Ma 0 150 Ma
c) Paleotopography (km)
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 030 Ma 0 090 Ma 0 150 Ma
Plate II. Images showing the reconstructed (a) paleotemperatures experienced by rocks now at the surface,
(b) the amount of denudation, and (c) an estimated reconstruction of paleotopography for southern Africa
for four three separate time-slices; Late Jurassic (150 Ma), mid Cretaceous (90 Ma) and Oligocene (30
Ma). Paleotopography is based on “back-stacking” the present topography using the digital elevation data
with the estimated amount of denudation and adjusting for an effective elastic thickness (Te) of 25 km
(see Fig. 3 and Gallagher and Brown 1999a; Gleadow and Brown 2000). See also caption for Plate III for
information on contouring procedure.
Plate III. (caption continued from facing page)

Data Center, Boulder. Colorado, USA) Global Heat Flow data set and is compiled from the work by
Pollack et al. (1993). White circles indicate measurement localities, (e) contour images of post Early
Jurassic temperature evolution in five time slices (180 Ma, 120 Ma, 90 Ma, 60 Ma and 30 Ma) of apatite
fission track samples from eastern Africa and (f) contour images of the amount of cumulative post Early
Jurassic denudation occurring across eastern Africa. The slices were generated by contouring the product
of paleotemperature estimates (e) geothermal gradient (based on estimates displayed in d). Contouring of
data shown in (a) to (f) was accomplished using GMT-3 (Generic Mapping Tools version 3.0 (Wessel and
Smith 1991) using the commands of Surface and Blockmean with a contour interval of 30″ (background
topography as for Fig. 7). Areas of no data control have been masked out using the command psmask
(GMT-3.0) using a confidence interval of 1°. Note that only samples with age, track length and standard
deviation information were used to generate the images shown in (e) and (f), therefore not all samples show
in (a) were used for image compilation.
a) b) c) d)
28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E 28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E 28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E 28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E
4°N
0°
4°S
°C/km
Elevation 8°S 55
km
3.3 45
12°S 35
1.8 25
1.2 16°S
15
0.6
0 5
km Apatite FT age (Ma) Mean track length (µm)
0 500
100 200 300 400 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
e) Paleotemperature (°C)
180 Ma 120 Ma 90 Ma 60 Ma 30 Ma
28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E
T °C
140
100
50
20
Elevation
km
3.3
1.8
1.2
0.6
0 km
0 500
f) Denudation (km)
180 Ma 120 Ma 90 Ma 60 Ma 30 Ma
Denudation 28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E
km
6
4
2
0
Elevation
km
3.3
1.8
1.2
0.6
0 km
0 500
Plate III. Contour images of the AFT data collected in eastern Africa (generated using GMT-3, Wessel
and Smith 1991); (a) sample locality map – green dots for samples collected in studies reported by Noble
et al. (1997) and Noble (1997), red dots for samples collected in previous studies to that of Noble and
co-workers (see text for further details), (b) contour image of apatite fission track ages, (c) contour image
of apatite fission track mean lengths, (d) contoured present geothermal gradient values across eastern
Africa used to derive the denudation estimates (see f). Data is from NGDRC’s (National Geophysical
(caption continued on previous page)
a) Paleotemperature (°C)
110 110 110 110

90 90 90 90
70 70 70 70
50 50 50 50
0 200 Ma 0 150 Ma 0 100 Ma 0 60 Ma
b) Denudation (km)
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
0 200 Ma 0 150 Ma 0 100 Ma 0 60 Ma
c) Denudation rate (m/Ma)
150
150 150 150 150
100
100 100 100 100
60
60 60 60 60
30
30 30 30 30
10
10
200
200Ma
Ma 10 150 Ma 10 100 Ma 10 60 Ma
d) Cooling rate (°C/Ma)
8 8 8 8
4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
200 Ma 150 Ma 100 Ma 0 60 Ma
e) Paleotopography (m)
3300
3300 3300 3300 3300
1800 1800 1800 1800

1200 1200 1200 1200
600
600 600 600 600
00 200 Ma 0 150 Ma 0 100 Ma 0 60 Ma
Plate IV. (caption on facing page)

