Research Design

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

Parts of Research Design

(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—

(a) a clear statement of the research problem;

(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;

(c) the population to be studied; and

(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical
and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest
experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design
which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite
suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some
other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research
problems. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work
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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of
variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the
presenceor absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively
different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.* But all variables are not
continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in
statistical language ‘discrete variables’.** Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number
of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is
antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say
that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent
variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the
individual’s sex, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables.
Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioral
changes, occurring as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent
variables.

2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher
wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social
studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it
will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must
always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the
independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term
‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research
 Research Design

hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive
statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to
be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of

research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the
experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent
variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in
which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research’. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading
ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of
scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the
independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our researcher
randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and
then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies
programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he
administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on
the student’s performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research
because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.

7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a

group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed
to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’. In the above illustration,
the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental group. If both groups A
and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental
groups.’ It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which
include both experimental and control groups.

8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual
studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine through
an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that
case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.

9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz.,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer
on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be
termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk
of designs of experiments.
 Research Design

10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very
carefully.

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS Different research designs can be conveniently described if we

categorize them as:

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are
also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses
from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas
and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in
research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed
into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in
the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the
context of research design for such studies are talked about:

(a) The survey of concerning literature;

(b) The experience survey and

(c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive research
studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else. The design in such studies must be rigid
and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)

(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)

(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)

(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the
data be related?)

(e) Processing and analyzing the data.

(f) Reporting the findings.

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The difference between Exploratory or Formulative and Descriptive/Diagnostic research

designs:

Type of study
Research Design Exploratory or Formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic
Overall design Flexible design (design must Rigid design (design must
provide opportunity for make enough provision for
considering different protection against bias and
aspects of the problem) must maximize reliability)

(i) Sampling design Non-probability sampling Probability sampling design

design (purposive or (random sampling)
judgement sampling)
(ii) Statistical design No pre-planned design for Pre-planned design for
analysis analysis
(iii) Observational design Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
collection of data instruments for collection of
data
(iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about
operational procedures operational procedures

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research

studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually
experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we
often mean the design of experiments.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: Professor Fisher has enumerated three

principles of experimental designs:

(1) The Principle of Replication: According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should
be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of
one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we
are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two
parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare
the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of
replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in
half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield
of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be
more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results.
Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. For example, if
an experiment requiring a two-way analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require a three-
way analysis of variance since replication itself may be a source of variation in the data. However, it
should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study;
 Research Design

that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.

(2) The Principle of Randomization: The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when
we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other
variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the
first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a
situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of
some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves
against the effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the given case). As such,
through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the
experimental error.

(3) Principle of Local Control: The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of
experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to
vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This
means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of
variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to
treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case) and
experimental error.* In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the
field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into
parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts
of a block. Dividing the field into several homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In general,
blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its
contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief,
through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s)
from the experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of

an experiment and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify experimental
designs into two broad categories, viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental
designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated
form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis. Important experiment
designs are as follows:

(a) Informal experimental designs: (i) Before-and-after without control design. (ii) After-only
with control design. (iii) Before-and-after with control design.

(b) Formal experimental designs: (i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design). (ii)
Randomized block design (R.B. Design). (iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design). (iv)Factorial designs.