Key Notes

Chapter 01
Real Numbers

• For given positive integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ there exist unique whole numbers ‘q’ and ‘r’ satisfying
the relation a = bq + r , 0 ≤ r < b. .
• Euclid’s division algorithms: HCF of any two positive integers a and b. With a > b is
obtained as follows:
Step 1: Apply Euclid’s division lemma to a and b to find q and r such that
a = bq + r , 0 ≤ r < b.
a= Dividend
b=Divisor
q=quotient
r=remainder
Step II: If r = 0, HCF ( a, b ) = b if r ≠ 0, apply Euclid’s lemma to b and r.
Step III: Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be the
required HCF
• The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every composite number can be expressed
(factorized) as a product of primes and this factorization is unique, apart from the order in
which the prime factors occur. Ex : 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 3 × 2 × 2 × 2
p
• Let x = , q ' ≠ 0 to be a rational number, such that the prime factorization of ‘q’ is of the
q
form 2m 5n, where m, n are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is
terminating.
p
• Let x = , q ≠ 0 be a rational number, such that the prime factorization of q is not of the
q
form 2m5n, where m, n are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is
non-terminating repeating.
• p is irrational, which p is a prime. A number is called irrational if it cannot be written in the
P
form where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q

Page 1 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-02
Polynomials

• An algebraic expression of the form a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ... + an −1 x + an , where a0 , a1 , a2 ...an

are real numbers, n is a non-negative integer and a0 ≠ 0 is called a polynomial of degree n.
• Degree: The highest power of x in a polynomial p(x) is called the degree of polynomial.
• Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials
respectively.
• Types of Polynomial:
(i) Constant Polynomial: A polynomial of degree zero is called a constant polynomial
and it is of the form p(x) = k.
(ii) Linear Polynomial: A polynomial of degree one is called linear polynomial and it is of
the form p(x) = ax + b where a, b are real numbers and a0 ≠ 0 .
(iii) Quadratic Polynomial: A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficient is of the
form ax + bx + c , where a, b, c are real numbers with a ≠ 0 .
2

(iv) Cubical Polynomial: A polynomial of degree three is called cubical polynomial and is
of the form p(x) = ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d where a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0 .
(v) Bi-quadratic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree four is called bi-quadratic
polynomial and it is of the form p ( x) = ax 2 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e , where a, b, c, d, e are
real numbers and a ≠ 0 .
• The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x–coordinates of the points where the
graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-axis i.e. x = a is a zero of polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0.
• A polynomial can have at most the same number of zeros as the degree of polynomial.
b c
• For quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0) Sum of zeros = − Produce of zeros =
a a
• The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and polynomial g(x), there are
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that: p ( x ) = g ( x ) .q ( x ) + r ( x ) , g ( x ) ≠ 0 where r(x) = 0 or
degree of r(x) < degree of g(x)
• The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and polynomial g(x), there are
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that: p(x) = g(x). q (x) + r(x), g(x) = 0 where r(x) = 0 or degree
of r(x) < degree of g(x).

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 Key Notes
Chapter-03
Pair of Linear Equation in Two Variables

• Algebraic Expression: A combination of constants and variables, connected by four

fundamental arithmetical operations of +, −, × and ÷ is called an algebraic expression. For
example, 3 x 2 + 4 xy − 5 y 2 is an algebraic expression.

• Equation: An algebraic expression with equal to sign (=) is called the equation. Without an
equal to sign, it is an expression only. For example, 3x + 9 = 0 is an equation, but 3x + 9 is an
expression.
• Linear Equation: If the greatest exponent of the variable(s) in a equation is one, then
equation is said to be a linear equation.
• The most general form of a pair of linear equations is:
a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0

a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 Where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 are real numbers and

a1
2 + b1
a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a 22 + b 22 ≠ 0.

• The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines;
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, the pair of equations is consistent. The point of
intersection gives the unique solution of the equation.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions. The pair of equations is
consistent. Each point on the line will be a solution.
(iii) If the lines are parallel, the pair of the linear equations has no solution. The pair of
linear equations is inconsistent.
• If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1Y + c1 = 0 and a 2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0

a1 b1
(i) ≠ ⇒ the pair of linear equations is consistent. (Unique solution).
a 2 b2

a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ≠ ⇒ the pair of linear equations is inconsistent (No solution).
a 2 b2 c2

a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = ⇒ the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent (infinitely
a 2 b2 c2
many solutions).