pattern is burial under a sedimentary cover. We suggest that burial by foreland basin sediments
shed from the Alleghenian Orogen has left a thermal imprint on the underlying southern
Ontario shield rocks. The thickness of the sediments was sufficient to totally reset the AFT
clocks (>~110 °C) in most of the Grenville Province. The thickness however rapidly decreased
away from the orogen towards the north, resulting in only partial annealing of shield rocks on
the southwestern flank of the Severn Arch, north of Lake Huron and east of Lake Superior.
Along the Fraserdale Arch, and to the north of Lake Superior, no discernable thermal effect by
the proposed burial is recorded by the AFT data.
In summary, the entire transect across the Canadian Shield in Ontario records a Paleozoic
heating-cooling event, at least for the eastern half of the province, where the modeled time-
temperature paths are well constrained. This heating is most likely associated with burial
under sedimentary cover related to the Taconic orogeny, which remains preserved in outliers
on the shield. The thermal signature of this event is progressively overprinted in the southeast
Ontario shield by later burial under Alleghenian foreland sediments. No evidence for thermal
effects related to the Acadian orogeny has been observed. This may reflect the possibility that
none ever existed, that they are too subtle to be differentiated within the limits of modeling
precision or that the effects of later thermal overprinting has removed such a record. It is very
likely however, that large parts of the shield remained buried beneath a sheet of sediments
throughout the Paleozoic and parts of the Mesozoic, as also implied independently by the work
Patchett et al. (2004).
Southern Africa – formation and evolution of a continental interior
Geological overview. The pre-break-up geological evolution of southern Africa was
dominated by the development of the Paleozoic-Mesozoic Karoo Basin. The Karoo Basin
in South Africa formed as an extensive foreland basin ahead of the Cape Fold Belt (CFB)
during the Early Permian (Tankard et al. 1982; Söhnge and Hälbich 1983). Thick sedimentary
sequences accumulated along the southern margin of the CFB, but the sequence thins rapidly
northwards forming a relatively thin cover (c. 1–2 km) over the Archaean and Proterozoic
basement rocks in the cratonic interior. Remnants of the Permian Dwyka Formation tillites
(basal Karoo) occur in exhumed paleovalleys where they underlie elevated river terraces
(Martin 1953, 1973). These glacial deposits and striated bedrock surfaces, such as those
exposed at Nooitgedagt (near Kimberly, South Africa), indicate that the present land surface
represents an exhumed Permo-Carboniferous landscape in places (Visser 1987, 1995). The
Clarens Formation aeoliantites (top Karoo) in South Africa (Dingle et al. 1983) have a
maximum thickness of 300 m in the upper Orange River valley, but are generally about 100
m thick. This unit indicates terrestrial, semi-arid paleoclimatic conditions across southwestern
Gondwana from the latest Triassic to earliest Cretaceous. Sedimentation within the Karoo
Basin was terminated abruptly by the eruption of voluminous and extensive lavas of the Karoo
continental flood basalts (~183 Ma) and the Paraná-Etendeka CFB (~132 Ma), which are up to
1.4 km thick in places (Erlank et al. 1984; Hawkesworth et al. 1992; Renne et al. 1996). After
eruption of the Paraná-Etendeka flood basalts the surface geology is dominated by the thin
(generally <200 m) Kalahari basin, which covers much of central southern Africa (Thomas
Plate IV (on facing page). Images showing the reconstructed paleotemperatures experienced by rocks now
at the surface, their cooling rate, amount of denudation, rate of denudation and an estimated reconstruction
of paleotopography for southeastern Australia for four separate time-slices; Early Jurassic (200 Ma), Late
Jurassic (150 Ma), mid Cretaceous (100 Ma) and Paleocene (60 Ma). Paleotopography is based on “back-
stacking” the present topography using the digital elevation data with the estimated amount of denudation
and adjusting for an effective elastic thickness (Te) of 25 km (see Fig. 3; Gallagher and Brown 1999a;
Gleadow and Brown 2000). See also caption for Late III for information on contouring procedure. Note
samples from the Murray Basin area (Fig. 9) have not been included for generation of the image.
and Shaw 1990). The age of the base of the Kalahari basin sequence is thought to be Late
Cretaceous to earliest Tertiary (Ward 1988; Thomas and Shaw 1990; Partridge 1993).
Continental break-up. Continental rifting between South America and Africa began
during the Middle Jurassic (~150 Ma) (Nürnberg and Müller 1991). The rifting seems to have
propagated south from the Falklands Agulhas fracture zone northwards towards the Walvis
Ridge-Rio Grande Rise. The oldest magnetic anomaly clearly identifiable on oceanic crust
on both the African and South American plates is M4 (130 ± 1 Ma), while further north near
the Walvis Ridge the oldest identified anomaly is M0 (~125 Ma). Continental break-up was
accompanied by syn- and post-breakup reactivation of pre-existing basement features such
as the Central African and Mwembeshi shear zones (Coward and Potgieter 1983; Coward
and Daly 1984; Daly et al. 1989) and involved significant intraplate deformation within west,
central and southern Africa (Fairhead 1988; Unternehr et al. 1988; Fairhead and Binks 1991;
Binks and Fairhead 1992; Brown et al. 2000). This later period of intracontinental deformation
has been ascribed to shear stresses related to major changes in the geometry and relative
motions of the plates involved in the opening of the Central and South Atlantic ocean basins.
Although rifting began in the Middle Jurassic and break-up finally occurred during the
Early Cretaceous the major volume of sediment within the Orange and Walvis basins was
deposited during the Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary (Brown et al. 1995; Rust and Summerfield
1990). Rust and Summerfield (1990) determined that this volume of ~2.8 × 106 km3 (adjusted
to equivalent rock volume) is equivalent to an average depth of denudation of 1.8 km over the
whole of the Orange River catchment (an area of 1.55 × 106 km2). The sedimentary record in
the offshore basins clearly indicates that the continent has experienced very significant amounts
of denudation (an average of 1.8 km) since the Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous. However,
the chronology and spatial distribution of onshore denudation are likely to have been highly
variable, depending on the post break-up tectonics, the pattern of drainage development, style
of landscape evolution, lithological heterogeneity and long-term climatic variations.
Fission track results. A substantial set of AFT data (several hundred samples in total)
has been collected from southern Africa. While the coverage is still sparse over large areas,
the available data do provide some important new insights into the timing and distribution of
long-term denudation at a sub-continental scale. The stratigraphic ages of samples analyzed
range from Precambrian (Namaqua metamorphic belt) to Late Triassic (Stormberg Group,
Upper Karoo Sequence). Despite this wide range of stratigraphic ages virtually all samples
analyzed yielded AFT ages ranging between 166 ± 6 Ma and 70 ± 5 Ma (i.e., Cretaceous), with
a conspicuous lack of younger AFT ages. AFT ages predating break-up at ~134 Ma were only
obtained from samples in the interior regions of the continent and at elevations in excess of
~1500 m. Significantly, however, this is not a general characteristic of the continental interior,
as some of the youngest ages (~70 Ma) were obtained from samples 600 km inland. AFT ages
generally increase systematically with increasing elevation for specific localities.
The fact that all of the AFT ages are significantly younger than the stratigraphic age of
the host rocks indicates that all the sampled rocks have been subjected to substantially higher
temperatures in the past (mostly >~110 °C). Almost all the samples with Cretaceous AFT
ages have mean confined track lengths >~12.5 to ~13 µm. The distributions of track lengths
within these samples are generally unimodal with the mode between ~13 and 14 µm, and are
generally negatively skewed with “tails” of shorter tracks (<~10 µm). This shows that most
of the tracks have experienced only a moderate degree of thermal annealing (shortening) at
temperatures <~70 °C. The majority of the samples must therefore have cooled from maximum
paleotemperatures close to or greater than ~110 °C during the Cretaceous.
