Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

Chapter I: Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

1.1 Introduction:
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical
energy.

Chemical Heat Mechanical

This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine, and the high-pressure
gas then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is converted by the
mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.

Internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate back and forth in
cylinders internally within the engine.

Engine types not covered by this course include steam engines and gas turbine engines, which are better
classified as external combustion engines (i.e., combustion takes place outside the mechanical engine
system).

Otto Engine
Internal Combustion Engines Desiel Engine
Vankel Engine
Types of Heat Engines
Steam Engine
External Combustion Engines Turbines
Strilling Engine

Steam Engine Jet Engine

1.2 Historical Development of the I.C. Engine:

• 1862 – Rochas described the basic principles essential for efficient engine operation.
• 1878 – Otto built the first successful 4-stroke cycle engine.
• 1891 – Day built an improved 2-stroke cycle engine.
• 1892 – Diesel patented the compression-ignition (diesel) engine.
• To present – emphasis on improved engine efficiency, through refinement.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

1.3 Engine Classifications:

Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways:

1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition Engine (SI). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug.
The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug.

(b) Compression Ignition Engine (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel mixture
self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.

2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle (Otto cycle). A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two engine
revolutions for each cycle (complete cycle in 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕°).

(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for each cycle
(complete cycle in 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑°).

inside ports ‫ﺣﺮﻛﺔ اﻷﺳﻄﻮاﻧﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﻔﺘﺢ اﻟـ‬

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines Four-Stroke Cycle C.I. Engine

Comparison of Two-Stroke vs. Four-Stroke Cycle Engines

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines Four-Stroke Cycle Engines

Lighter weight Heavier weight
Operates in many positions (at any angle) ً ‫)ﻻ ﯾﻛون‬
Operates in limited positions (‫ﻣﺎﺋﻼ‬
Higher power to weight ratio Lower power to weight ratio
Engine oil usually mixed with fuel Engine oil in a reservoir
Louder operation Quieter operation
Higher engine speeds Slower engine speeds
More vibration Smoother operation
Rough idling operation Smoother Idling operation

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

3. Valve Location
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.

(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines with valves in block had the
intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head
engines.

(c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head engine.

L Head engine I Head engine F Head engine T Head engine

4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth. The
combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output
crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.

(b) Rotary Engine (Wankel or Vankel Engine) is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric
rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block.

(a)

(b)

(a) Rotary and (b) Reciprocating Engines Main Strokes

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

5. Position and Number of Cylinders (Number of Cylinders → Capacity of the Engine)

(a) Single cylinder.

(b) In-Line. The cylinders are arranged in a line, in a single bank. (2 to 11 cylinders, L4 and L6 are the most
common ones).

(c) V-Engine. The cylinders are arranged in two banks, set at an angle to one another. (2 to 20 cylinders, V6,
V8 and V12 are the most common ones).

(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine (flat engine). The cylinders are arranged in two banks on opposite sides of the
engine. Commonly used in small aircrafts and some automotive.

(e) W-Engine. Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the same crankshaft. Usually 12
cylinders with about a 60° angle between each bank.

(f) Opposed Piston Engine. Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the centre between
the pistons.

(g) Radial Engine Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central crankshaft. Always has
an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more. Many medium- and large-size propeller-driven
aircraft use radial engines.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

Engine Classification by Cylinder Arrangement

6. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system. (vacume pressure ‫)ﯾﺗﻧﻔس طﺑﯾﻌﯾًﺎ ﻋن طرﯾﻖ‬

(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft.
(parasitic load)

(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven by the engine exhaust
gases (utilizing of exhaust Gases)

(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the intake air compressor.
Limited development work has also been done on design and construction of four-stroke cycle engines
with crankcase compression.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

Supercharger Turbocharger

7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines ‫ﺧﻠـط اﻟﮭواء واﻟوﻗود‬

‫ﯾﻛون ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻣﺣرك‬
(a) Carbureted. (it has been phased out)
‫اﻟﻮﻗﻮد ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺮذﯾﺬه‬
(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each
cylinder intake.

