LECTURE 1 EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORTATION

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPORTATION Evolution of transportation is said to start by animals who created pathways. The
- People and goods are moved from one place to another. introduction of wheels started way back 7000 years ago. The identification of paved roads
- This is considered as the circulatory system of the society. The society will depend on were said to be discovered during 4000 BC. The presence of roadways construction can be
good transportation. identified during the Roman civilization. The modernized roads that we had were said to be
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION developed by Scottish engineer John McAdam during the 19th century.
1. LAND
- By foot | Animal pulled wagons Bicycles | Cars | Buses |Trains BASIC ASPECTS OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
2. WATER This is the phase of engineering which deals with safe and efficient movement of
- Boats | Ships people and goods on streets and highways. It also deals with the planning, geometric design
- Submarines | Hovercrafts and traffic operations of roads, streets and highways. This is also called Traffic Engineering.
3. AIR
- Airplanes | Helicopters ROLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERS
4. OTHERS
- Ski lifts (cable transport) - Plan, design, and construction of transportation facilities and controls
Spacecrafts (space transport) - Handle traffic operation and control
- Ensure traffic safety
EXAMPLES OF COMMON TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES - Management and maintenance of traffic facilities and controls

ROADS LECTURE 2
- Highways TOPIC 1 - ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND HIERARCHY
- Walkways
- Bicycle lanes PROPORTION OF SERVICE
- Bridges
- Tunnels In general, highways are based upon two primary
RAILWAYS functions:
- Railroads
- Rapid Transits a. MOBILITY: Continuous, high-speed travel
- Monorails b. ACCESSIBILITY: Ability to get to destination Direct access to adjoining property
- Subways
PORTS
- Inland Ports
- Fishing Ports
- Sea Ports
AIRPORTS
- Commercial Airports
- Cargo Service Airports
- National Airports
 Other highway classifications by functions:
In the Philippines, roads and highways are classified and named according to their
functions. Based on DPWH D.O. No. 133, s. 2018, Philippine roads are classified as 7. BY-PASSES
follows: - These are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let
through traffic flow without interference from local traffic, reduce congestion and
1. NATIONAL ROADS improve road safety where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed system.
- National roads are continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line system.
8. PARKWAYS
● Primary roads - connect major cities (at least around 100,000 population) and comprise the - These are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of
national road system access, usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development.
● Secondary roads - connect cities to National Primary Roads, except in metropolitan areas;
connect major airports to National Primary Roads; connect tourist service centers to National TOPIC 2: CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING
Primary Roads or other National Secondary Roads; connect cities not classified as major
cities; connect provincial capitals within the same region; connect National Primary Roads to Along with its highway classifications, roads have different planning considerations based on
National Government Infrastructures their functions.
●Tertiary roads - other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function
NATIONAL ROADS
2. BYPASS/DIVERSION ROADS
- These roads divert through traffic away from the city/municipality business centers. ● Limited frontage access
● Development set well back from the highway
3. PROVINCIAL ROADS ● All access to premises provided via provincial roads
- Provincial roads connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads. ● Number of intersections are minimized
They also connect National Roads to major provincial infrastructures as well as to ●Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for minor flows and other elements
barangays through rural areas.
EXPRESSWAYS
4. MUNICIPAL AND CITY ROADS
- Roads within a Poblacion that provide inter-barangay connections to major municipal ● No frontage access
and city infrastructures without traversing Provincial Roads. ● Development set well back from the highway
● Grade-separated intersections for extremely high flows and other intersecting expressways
5. BARANGAY ROADS ● Number of intersections are minimized
- Other roads within the barangay and not covered in the above definitions ● Where necessary or for emergency purposes, parking/stopping to be provided clear of the
main carriageway
6. EXPRESSWAYS
PROVINCIAL ROADS
- These are highways with limited access, normally with interchanges. They may
include facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system. ● Limited frontage access. In exceptional
circumstances, large individual developments may have direct access when a high level
intersection is provided
● Development set back from the highway
● Most development to be given access via intersections with local distributor roads a. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION
● All intersections will normally be at-grade
● Turning traffic should be separated out from the through traffic Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
● Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote from the carriageway distance, cross sections and other design elements of a highway. Hills, valleys, steep slopes,
● Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly defined and controlled rivers and lakes often imposed limitations upon location and design. In the case of flat-land
● Parking on the road should not be permitted areas, topography in itself may exercise little if any control on location but it may cause
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay bys difficulties in some design elements such as drainage or grade separation.
● Regular stopping places should be identified and safe stopping places established
b. HIGHWAY LOCATION
CITY/MUNICIPAL ROADS
Highway location is concerned with gathering of pertinent data for more effective highway
● The road is only for local traffic; through traffic is adequately accommodated on an planning, design, construction and operation. It consists mainly of reconnaissance, topographic
alternative more direct main road surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical controls, centerline staking, centerline profile
● Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass through a residential area and cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey, parcellary survey, and other surveys related to
● Vehicle speeds should be kept low so long straight roads should be avoided highway engineering. The survey shall be under the direct supervision of a Locating Engineer.
● Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be made if possible
● Non-motorized traffic is of equal importance to motor traffic and separate should be provided ▪ Reconnaissance
if possible
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay-bys Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the best possible horizontal and vertical
● The road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give emphasis to crossing points alignments. Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and other controls are
depending upon traffic flows identified. Bridge crossings, expensive buildings and structures are also noted.
● Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient to discourage them Reconnaissance is substantiated by the study of available maps, and stereoscopic
● Where non-motorized traffic needs to use a local distributor it should be separated from examination of the site on foot, all of which aid in the elimination of costly locations to limit the
motorized traffic choice to one or two possible routes.