Quantitative images. Here we assumed that the eroded rock had an average thermal
conductivity of 2.2 W·m·K−1 and used surface heat flow data from Brazil and southern
Africa (Pollack et al. 1993) to derive estimates of the near surface temperature gradient. This
approach accounts for spatially varying thermal gradients. Temporally varying heat flow and
conductivity values, as derived from an independent thermal model for continental rifting for
example, could easily be incorporated into the methodology but have not been in this paper.
In Plate IIa, we present maps showing the estimated paleotemperature at three times, 150
Ma, 90 Ma and 30 Ma of rocks presently outcropping on the surface. The earliest time broadly
represents the time of continental break-up around southern Africa. For regions covered by the
Late Cretaceous-Tertiary Kalahari basin sediments within southern Africa (Thomas and Shaw,
1990) paleotemperatures were set to the surface temperature during periods of deposition. The
paleotemperature estimates were converted to equivalent depth as described above and maps
representing the amount of denudation for each time are shown in Plate IIb and the estimated
paleotopography in Plate IIc.
Thermotectonic history. At a regional scale the long-wavelength geomorphic response to
continental rifting and break-up, indicated by the chronology and magnitude of denudation,
varied significantly along the margins. For example, the substantial amounts of post-rift
denudation indicated for the southwestern African margin probably reflects the geometry and
timing of post-rift tectonic reactivation of major intracontinental structures (e.g., Raab et al.
2002). Overall the AFT data from southern Africa are consistent with models of landscape
development which predict a major phase of denudation following continental rifting (e.g.,
Kooi and Beaumont 1994; Gilchrist et al. 1994; Brown et al. 2002). The chronology and rates
of denudation inferred from the AFT results are also broadly similar to estimates derived from
the offshore sedimentary record (Brown et al. 1990; Rust and Summerfield 1990). However,
the timing and distribution of denudation is not compatible with simple escarpment retreat
models following break-up, which predict only moderate amounts (≤~1 km) of post-rift
denudation inland of the margin escarpments. This is particularly true for southwestern Africa,
and is partly a consequence of the post break-up tectonic history of the continental interior.
A possible explanation of this discrepancy is that discrete tectonic episodes, inferred to have
occurred during the Late Cretaceous and which included reactivation of major intracontinental
structures, caused locally accelerated phases of denudation to be superimposed on the secular
regional pattern. Alternative explanations for the observed pattern and history of denudation
across the sub-continent which incorporate the recently documented dynamic uplift history of
the African Superswell (e.g., Lithgow-Bertelloni and Silver 1998; Gurnis et al. 2000; Conrad
and Gurnis 2003; Behn et al. 2004) during Cretaceous-Tertiary time will likely provide a
more complete explanation for the spatially and temporally variable geomorphic history as
documented using the regional imaging approach to analyzing thermochronologic data sets.
Eastern Africa – development of an intracontinental rift system
Geological overview. The crustal-scale mobile belts in East Africa formed during
different Precambrian and early Paleozoic orogenic episodes (Shackelton 1986; Muhongo
1989; Stern 1994; Noble et al. 1997). Following the latest of these events, the Pan-African
(~900−550 Ma), eastern Africa underwent a period of relative quiescence. This resulted in a
phase of extensive peneplanation (Stagman 1978; Wopfner 1986), which was finally disrupted
in Late Carboniferous-Early Permian time when the embryonic motions of the break-up of
Gondwanaland commenced and sediments started to accumulate in basins of eastern Africa
(e.g., Stagman 1978; Lambiase 1989; Kreuser et al. 1990; Wopfner and Kaaya, 1991).
The subsequent Phanerozoic geological history of eastern and central Africa has been
dominated by continental extension (Daly et al. 1989; Lambiase 1989). This process has
strongly influenced the regional geomorphology and led to the formation of widely recognized
rift basins throughout East Africa (Reeves et al. 1987; Fairhead 1988; Daly et al. 1989;
Lambiase 1989). It is also well documented that many post-Proterozoic faults that define these
basins and adjacent horst blocks were formed by the reactivation of pre-existing structures in
the mobile belts (e.g., Gregory 1896; Smith and Mosley 1993; Smith 1994).
In Jurassic time the development of a triple junction centred on what is now the Lamu
Embayment (Fig. 7) led to seafloor spreading between Africa and Madagascar and the
development of the East African passive margin (Reeves et al. 1987). The Anza Rift, which
extends northwest from the Lamu Embayment as far as Lake Turkana (Fig. 7), is the failed
arm of this Jurassic triple junction (Reeves et al. 1987). The Anza Rift was periodically
reactivated with major periods of extension and sedimentation in the Early and Late
Cretaceous and continuing through to Oligocene time (Reeves et al. 1987; Greene et al. 1991;
Bosworth and Mosely 1994). The Cretaceous extensional episodes marked the eastern limit
of intracontinental deformation in the west and central African rift system, which forms a
series of rift basins and transform faults that developed in response to differential movement
between continental fragments during opening of the South Atlantic Ocean (Fairhead 1988;
Daly et al. 1989). Each of the rifting episodes in the Anza Rift led to regionally extensive
erosional denudation of basement rocks in East Africa (Foster and Gleadow 1992a, 1993a,
1996; Noble et al. 1997).
In Late Oligocene to Early Miocene time, extension related to the Kenya Rift began in
north Kenya (e.g., Morley et al. 1992). The present morphology of the Kenya Rift itself is
a result of continental extension that has been taking place from Miocene to Recent times
(Baker et al. 1972). A nascent continuation of the eastern branch of the East African Rift
System, which represents an initial stage of development for a propagating rift, is observed in
eastern Tanzania (Fig. 7). Some of the present topography and structural architecture of the
Kenya Rift area is probably related to older rifts, such as the Anza Rift and Lamu Embayment
(Reeves et al. 1987).
Fission track results. Over 430 AFT ages have been determined across eastern Africa and
these are reported in several studies (Gleadow 1980; van den Haute 1984; Wagner et al. 1992;
Foster and Gleadow 1992a, 1993a, 1996; Mbede et al. 1993; van der Beek 1995; Eby et al.
1995; Noble 1997; Noble et al. 1997; van der Beek et al. 1998). About 350 of these results also
have accompanying track length determinations and the localities for these samples are shown
in Plate IIIa, along with the AFT data summarized in interpolated images presented in Plate
IIIb-c. Sampling strategies varied according to the particular study, but where quantitative
images were constructed (Plate IIIe-f) most samples used were based on data reported by
Foster and Gleadow (1992a, 1993a, 1996), Noble (1997) and Noble et al. (1997). These
samples were mainly derived from suites collected systematically with elevation or across
important structural blocks and regional trends, and also sampled to provide insights into the
low temperature thermal effects of rift propagation and the response of cratonic crust during
Phanerozoic rifting episodes (Plate IIIa).
AFT ages are generally <250 Ma, with two prominent groupings (Plate IIIb): <100 Ma
along the coastal area and in northern Kenya and ~100 to 250 Ma inland in Kenya (E39°:S5°
and E37°:N4°), Tanzania (E35°:S7°), Rwanda (E30°:S9°) and northern Zimbabwe (E30°:
S16°). The youngest ages (≤50 Ma) are confined to the margins of Phanerozoic basins, i.e., the
Anza Rift of Kenya (E34°:N4° to E40°:S4°), and the western branch of the East African rift
system in southern Tanzania (E34°:S9°), and Malawi (E36°:S15°). The oldest ages (>300 Ma)
are generally restricted to the Tanzanian craton of central Tanzania and southwestern Kenya
(E33°:S5°).
There are two significant departures from this general pattern. Firstly, AFT ages in
Burundi, adjacent to the western branch of the East African rift system and adjacent to
Lake Rukwa in southwestern Tanzania are significantly older than any other samples lying
in proximity to extensional basins. Secondly, one AFT age on the eastern margin of the
28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E
4°N Lake
0 500 Turkana
East African Rift System