(c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake

manifold.

8. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.

(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.

(c) Gas, Natural Gas (CNG and LNG), Methane.

(d) Liquefed Petroleum Gas (LPG).

(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.

Basic Automobile Carburetor

(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more fuels. Some, usually large,
CI engines use a combination of methane and diesel fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming
more common as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.

(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.

9. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus. (b) Locomotive.

(c) Stationary. (d) Marine.

(e) Aircraft. (f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane.

1O. Type of Cooling

(a) Air Cooled. (natural convection + forced convection by fans)

(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

1.4 Terminology and Abbreviation:

The following terms and abbreviations are commonly used in engine technology:

 Internal Combustion Engine (IC) or (ICE)

 Spark Ignition Engine (SI) or (SIE)

An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started by use of a spark plug.

 Compression Ignition Engine (CI) or (CIE)

An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high
temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.

 Top-Dead-Center (TDC) ≡ Head End Dead Center (HEDC) ≡ Top-Center (TC)

Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away from the crankshaft.

 Before Top-Dead-Center (bTDC) ≡ Before Top-Center (bTC)

 After Top-Dead-Center (aTDC) ≡ After Top-Center (aTC)

 Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC) ≡ Crank End Dead Center (CEDC) ≡ Bottom-Center (BC)

Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to the crankshaft.

 Before Bottom-Dead-Center (bBDC) ≡ Before Bottom-Center (bBC)

 After Bottom-Dead-Center (aBDC) ≡ After Bottom-Center (aBC)

 Bore (B)
Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the same minus
a very small clearance.

 Stroke (S)
Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other:
TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.

 Clearance Volume (∀𝒄𝒄 )

Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.

 Swept or Displacement Volume (∀𝒔𝒔 ) or (∀𝒅𝒅 )

Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one stroke.

 Fuel Injected (FI)

 Gasoline Direct Ingector (GDI)

 Direct Injection (DI)

Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine.

 Indirect Injection (IDI)

Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion chamber.

 Ignition Delay (ID)

Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of Combustion.

 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

 Smart Engine ‫اﻟﺧﺻﺎﺋص اﻟﺗﺷﻐﯾﻠﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﺣرك‬

Engine with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing,
valve timing, exhaust control, intake tuning, etc.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf
 Engine Management System (EMS)
Computer and electronics used to control smart engines.

 Air-Fuel Ratio (AF)

Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.

 Fuel-Air Ratio (FA)

Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.

 Brake Maximum Torque (BMT)

Speed at which maximum torque occurs.

 Hybrid cycle combustion engine (HCCE)

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

1.5 Engine Components:

The following cross-section of four-stroke cycle SI engine shows engine components

Intake
manifold

Exhaust
manifold

Name of Engine Parts

1. Cylinder Block (Engine Block)

- “Backbone” and foundation of the engine.

- Supports/ aligns most other components.

- Part of basic tractor frame.

- One-piece, made of gray cast iron.

- Contains: Cylinders, Coolant passages, Oil passages and Bearings.

Engine crack
Usually happened at area where there is thin casting. It can start small then propagate as a result of thermal
stress and strain cycles.

Major Causes, including:

1. Engine full of water in very cold weather .The ice will crack the
block.
2. Engine has inadequate oil when running. The heat can cause the
block to crack.
3. 3. Over heating, due to the lack of coolant of failure of the cooling
pump.

Minor Causes, including:

1. Bad bearing in connecting rod causes it to break .This can cause
the block to break as the connecting rod goes through it.
2. Broken valve springs can drop a valve into the piston, causing the
piston and/or connecting rod to crack the block.
3. Broken cam drive chain can cause the valves to be open at the
wrong time and cause the pistons or con rods to break the block.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

2. Cylinders
- Cylindrical holes in which the pistons reciprocate.
- Cylinder bore is the diameter of cylinder.

3. Cylinder Head
- Seals the “top-end” of the combustion chamber.
- Contains the valves and the intake and exhaust “ports”. Also it
contains oil and coolant passages.
- Some engines contains the camshaft in the cylinder head.
- One-piece castings of iron alloy.
- Head bolts and head gasket ensure air-tight seal of the combustion chamber.