▪ Preliminary Survey
In the preliminary survey the topography of the strip or strips flagged is obtained and from
which a topographic map will be prepared to be utilized as the basic framework for projection
of the line in the office. The required preliminary borings shall include review of available
topographic and geologic information, plus aerial photographs, in addition to site examination.

▪ Utility Service Records

Depending on the location of a project, the utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers,
(2) water supply lines, (3) oil, gas and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and
underground power and communication lines including fiber optic cables, (5) cable
television lines, (6) wireless communication towers, (7) drainage and irrigation lines,
In addition to these considerations, the following design data are necessary in planning and and (8) special tunnels for building connections. Utility service providers should be
design of highways and railroads: consulted and records obtained for all services in a project area, including exact locations and
depths. Obtaining Utility service records benefits both highway agencies and the impacted Human Factors & Driver Performance
utilities in the following ways.
● Considerations includes driver tasks, use of the facility, errors and speed
▪ Unnecessary utility relocations are avoided
▪ Unexpected conflicts with utilities are reduced ● Properly designed highways that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a
▪ Safety is enhanced high level of efficiency and with relatively few crashes.
● The World Health Organization recorded 1.35 million people died due to road traffic
▪ Office Projection crashes.
● In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906 incidents of road traffic
In the office, the proposed highway line is projected on the topographic map which is fitted as crashes in Metro Manila alone.
close as possible into the terrain within the desired standards. Many lines should be tried so as ● Action Plan of the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the
to obtain the most economical line without increasing the cost of surveys. This is a following: (1) road safety management, (2) safe roads and mobility; (3) safe vehicles;
trial-and-error process to obtain the best line, in consideration of constraints such as (4) safe road users; and (5) post-crash care.
alignment, grades, sight
distances and compensation. VEHICLES

▪ Final Location Survey Four general classes of design vehicles are: (1) passenger cars
(2) buses
Final location survey is done to transfer the office projection of the best line to the actual site in (3) trucks
the field. Whenever possible, video logs of a site with chainages are a useful tool to assist the (4) recreational vehicles.
process of designing upgrading and rehabilitation schemes.
✔ General Rules:
LECTURE 3
▪ A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
THE SAFE SYSTEMS APPROACH ▪ A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential streets and park
roads.
- This approach is to accept the fact that mistakes will always be made on the road. ▪ A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector streets and other
Even the best drivers, riders and walkers make mistakes or wrong decisions. It is up facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
to road safety experts to come up with a way of eliminating incidents while taking into ▪ A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are designated bus routes and
account the fact that we are all human and that people make mistakes. that have relatively few large trucks using them.