A
D
K E N Y A
N
A
Anza Rift
G
0°
U
Lake
Victoria Lamu
RUWANDA Embayment
BURUNDI
Tanzania
O C E A N
4°S
Craton
Ce
ntr
T A N Z A N I A
al
Af
ric
an
Ri
ft
I N D I A N
8°S Lake Rukwa
Sy
ste
m
Z A M B I A
12°S
MALAWI
E
QU
BI
AM
16°S
OZ
ZIMBABWE
M
Figure 7. Locality map of eastern Africa showing topography, some geological elements and faults (in
white), which are related to Phanerozoic rifting (faults after Rosendahl 1987), generated using GMT-3,
version 3.0 (Wessel and Smith 1991). Shaded topography uses the 30′ DEM from the US Geological
Survey EROS Data Centre.
Tanzanian craton (E35°:S6°) yields a significantly younger age (~60 Ma) compared to all
other cratonic samples.
In addition, the range of AFT ages can also be linked with changes in elevation. In
general, youngest ages are found at lowest elevations, i.e., the coastal region (~35 to70 Ma)
and increase towards the higher elevations of the continental interior (375 to 400 Ma).
Mean HCTL range predominantly between 12 to 13 µm (Plate IIIc). A smaller number
of samples located along the flanks of the Anza Graben, in isolated areas on the Tanzanian
craton and in southern Malawi yield longer mean HCTL between 13 to 14 µm. The lowest
mean HCTL (~11 µm) are found in areas adjacent to the east-bounding fault of the Tanzania
Craton, and in southeastern Kenya. The regional pattern of HCTL also appears to vary with
elevation showing a decrease away from low-lying coastal areas (~13 to 14 µm) towards the
higher interior of the continent (12–13 µm).
Quantitative images. The evolving temperature history of samples from eastern Africa
is shown in Plate IIIe. Regional modeling suggests that during Early Jurassic time (180 Ma)
rocks currently exposed along the eastern margin of the sampled area and northeastern margin
of the Zimbabwe Craton (E30°:S16°) were at temperatures of >110 °C. It is important to note
that modeling parameters have a predefined upper default value of ~110 °C, thus until samples
record cooling below this temperature the modeling protocol assigns a value of 110 °C. By 180
Ma samples on the eastern margin of the craton (E35°:S7°), in SW Kenya (E36°:S1°), southern
Tanzania (E34°:S9°), and northern Zimbabwe (E30°:S16°) had cooled to below ~80 °C. At the
same time, some areas of southwest Kenya (E35°:S1°) and central Tanzania (E34°:S4°) are
predicted to have cooled to surface temperatures. Prior to the Early Jurassic the information
provided by AFT data is limited and only the oldest rocks exposed in the western portion of the
sample area were at or below 110 °C.
During the period between 180 Ma and 90 Ma cooling continued, most notably around
central Tanzania and southwestern Kenya, expanding the area over which rocks had cooled
below ~100 °C. Also during this time interval the eastern margin of the study area and around
the Malawi rift (E34°:S10°) does not appear to have undergone any cooling. This area most
likely underwent some cooling at this time but remained at a temperature >110 °C. The
cooling history between middle Cretaceous and the middle Tertiary (90 to 30 Ma) is much
more pronounced along the coastal region, with a significant number of samples cooling more
rapidly from >~110 °C to <80 °C. At the same time the samples from southwestern Kenya
(E35°:S1°) and central Tanzania (E34°:S4°) underwent more subdued cooling. By 30 Ma most
rocks in the study area were close to surface temperatures however a number of important
exceptions in Kenya (E35°:N4°, E38°:N1°and E39°:S4°) and central Tanzania (E35°:S6°)
suggest that some areas have undergone significant cooling in the last 30 Ma.
As shown previously, thermal histories can be used to estimate the amount and timing
of denudation if a paleothermal gradient, paleosurface temperature and rock conductivity of
the removed section is assumed (see also Fig. 3). It is noteworthy here that as the geothermal
gradient varies across the area (Plate IIId) the resulting pattern of denudation will differ from
the cooling histories shown in Plate IIIe (i.e., lower geothermal gradients result in higher
estimates of the amount of denudation and vice-versa). The lowest geothermal gradients are
found in Zimbabwe, central Tanzania and eastern Kenya, whereas the areas adjacent to rift
margins have higher estimates. Time-slices for the denudation history of samples collected in
eastern Africa are shown in Plate IIIf.
Areas in southwestern Kenya (E35°:S1°), central Tanzania (E34°:S4°) and Zimbabwe
(E30°:S17°) are predicted to have had ~2 to 4 km of section removed since Late Jurassic time
while the same areas experienced only 1 to 2 km of denudation since the mid Cretaceous (Plate
IIIf). By contrast, the coastal region of eastern Africa appears to have undergone ~6 km of
denudation over the last 90 Ma.
Thermotectonic history. Previous geochronology studies for exposed rocks in eastern
Africa generally yield Precambrian ages and therefore do not provide direct information on
events occurring over the past ~500 Ma of geological history (e.g., Frisch and Pohl 1986;
Munyanyiwa 1993; Möller 1995). The AFT data however, provide tectonothermal information
for this significant time period. The range and distribution of AFT parameters across eastern
Africa indicate that the Phanerozoic regional history is complex and closely related to the
development and reactivation of sedimentary basins (e.g., Foster and Gleadow 1992a, 1993a,
1996). Another important feature is that the fission track parameters determined for the
Precambrian mobile belts and Archaean cratons (Tanzanian and northern Zimbabwe) are, at
least in some areas, remarkably similar. This suggests that these areas also share segments of
a common Phanerozoic low temperature thermal history.
AFT data show that the post Pan African development of eastern Africa was characterized
by long periods of slow cooling punctuated by at least four accelerated cooling events,
commencing in Triassic (>220 Ma), Early Cretaceous (~140−120 Ma), Late Cretaceous-
Early Tertiary (~80−60 Ma) and Middle to Late Tertiary time (Wagner et al., 1992; Foster
and Gleadow, 1992a, 1993a, 1996; Mbede et al., 1993; van der Beek, 1995; Noble 1997;
Noble et al., 1997). For the most part the relatively rapid cooling is interpreted as resulting
from episodes of increased denudation related to the formation and reactivation of high angle
fault blocks that moved in response to intraplate stresses. The episodes of denudation are also
broadly contemporaneous with the deposition of packages of clastic sedimentary rocks in the
basins of eastern Africa (Fig. 8). The periods of relatively rapid cooling are likely to be due to
denudation at rates >30 m/Ma because of the preservation of relatively long mean track lengths.
The actual rates of denudation probably ranged between 30 to 100 m/Ma during episodes of
Basement cooling times from (b) Rifting