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 Key Notes
Chapter-04
Quadratic Equation

• Quadratic Polynomial: A polynomial of the form ax 2 + bx + c is called a quadratic expression

in the variable x. This is a polynomial of the second degree. In quadratic expression
ax 2 + bx + c , a is the coefficient of x 2 , b is the coefficient of x and c is the constant term (or
coefficient of x° ..

• Quadratic Equation: An equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a ≠ 0 , is called a quadratic

equation in one variable x, where a, b, c are constants.

• The equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 is the standard form of a quadratic equation, where

a, b and c are real numbers.

• A real number α is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 .

If aα 2 + bα + c = 0, the zeroes of quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c and the roots of the
quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.

• If we can factorise ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 into product of two linear factors, then the

roots of the quadratic equation can be found by equating each factors to zero.

−b ± b2 − 4ac
• The roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 are given by ,
2a
provided that b 2 – 4ac ≥ 0.

• A quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 has ___________

(a) Two distinct and real roots, if b 2 − 4ac > 0.

(b) Two equal and real roots, if b 2 − 4ac = 0.

(c) Two roots are not real, if b 2 − 4ac < 0.

• A quadratic equation can also be solved by the method of completing the square.

(i) a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b)
2

(ii) a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ( a -b )
2

• Discriminant of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 is given by D = b 2 − 4ac .

Page 4 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-05
Arithmetic Progression

• Sequence: A set of numbers arranged in some definite order and formed according to some
rules is called a sequence.

• Progression: The sequence that follows a certain pattern is called progression.

• Arithmetic Progression: A sequence in which the difference obtained by subtracting any

term from its preceding term is constant throughout, is called an arithmetic sequence or
arithmetic progression (A.P.). The general form of an A.P. is a, a + d, a + 2d, ... (a: first term
common difference).

• General Term: If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is common difference in an A.P., then n th term
(general term) is given by an = a + (n – 1) d .

• The formula an = a + (n − 1)d contains four quantities an , a, n and d. Three quantities being

given, the fourth can be find out by using the above relation.

• If only two quantities are given, two conditions (equations) in the problem should be given.
Therefore, to determine these two unknowns, we have to solve both the conditions
(equations) linearly.

• Sum of n Terms of an A.P.: If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference of an A.P.,
n
then sum of first n terms is given by Sn = {2a + (n − 1) d} If ‘l’ is the last term of a finite A.P.
2
n
then the sum is given by Sn = {a + l}
2

• (i) If a n is given, then common difference d = a n − a n −1.

(ii) If Sn is given, then n th term is given by a n = s n − s n −1

(iii) If a, b, c is in A.P., then 2b = a + c.

(iv) If a sequence has n terms, its r th term from the end = (n − r + 1) th term from the

beginning.

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 Key Notes
Chapter-06
Triangles

• Similar Triangles: Two triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding angles are
equal and their corresponding sides are proportional.

• All congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.

• Two polygons with same number of sides are similar, if

(i) Their corresponding angles are equal and

(ii) Their corresponding sides are in the same ration (i.e., proportion).

• Criteria for Similarity: in and ∆ABCand ∆DEF

(i) AAA Similarity: ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF When ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and ∠C = ∠F

AB BC
(ii) SAS Similarity: ∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF when = and ∠B = ∠E
DE EF

AB AC BC
(iii) SSS Similarity: ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF, = =
DE DF EF

• The proof of the following theorems can be asked in the examination:

(i) Basic Proportionality Theorem: If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to
intersect the other sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same
ratio.

(ii) The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides.

(iii) Pythagoras Theorem: In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.

(iv) Converse of Pythagoras Theorem: In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides then the angle opposite to the first side is
a right angle.

• Right Angled Triangle:

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 Key Notes
(i) If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the
hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the
Whole triangle and also to each other.

(ii) In the right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square of
the other two sides (Pythagoras Theorem).

(iii) If in a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, then the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle.

• Thales Theorem: If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two
sides in distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio (Basic
Proportionally Theorem or Thales Theorem).

• If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
third side.