Damage in the cylinder head

The following symptom's could be due to either a crack in the cylinder head or failure in the head gasket

Mix in oil and water

4. Piston and Rings

a) Piston

- A movable part fitted into a cylinder, which can receive and

transmit power.
- Forms the “moveable bottom’ of the combustion chamber.
- Through connecting rod, forces the crank shaft to rotate.
- Made of iron alloy or aluminum.

Causes of damages for Piston

1. Damage from debris getting through the air filter.
2. Damage from running unmixed fuel, uncomplete combustion.
3. Damage from bearing failure.
4. Damage from detonation, knock.

b) Rings

- For four-stroke engines: Three rings; top two are compression rings
(sealing the compression pressure in the cylinder) and the third is an oil
ring (scrapes excessive oil from the cylinder walls).
- For two-stroke engines: Two rings both the rings are compression rings.
- Made of cast iron

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf
Damage in the piston rings
The piston rings are damaged for the same reason as piston, and the common symptoms are:

1. White or gray exhaust smoke

2. Excessive oil consumption
3. Low power for acceleration
4. Overall loss of power or poor performance

5. Valve Train
- Controls flow into and out of the combustion chamber (Time and Duration).
- Tractor engines use “Overhead Valve (OHV)” configuration.
- Components:
1. Valves
2. Valve springs
3. Valve tappets
4. Camshaft
5. Push rods
6. Rocker arm

a) Valves
- Minimum two valves pre cylinder.
- Exhaust Valve lets the exhaust gases escape the combustion chamber.
- Intake Valve lets the air or air fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber.
- Diameter of the intake valve is larger than the exhaust valve.
- Valve Springs keeps the valves Closed.

Valve damage
The valves can be damaged in two ways:
1. Bent Valves
- The most common failure in valves.
- result of contact with the piston (The valves contacting the top of a piston is due to incorrect engine
synchronization caused by timing chain/ belt breakage and incorrect fitting of new belts and chains).
- it is crucial not to attempt to start the engine as this may result in more costly damage being caused
to the cylinder head ,pistons and cylinder bores.

2. Burnt valve
- Essentially this is caused by combustion gases escaping between the valve and valve seat when they
are not sealing correctly. The hot combustion gases are forced past the valve which starts to burn
away the edge of the valve.
- It is caused by:
a. Excessive localized heat.
b. Combustion gases escaping past the valve and concentrated at only one point.
c. Irregular valve sealing with cylinder head valve seat .Carbon residues generated by irregular
combustion (poor mixture) will appear at the seat region and will jeopardize the sealing
between the valve and its seat.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

Burnt Valve Bent Valves

b) Camshaft Nose Lobe Center Line

- Open the intake and exhaust valves at correct time and for orrect duration. Lobe Lift
- Driven by gear (or chain) from the crankshaft.
(2:1 crankshaft to camshaft gear ratio). Cam
Profile
- Cam Lobe changes rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
Base Circle

Cam
Shaft

Different arrangements of valve and camshaft

6. Spark plugs
- It provides the means of ignition when the gasoline engine’s
piston is at the end of compression stroke, close to Top Dead
Center (TDC).

- Signs of faulty spark plug:

1. Engine has a rough idle.
2. Having trouble starting your car.
3. Your engine misfires.
4. High fuel consumption.
5. Lack of acceleration.
- The difference between a "hot" and a "cold" spark plug is that
the ceramic tip is longer on the hotter plug.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

7. Connecting rod
- Connects the piston (wrist-pin) to the crankshaft (conn. rod caps).

- Converts reciprocating piston motion to rotary motion at the

crankshaft.

- Made of drop-forged steel.

- Hydrolock is the main reason for the damage in the conn. rod.
• It happens when the volume of liquid that’s entering the
combustion chamber (water or fuel) exceeds the chamber’s
volume.

• Can happen if coolant leaked to the cylinder either due to

engine head crack or driving through a deep water.