AFT thermochronology (a) Deposition episodes (c) Tectonic events
Ma Kenya Tanzania T Craton Z Craton ➀➁➂
0 ≤ Propagation of Gregory Rift
Miocene
into Northern Tanzania
Tertiary
Oligocene
50 Eocene
Paleocene
Upper
≤ Changes in plate motions
between Sth America & Africa
Cretaceous
100
Lower ≤ Opening of South Atlantic
150 Late
≤ Final separation of Madagascar
Jurassic
Middle
Early ?
200
≤ Initial separation of Madagascar
Triassic
≤ End of Karoo sedimentation
250
Permian
Carboniferous ≤ Initial stages of Gondwana

300 breakup
Figure 8. Comparison of periods of rapid denudation/cooling and fault reactivation revealed through
AFT studies in Eastern Africa, with periods of: (a) sediment deposition into East African basins; (b)
rifting episodes in the Anza Rift, Central African Rift System and East Africa Rift System; (c) regional
tectonic events (modified after Winn et al. 1993). Periods of accelerated cooling defined from AFT
thermochronology studies (Foster and Gleadow 1992a, 1993a, 1996; Noble 1997; Noble et al. 1997). Thick
lines for deposition and rifting episodes denote time periods when both rate and style of sedimentation
changed as a result of periods of rifting). T Craton = Tanzania Craton, Z Craton = Zimbabwe Craton
(modified after Noble 1997 and Noble et al. 1997).
accelerated erosion (over periods of 10 to 20 Ma) and <5 m/Ma for the intervening times. This
calculation is based on age versus elevation gradients and the timing of model histories and the
geothermal gradients (Foster and Gleadow 1992a, 1993a, 1996; Noble 1997).
The last two episodes appear to be regionally more extensive. In most cases this is due to
the removal of evidence for the older events by later denudation during the younger events.
This is especially true for areas adjacent to the younger rifts, e.g., southeast coastal Kenya. The
prominence of the last episode during Middle to Late Tertiary may also have been influenced by
the regional interaction of plumes in eastern Africa during the later part of the Phanerozoic.
During Phanerozoic rifting in eastern Africa, it has previously been assumed that the
Tanzanian and Zimbabwe Cratons have remained relatively inert (e.g., Muhongo 1989;
Rach and Rosendahl 1989). The quantitative images however, clearly show that this is not
the case and that periods of accelerated denudation and fault reactivation punctuated the
tectonothermal history of the cratons at least since Mesozoic time (Plate IIIf) and even earlier
(Noble et al. 1997). The timing of periods of denudation and fault reactivation are related to
the tectonic evolution of East Africa and are contemporaneous with tectonic reactivation in
the adjacent structural belts.
Southeastern Australia – evolution of a complex rifted passive margin
Geological overview. During Paleozoic to mid Cretaceous time, Australia, Antarctica and
New Zealand were joined together in eastern Gondwanaland. Throughout much of this time
eastern Gondwanaland was a convergent plate margin whose architecture was shaped mainly
by its convergence with oceanic plates driven from the Pacific region (Veevers 1984). As a
result the Paleozoic fold belts and basins of eastern Australia record a series of subduction-
related deformational events. These include Early to Middle Paleozoic episodes responsible
for formation and deformation of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Veevers 1984; Coney et al. 1990;
Fergusson and Coney 1992; Gray 1997; Foster and Gray 2000) and the Late Permian to Early
Triassic episodes which created the New England Fold Belt (Fig. 9) to the north and east (e.g.,
Harrington and Korsch 1985). The Lachlan Fold Belt is characterized by early to middle
Paleozoic rocks including metamorphosed Cambrian through Devonian (primarily Ordovician)
volcanic and cratonic-derived deep marine sedimentary rocks and extensive Early Silurian,
Early Devonian and Late Carboniferous granitic rocks. By the Early to Middle Carboniferous
all regional deformation within the Lachlan Fold Belt had ceased (Foster and Gray 2000).
The New England Fold Belt is composed predominantly of the deformed and
metamorphosed remnants of an accretionary complex initially formed during Late Devonian-
Early Carboniferous time. By the Late Carboniferous an extensional tectonic regime became
predominant and numerous synkinematic S-type granites were intruded, mostly into the lower
crust. Extension had ceased by the Late Permian and a major thrust-dominant contractional
deformational event (Hunter-Bowen Orogeny) occurred accompanied by the intrusion of
significant volumes of Late Permian to Triassic magma (Collins 1991). The Sydney Basin
is a foreland basin overlying basement rocks, in part consisting of the Lachlan Fold Belt to
the west and the New England Fold Belt to the north (Fig. 9). Subsidence and deposition and
subsidence in the basin of a thick sequence of marine and non-marine sediments commenced
in the Early Permian and continued through to the Jurassic, with a possible hiatus in the Late
Triassic (Mayne et al. 1974). Permian sedimentary rocks within the Sydney Basin were
deformed during the Late Permian-Early Triassic Hunter-Bowen Orogeny.
In the Late Jurassic, extension between Australia and Antarctica initiated from west to
east (Johnson and Veevers 1984; Norvick and Smith 2001), followed in the Early Cretaceous
by rifting along the southern margin (Veevers et al. 1991). Break-up between the Australian
and Antarctic plates subsequently occurred in the middle Cretaceous (~95 Ma) and is marked
130° 140° 150°
QLD
NSW
VIC
SA
Mt. Isa
20°S Inlier
Thomson
Orogen
Tasmania
b) 0 500 km Tasmanides
New
England
30°S Craton Orogen
SB
Southern Ocean Lachlan
MB Sydney
Orogen
HOZ
Proterozoic to Cainozoic, sedimentary basins and cover Tasman
OB GB Sea
Paleozoic-Mesozoic mobile belts of Eastern Australia Bass Strait
KI
Mobile belts, mostly Proterozoic crystalline terranes Furneaux Islands
Tasmania
a)
Figure 9. Locality and geological map of eastern Australia (modified after Palfreyman 1984) showing:
(a) main crystalline terranes and grey inset delineating the southeastern Australia study area. Sedimentary
cover, shown in white, was largely excluded from this study. Map (b) shows apatite fission track sample
localities (~850) most of which were used for this study to construct the images shown in Plate IV. GB =
Gippsland Basin, KI = King Island, MB = Murray Basin, SB = Sydney Basin, HOZ = hybrid orogenic zone
(separating the Lachlan and Delamerian orogenic belts) and OB = Otway Basin.
by a major unconformity throughout the rift-related basins (Veevers 2000), e.g., Otway and
Gippsland Basins located along the southern margin of Australia (Fig. 9a). However, the final
separation to open the Southern Ocean did not propagate through Bass Strait, but was offset to
the south of Tasmania. The magnetic anomalies in the Southern Ocean suggest that spreading
was very slow until the Eocene (Cande and Mutter 1982; Veevers 2000). During the mid-
Cretaceous (at ~105 Ma), subduction to the east of Australia ceased (Cande and Kent 1995).
Subsequently, at ~100 Ma south- to north-directed continental rifting between Australia and
the Lord Howe Rise/New Zealand began along what is now the eastern Australian margin.
The timing of passive margin rifting along eastern Australia is well constrained by ocean floor
magnetic anomalies and seismic data from the Tasman Sea rift (e.g., Weissel and Hays 1977;
Veevers et al. 1991) which suggest spreading commenced at ~86 Ma and continued until ~62
Ma (Cande and Kent 1995). The onset of fast spreading in the Southern Ocean leading to the
final separation of Australia and Antarctica in middle Eocene time is related to a significant
global plate rearrangement (e.g., Cande and Mutter 1982). Structure and topography of
the present-day southeastern margin are believed to be predominantly controlled by Late
Mesozoic-Early Tertiary rifting, further details of which are summarized by Johnson and
Veevers (1984) and Lister and Etheridge (1989).
Fission track results. Most samples for AFT studies were collected from exposed granitic
rocks of the Paleozoic to Mesozoic mobile belts on the mainland, as well as in Tasmania and
some offshore islands, which are part of the continuous continental crust (Fig. 9a). A small
number were collected from basement rocks intersected in shallow borehole occurrences
(<100 m depth) beneath shallow cover. In some areas samples included various metamorphic
and sedimentary lithologies, and in Tasmania, Jurassic dolerites, but overall, some 90% of
the samples studied are rocks of granitic composition with a relatively limited compositional
range. AFT data from ~830 samples (see Fig. 9b) were judged to be of sufficient quality in
both age and length data to be included in this study. Samples were excluded on the basis of