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 Key Notes
CHAPTER - 07
COORDINATE GEOMETRY

1. Distance Formula
2. Section Formula
3. Area of a Triangle

1. Distance Formula: The length of a line segment joining A and B is the distance
between two points and is

2. The distance of a point from the origin is . The distance of P from x-

axis is y units and from y-axis is x-units.

3. Section Formula: The co-ordinates of the points p(x, y) which divides the line segment
joining the points and in the ratio are

we can take ratio as

4. Mid-point Formula: The mid-points of the line segment joining the points

is

5. Area of a Triangle: The area of the triangle formed by the points

is the numeric value of the expressions
.

6. If three points are collinear then we cannot draw a triangle, so the area will be zero i.e.

Page 8 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-08

Introduction to Trigonometry

• Trigonometry is the branch of Mathematics which deals with the measurement of sides and
angles of the triangles.
• In a right triangle ABC, right-angled at B,
side opposite to angle A side opposite to angle A
• sin A = , cos A =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
side opposite to angle A
s tan A =
side adjacent to angle A

1 1
cos ec A = ;sec A =
sin A cos A

1 sin A
tan A = , tan A =
cot A cos A

• If one of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining trigonometric
ratios of the angle can be easily determined.
• The values of trigonometric ratios for angles 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
• The value of sin A or cos A never exceeds 1, whereas the value of sec A or cosec A is always
greater than or equal to 1.
• sin (90° – A) = cos A, cos (90° – A) = sin A;
• tan (90° – A) = cot A, cot (90° – A) = tan A;
• sec (90° – A) = cosec A, cosec (90° – A) = sec A.
• sin 2 A + cos2 A = 1,
• sec2 A – tan2 A = 1 for 0° ≤ A < 90°,
• cos ec 2 A = 1 + cot2 A for 0° < A ≤ 90º.

Page 9 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-09
Some Application to Trigonometry

• The height or length of an object or the distance between two distant objects can be
determined with the help of trigonometric ratio.

• The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point of the object
viewed by the observer.

• Trigonometric Ratios: In ∆ABC, ∠B = 90o , for angle ' A '

Perpendicular Base P erpendicular

Sin A = , Cos A = , tan A =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Base

Base Hypotenuse Hypotenuse

Cot A = , Sec A = , cos ec A =
Perpendicular Base Perpendicular

• Reciprocal Relations:

1 1
sin θ = , cos ec θ =
cos ec θ sin θ

1 1
cos θ = , s ec θ =
s ec θ cos θ

1 1
tan θ = , cot θ =
cot θ tan θ

• Quotient Relations:

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = , cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

• Identities: sin 2 + cos 2 = 1 ⇒ sin 2 θ = 1 – cos 2θ and cos 2 θ = 1 – sin 2 θ

Page 10 of 20
 Key Notes
1 + cot 2 θ = cos ec2θ ⇒ cot 2 θ = cos ec2θ − 1 and cos ec2θ − cot 2 θ = 1
1 + tan 2 θ = sec2 θ ⇒ tan 2 θ = sec2 θ − 1 and sec2 θ − tan 2 θ = 1

• Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles:

• Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles:

sin (90o − θ) = cos θ , cos (90o − θ) = sin θ , tan (90o − θ) = cot θ

cot (90o − θ) = tan θ , sec (90o − θ) = cos ec θ , cos ec (90o − θ) = sec θ

• Line of Sight: The line of sight is the line drawn from the eyes of an observer to a point in the
object viewed by the observer.

• Angle of Elevation: The angle of elevation is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal, when it is above the horizontal level i.e. the case when we raise our head to look at
the object.

• Angle of Depression: The angle of depression is the angle formed by the line of sight with
the horizontal when it is below the horizontal i.e. case when we lower our head to look at the
object.

Page 11 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-10

Circles

• Circles: A circle is a collection of all those points in a plane which are at a constant distance
(radius) from a fixed point (center).

• Secant: A line which intersects a circle in two distinct points is called a secant of the circle.

• Tangent to a Circle: The tangent to a circle is a special case of secant, when the two end
points of its corresponding chord coincide.

(i) There is no tangent to a circle passing through a point lying inside the circle.

(ii) There is one and only one tangent to a circle passing through a point lying on the
circle.

(iii) There are exactly two tangents to a circle through a point outside the circle.