• Although it’s rare, sometimes a bad ECM/ PCM or fuel

injector can cause too much fuel to enter a cylinder, causing
hydrolocking and resulting in a bent rod.

8. Crankshaft
- Works with connecting rod to change reciprocating to rotary motion.
- Transmits mechanical energy from the engine.
- Made of heat-treated steel alloys.

‫اﻟﺜﻘـﺎﻻت‬

Reason for failure or misalignmentvin crankshaft:

1. Fatigue failure
2. Insufficient lubrication.
3. Vibration (Loose engine foundation).
4. Over Pressurised Cylinder (Hydrolock).
5. Crack in the bearing saddle or Loose main bearing bolt leading to damage of main bearing.
6. Very high bending moment on the crankshaft due to excessive force from piston assembly.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

1.6 Basic Engine Cycles:

Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression ignition, operate on either a four-
stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle.

1. Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

a) First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction: The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake valve
open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber, which
in turn creates a vacuum.
b) Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the
piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising both the
pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
c) Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of time with
the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant volume combustion).
d) Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: With all valves closed, the high pressure created by
the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which produces the work
output of the engine cycle.
e) Exhaust Blowdown: Late in the power stroke, occurs when exhaust valve opens near end of expantion
stroke.
f) Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is complete,
but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.

Four-Stroke SI Engine Operating Cycle

2. Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

a) First Stroke: Intake Stroke: The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one major difference:
no fuel is added to the incoming air.
b) Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only air is compressed
and compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
c) Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure until
fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
d) Third Stroke: Power Stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston travels
towards BDC.
e) Exhaust Blowdown: Same as with an SI engine.
f) Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: Same as with an SI engine.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

3. Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

a) Combustion: With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the temperature and
pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.
b) First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: Very high pressure created by the combustion
process forces the piston down from TDC towards BDC with all ports closed. Air in crankcase is
compressed by downward motion of piston.
c) Exhaust Blowdown At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs. The exhaust
valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the side of the cylinder which
is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust
gas at lower pressure.
d) Intake and Scavenging: When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC, the intake slot on the
side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under pressure. Intake mixture pushes
some of the remaining exhaust out the open exhaust port. Scavenging lasts until piston passes BDC
and closes intake and exhaust ports
e) Second Stroke: Compression Stroke With all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels towards TDC
and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the
compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets to IDC, combustion occurs and
the next engine cycle begins.

Exhaust
port

Induction
port

Two-Stroke SI Engine Operating Cycle with Crankcase Compression

4. Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

The two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to that of the SI engine, except for two changes.

1. No fuel is added to the incoming air, so that compression is done on air only.
2. Instead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in the cylinder. Near the end of the compression
stroke, fuel is injected into the hot compressed air and combustion is initiated by self-ignition.

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Internal Combustion Engines Notes By: Bashar AbuYusuf

1.7 Engine Emissions and Air Pollution:

The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's air pollution problem. Recent
research and development has made major reductions in engine emissions, but a growing population and a
greater number of automobiles means that the problem will exist for many years to come.

Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide
(CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and solid particulates.

1. Hydrocarbons are fuel molecules which did not get burned and smaller non-equilibrium particles of
partially burned fuel.
2. Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is present to fully react all carbon to CO2 or when
incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to the very short engine cycle time.
3. Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high combustion temperatures cause some normally
stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic nitrogen N, which then combines with reacting oxygen.
4. Solid particulates are formed in compression ignition engines and are seen as black smoke in the
exhaust of these engines.

Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines include aldehydes, sulfur, lead, and phosphorus.

Two methods are being used to reduce harmful engine emissions:

1. One is to improve the technology of engines and fuels, like: (terbucharger and direct injection) so that
better combustion Occurs and fewer emissions are generated.
2. The second method is aftertreatment of the exhaust gases. This is done by using thermal converters
or catalytic converters that promote hemical reactions in the exhaust flow. These chemical reactions
convert the harmful emissions to acceptable CO2, H20, and N2

Catalytic converter: Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic material that promotes reduction
of emissions by chemical reaction.

Aftertreatment of the Exhaust Gases

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