having too few length measurements (<40) or too few grains counted (<6), or where obvious
local geological disturbance, reflected in anomalous AFT data had occurred, such as by young
volcanic activity.
Over the past ~25 years, several AFT studies have been carried out in areas bordering the
southeastern continental margin (e.g., Gleadow and Lovering, 1978a,b; Moore et al. 1986;
Dumitru et al. 1991; Foster and Gleadow 1992b, 1993b; O’Sullivan et al. 1995a,b, 1996a,b,
1999a,b, 2000a,b,c; O’Sullivan and Kohn 1997; Gleadow et al. 1996, 2002b; Kohn et al. 1999,
2002; Weber et al. 2004). Although the apparent AFT ages reported from these areas may
range from mid-Paleozoic to Tertiary, they only rarely reflect the formation or depositional
ages of the host rocks sampled, which are mostly of Paleozoic age. Further, the AFT data often
show broad spatial variations that reflect their thermal and denudation histories. These have
been interpreted in terms of a regional late Paleozoic cooling over the area modified by later
cooling events associated with continental rifting and break-up on the eastern and southern
margins (Dumitru et al. 1991; Gleadow et al. 1996, 2002b; Kohn et al. 2002). The most
important regional AFT variations include:
1.) A tendency for the youngest ages ranging between ~50 to 100 Ma to be concentrated
on and around the southeastern and eastern rifted margin of the continent. Many mean
track lengths from these same areas are very long and often exceed 14 µm indicating
that the apparent ages are actually dating the time of episodes of rapid cooling. Inland
of the “young” age trend there is generally a belt of older ages and much reduced
mean track lengths (<12.5 µm). Some of the individual length distributions for this
region appear bimodal or unusually broad in character, indicative of mixed ages,
intermediate between an older and younger value.
2.) A distinctly different pattern for Tasmania, south of the mainland, with ages across
the island mostly <100 Ma and ranging between 30 and 250 Ma. Many of these
young ages are also associated with long mean track lengths and narrow unimodal
track length distributions, indicating that the ages reflect episodes of rapid cooling
(O’Sullivan and Kohn 1997). Some older ages and shorter mean track lengths similar
to those observed in the inland trend on the mainland are found in the centre of
Tasmania and on King and the Furneaux Islands within Bass Strait (see Fig. 9a and
O’Sullivan et al. 2000c).
3.) A relatively abrupt transition to much older ages (~300−400 Ma) in western Victoria
going westwards along the southern margin of the mainland. This was first reported
by Foster and Gleadow (1992, 1993) who suggested that the transition coincided
approximately with the terrane boundary between the early Paleozoic Delamerian (to
the west) and Lachlan orogenic belts (to the east) and reflected a change in the style
of rifting along the southern margin to the west and east of a hybrid orogenic zone
(Miller et al. 2004; also see Fig. 9a). The mean track lengths in the region of old ages
are of generally intermediate values (12.5–13.5 µm) indicative of more prolonged
cooling histories.
Southeastern Australia AFT age versus mean track length plots all show a characteristic
“boomerang” trend with an upwards trend of longer track lengths to young ages (Gleadow et
al. 2002b). This implies that the region has been widely affected by rapid cooling episodes
with distinct differences in the timing of these rapid cooling episodes (defined by the track
lengths clusters >14 µm) between different regions, with Victoria older than the remaining
southeastern margin which in turn is older than Tasmania.
Quantitative images. Using the approach described above (see also Fig. 3) the southeastern
Australia AFT data set has been modeled to construct quantitative paleotemperature, cooling
rate, amount of denudation, denudation rate and paleotopography images as a function of
time and space. A series of four time-slice images at 200 Ma, 150 Ma, 100 Ma and 60 Ma is
presented in Plate IV. For the construction of the images we have used a spatially constant
present day heat flow and surface temperature, and a constant thermal conductivity of 2.5
Wm−1K−1 (as used by Sass and Lachenbruch 1979 for the Eastern Heat Flow Province of
Australia) to convert temperature to depth. It should be noted that samples from the Murray
Basin area (Fig. 9b) were excluded in the construction of the quantitative images.
A remarkable feature of the time slice images presented is the sizeable area of present
day surface rocks which were at paleotemperatures close to or greater than 110 °C at 200 Ma.
Many of these areas had cooled to lower temperatures by 100 Ma, although parts of coastal
eastern Australia and Tasmania still remained at relatively high temperatures into Early
Tertiary time. In this analysis western Victoria stands out as one area where Paleozoic rocks
have experienced relatively little thermal disturbance and have remained at relatively low
temperatures since ~200 Ma (Plate IV).
Converting the paleotemperature data into denudation estimates and taking into account
the assumptions described previously, suggests that cumulative denudation in most parts of
the study region was between ~2–4 km since ≥200 Ma. In some mainland coastal areas and
over much of Tasmania however, this amount of denudation was mainly achieved over the
past ~60 Ma.
The visual pattern observed from the images displays clearly in time and space some of the
main points arising from earlier studies, which indicate that since the end of orogeny, different
regions of the mobile belt rocks of southeastern Australia record distinct episodes of accelerated
denudation (e.g., O’Sullivan et al. 1996a, 2000b; Gleadow et al. 2002b; Kohn et al. 1999,
2002). Such reported episodes occurred during Late Permian to Early Triassic (~265–230 Ma),
middle Cretaceous (~100−85 Ma) and Paleocene to Middle Eocene (~60−45 Ma) time.
Thermotectonic history. Late Permian to Early Triassic cooling in the Lachlan Orogen
has been related to a far-field denudational response associated with the Hunter-Bowen
Orogeny (e.g., O’Sullivan et al. 1996a, 1999a; Kohn et al. 1999, 2002). By contrast, later
mid Cretaceous cooling may have been caused by the cessation of dynamic platform tilting
due to subduction in early Late Cretaceous time (e.g., Gallagher et al. 1994a; Waschbusch
et al. 1999). This would have resulted in rebound, leading to km-scale denudation. Added
to this is the effect of contractional deformation (~90−95 Ma) associated with inversion and
reactivation along the eastern margin of the continent and the onset of rifting in the Southern
Ocean and Tasman Sea (Hill et al. 1995).
Van der Beek et al. (1999) analyzed the present day drainage pattern and denudation
history of southeastern Australia and suggested that regional km-scale mid-Cretaceous uplift
may not have taken place. Rather, they proposed that the observed cooling may have resulted
from denudation related to base-level drops associated with rifting in the Bass-Gippsland
basins to the south and the Tasman Sea to the east (Fig. 9a). The isolated occurrences of
mid Cretaceous igneous rocks in southeastern Australia rule out the possibility that mid-
Cretaceous cooling may be the result of cooling following a period of elevated heat flow
linked to a magmatic event (Kohn et al. 2003).
In general, coastal plain areas exhibit a greater amount of denudation than those inland.
But the complex nature of events associated with continental break-up and the formation of
new-rifted margins is highlighted by fact that times of rapid cooling may pre-date and postdate
the actual time of seafloor spreading onset in the adjacent ocean basins (Plate IV).
The difference in timing of cooling episodes between different areas is also demonstrated
by surface denudation rates through time presented for six specific sub-regions of southeastern
Australia (Fig. 10). These may be equated with the volumes of sediment derived from the
respective landscapes over the time intervals indicated and allow for the predictions to be
tested by matching against the stratigraphic record of various sedimentary basins, provided
these are preserved (e.g., Weber et al. 2004). It is emphasized that the regional denudation
chronology estimates, derived by the integration of spatial denudation information for a
particular time interval, produces the “locally-averaged” denudation rate for a specified region
as a function of time. Hence, distinctive cooling patterns seen in some individual samples or
in samples from a restricted area may not necessarily be highlighted prominently within the
overall “average” regional denudation pattern.
40
Denudation Rate (m/Ma)
20
140° 144° 148° 152°