Characteristics in optimizing or improving the design of the various highway and street Traffic Characteristics
functional classes:
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes and traffic
❑ Human Factors & Driver Performance characteristics.
❑ Vehicles
❑ Traffic Characteristics ✔ Traffic volumes obtained from field studies can indicate the need for improvement and
❑ Physical Elements directly influence the selection of geometric design features, such as number of lanes, widths,
❑ Economic Factors alignments and grades.
✔ Relevant studies include average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic, directional LECTURE 4.1 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAY AND RAILWAYS
distribution, composition of traffic, projection of future traffic demands, speed and traffic flow
relationships characterized by the volume flow rate in vehicles per hour, the average speed in Horizontal Alignment
kilometers per hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per kilometer.
In its simplest description, horizontal alignment of a roadway is all about road
Physical Elements corners/cornering. Horizontal curves provide a directional transition between two straight
✔ These elements include highway capacity, access control and management, pedestrians, sections of a roadway. The main concern in designing a horizontal curve is considering the
bicycle facilities, safety, and environment cornering capabilities of the vehicle.

✔ Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the benefits In connecting two straight roads, the most common is using a simple circular curve.
resulting from it. Other options may be reverse curves, compound curves, and spiral curves. Reverse curves
are just two simple circular curves that turn in opposite directions. Compound curves are
A design traffic data should include the following elements: circular curves in succession. Spiral curves have a continuously changing radius.

• ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified. Horizontal Curves (IMPORTANCE)
• ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
• DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified (DHV usually equals – To reduce speed of vehicles (for safety driving)
30 HV)
• K – ratio of DHV to ADT ; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8% to 12% for Urban. TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
• D – directional distribution for DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction of travel 1. Simple
expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from about 50% to 80% of two-way DHV 2. Compound
with an average of 67%. 3. Reverse
• T – trucks, exclusively of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of DHV. As an 4. Spiral
average on main rural highways, T is 7% to 9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where weekend
peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV. LECTURE 4.2 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAY AND RAILWAYS

Design controls of highway construction: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

A vertical curve provides a transition between two sloped roadways, allowing a
❑ Anticipated Traffic Volume vehicle to negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The
❑ Character of Traffic design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as well as
❑ Design Speed other factors including drainage, slope, acceptable rate of change, and friction. These curves
❑ Design Traffic (Vehicles) are parabolic and are assigned stationing based on a horizontal axis.
❑ Highway Capacity
❑ Classification of Highway VERTICAL CURVES
❑ Accident Information
IMPORTANCE :
To provide a smooth transition between two vertical tangent roads
TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

1. Symmetrical
● Summit curve
● Sag curve
2. Unsymmetrical

CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:

● The volume of traffic.

● Character of the traffic.
● Speed of the traffic.
● Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver

A cross section design generally offers the expected level of service

for safety and a recent study showed that:

1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less accident compared with pavement
narrower than 5.50 m. wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters wide
roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters
wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00 m. 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide
shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide
shoulder. And 20% compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide shoulder.

CROSS SECTION METHOD

The method of plotting the existing cross section perpendicular to a particular line for the
purpose of obtaining quantities such as volumes. The procedure involves staking the
centerline then elevations are obtained at strategic points on the right angle to the centerline at
intervals of full or half stations. Cross- sectional data is needed in estimating the amount of cut
or fill needed for a given strip of roadway.