-28°
0
a)
20
0
-32°
20
b)
0
c)
20
-36°
e)
0
d)
20
-40° 0
20
0
f) 300 200 100 0
-44°
Time (Ma)
Figure 10. Long-term smoothed (spatially averaged) denudation chronology plots for six sub-regions (a
to f) in southeastern Australia based on an initial track length of 14.5 µm. Note the marked differences in
denudation history apparent across the different areas. Areas (a) and (f) show pronounced Cretaceous to
Early Tertiary denudation, areas (b)-(d) show accelerated denudation in Late Paleozoic-Early Triassic time,
whereas area (e) shows particularly low rates of denudation from Mesozoic to Present (see text for further
discussion).
Tasmania shows a markedly different and significantly younger cooling history to

the mainland. The denudation chronology for Tasmania reveals a steady increase in Early
Cretaceous time to a maximum peak in mid Paleocene to mid Eocene time and then a decrease
to the Present (Figs. 2b and 10). This is indicative of its continued tectonic emergence and
denudation throughout much of the Cenozoic and probably reflects the proximate position
of Tasmania, with its very narrow continental shelves and the evolving rift systems between
Australia and Antarctica and the Lord Howe Rise/New Zealand.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
AFT thermochronology is a well-established tool for reconstructing the low temperature
thermal and tectonic evolution of the continental crust. From the earliest studies of continental
terranes it has been apparent that AFT data show broad regionally consistent patterns of
variation. The variations are primarily controlled by cooling, which may be initiated by earth
movements and denudation at the Earth’s surface and/or by changes in the thermal regime. As
such the data frequently bear little or no relationship to the original formation ages of the rocks
involved. However, the significance of the regional patterns is not always obvious and there
have often been difficulties in interpreting and integrating the results of such studies with other
sets of geological observations. Using numerical forward modeling procedures the measured
AFT parameters can be matched with time-temperature paths using an optimal data fitting
procedure, which enables thermal and tectonic processes to be mapped out in considerable
detail. Large regional arrays of data can be modeled sequentially and inverted into time-
temperature solutions for visualizing the evolution of paleotemperatures, denudation rates and
paleotopography of present day surface rocks. These can then be viewed as a series of time-
slice images and the regional spatially integrated denudation rate chronology. The images
provide a striking new quantitative perspective on crustal processes and landscape evolution
and allow important tectonic and denudation events over time scales up to hundreds of million
years to be readily visualized in a variety of ways and integrated with other regional data
sets such as digital terrain models, heat flow, etc. This approach provides a readily accessible
framework for quantifying the often undetectable, timing and magnitude of long-term crustal
denudation in many terranes, for a part of the geological record often largely unconstrained.
The images are not only valuable for visualizing the thermochronological information
but also allow a new range of quantitative measurements to be made on the virtual landscapes
constructed. For example, a direct consequence of the denudation models is to predict
sediment volumes and to trace the evolution of drainage basins, at least on a broad scale.
This opens up the possibility of making a new range of mass-balance calculations on the
amounts and nature of eroded material and sediment accumulation in appropriate depocenters
(e.g., Weber et al. 2004). Similarly, predictions of long-term surface denudation rates can be
tested against more recent estimates based on cosmogenic isotope analyses (e.g., Belton et al.
2004), at least for the most recent part of the record. The acquisition of apatite (U-Th)/He data
(e.g., Farley 2002) on a similar regional scale should provide more robust information on the
lower temperature portion of the thermal history (<~60−70 °C), which is poorly constrained
by AFT data. In addition, information derived from higher temperature thermochronometric
systems e.g., 40Ar/39Ar K-feldspar (McDougall and Harrison 1999; Harrison et al. 2005), (U-
Th)/He zircon and titanite (Reiners and Farley 1999; Reiners 2005) and zircon fission track
(Tagami 2005) could potentially also be integrated into imaging schemes, providing for a more
comprehensive visualization of intermediate to low temperature thermal histories.
With increasingly large AFT datasets from regional studies becoming available it will
be necessary to make data collection more efficient. One promising direction in this regard
is through emergence of Laser-Ablation-Microprobe Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry (LAM-ICP-MS). This approach allows for the analysis of trace elements in
small areas (10−30 µm) within mineral grains and has opened the way to a radically different
approach to fission track analysis that does not require neutron irradiation for the analysis of
uranium content (Hasebe et al. 2004). As such LAM-ICP-MS promises a drastic reduction in
sample turn-around time and improved laboratory safety due to the elimination of the need
for neutron irradiations, a requirement, which now imposes relatively long delays on sample
processing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Australian Research Council, the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and
Engineering, and the former Australian Geodynamics Cooperative Research Centre funded
this research. We acknowledge the various contributions of many colleagues related to the
acquisition of regional fission track data sets, particularly former members of the fission
track groups at the School of Earth Sciences at La Trobe University and more recently at the
University of Melbourne, particularly to Paul O’Sullivan, David Foster and Asaf Raza. We are
also grateful to Kirk Osadetz and Richard Everitt for their assistance in acquiring samples for
the Canadian data set. We thank Paul Andriessen, Geoff Batt, Ann Blythe and Tim Carter for
their helpful reviews of this chapter.
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Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry

Vol. 58, pp. 527-565, 2005 20

Visualizing Thermotectonic and Denudation Histories

APATITE FISSION TRACK THERMOCHRONOLOGY

THERMAL HISTORY MODELING

REGIONAL APATITE FISSION TRACK DATA ARRAYS

Thermal History Modeling

Best Thermal History

Fission Track Length Distribution

Observed FT data: Predicted FT data:

QUANTIFYING LONG-TERM DENUDATION

If paleogeothermal gradients were elevated at the time of a particular period of denudation

INPUTS Fission Track Data OUTPUTS

Fission track annealing model

Fission track profiles

Heat flow data Paleotemperatures, cooling

Effective elastic thickness

Present day digital terrain model Paleodrainage evolution

REGIONAL APATITE FISSION TRACK DATA ARRAYS

96W 88W 80W 72W

44N Phanerozoic sediments nq 44N

96W 88W 80W 72W

Time [Ma] 600 480 360 240 120 0

T: Taconic A: Alleghenian orogeny

a) 100W 96W 92W 88W 84W 80W 76W 72W

b) 100W 96W 92W 88W 84W 80W 76W 72W

110 110 110

Plate III. (caption continued from facing page)

110 110 110 110

d) Cooling rate (°C/Ma)

1800 1800 1800 1800

Plate IV. (caption on facing page)

28°E 32°E 36°E 40°E

East African Rift System

Basement cooling times from (b) Rifting

Carboniferous ≤ Initial stages of Gondwana

130° 140° 150°

140° 144° 148° 152°

Tasmania shows a markedly different and significantly younger cooling history to

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