• Length of the Tangent:

(i) The length of the segment of the tangent from the external point and the point of
contact with the circle is called the length of the tangent from the external point to the
circle.

(ii) The length of two tangents drawn from the same external point are equal.

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 Key Notes
Chapter-11

Constructions

• "Construction" in Geometry means to draw shapes, angles or lines accurately.

These constructions use only compass, straightedge (i.e. ruler) and a pencil. This is the "pure"
form of geometric construction: no numbers involved.

• Construction should be neat and clean and as per scale given in question.

• Steps of construction should be provided only to those questions where it is mentioned.

• Used of Construction:

(i) The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle passes through its center.

(ii) Tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

(iii) The angle which tangent makes with a chord of a circle is equal to the angle in its
alternate segment.

(iv) Angles in the same segment are equal.

(v) The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the line joining the center and the point of
contact.

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 Key Notes
Chapter-12

Area Related to Circles

• Circle: A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its distance
from a fixed point always remains the same. The fixed point is called the center and given
constant distance is known as the radius of the circle.

• Segment of a Circle: The portion (or part) of a circular region enclosed between a chord and
the corresponding arc is called a segment of the circle. In adjacent fig. APB is minor segment
and AQB is major segment.

• Sector of a Circle: The portion (or part) of the circular region enclosed by the two radii and
the corresponding arc is called a sector of the circle. In adjacent figure OAPB is minor sector
and OAQB is the major sector.

• Area of circle = πr 2 where ‘r’ is the radius of the circle.

πr 2
• Area of Semi circle =
2

• Area enclosed by two concentric circles

= π(R 2 − r 2 )
= π(R + r)(R − r); R > r

Page 14 of 20
 Key Notes
where ‘R’ and ‘r’ are radii of two concentric circles.

• The arc length ‘l’ of a sector of angle ' θ ' in a circle of radius ‘r’ is given by

θ
l= × 2πr
360o

θ
l= × 2πr
180o

θ
• If the arc subtends an angle θ , then area of the corresponding sector is o
× πr 2
360

• Angle described by minute hand in 60 minutes = 360°. Angle described by minute hand in 1
 360o 
minute =  =6
o

 60 

Page 15 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-13

Surface Areas and Volumes

• Cylinder: A solid obtained by revolving a rectangular lamina about one of its sides is called a
right circular cylinder.

• Right Circular Cone: A solid obtained by revolving a right-angled triangular lamina about
any side (other than the hypotenuse) is called a right circular cone.

• Sphere: A sphere is a solid obtained on revolving a circle about any of its diameters.

• Hemisphere: When a sphere is cut by a plane through its center into two equal parts, then
each part is called a hemisphere.

• Spherical Shell: The solid enclosed between two concentric sphere is called a spherical shell.

• Hemisphere Shell: The solid enclosed between two concentric hemispheres is called a
hemispherical shell.

• Frustum of a Cone: If a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base of the cone, then the
portion between this plane and the base is called the frustum of the cone.

• Curved surface area of cylinder of radius r and height h = 2πrh square units.

• Total surface area of cylinder of radius r and height h = 2πr ( r + h ) square units.

• Volume of cylinder of radius r and height h = πrh cubic units.

• Curved surface area of cone of radius r, height h and slant height l = πrl square units where

l = r2 + h2

• Total surface area of cone = πr ( l + r ) sq. units.

1
• Volume of cone = πr 2 h cubic units.
3

• Total surface area of sphere of radius r units = 4πr 2 sq. units.

• Curved surface area of hemisphere of radius r units = 2πr 2 sq. units.

• Total surface area of a solid hemisphere of radius r units = 3πr 2 sq. units.

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 Key Notes
4
• Volume of sphere of radius r units = πr 3 cubic units.
3

2
• Volume of hemisphere of radius r units = πr 3 cubic units.
3

• Curved surface area of frustum = πl ( r + R ) +π(r 2 +R 2 ) sq. units . where l slant height of

frustum and radii of circular ends are r and R.

• Total surface area of frustum = πl(r + R) + π(r 2 + R 2 ) sq. units.

Volume of Frustum = = πh(r 2 + R 2 + rR) cubic units. Where l = h + (R − r)

2 2
1
•
3

Page 17 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-14

Statistics

• Mean: The arithmetic mean (or, simply mean) is the sum of the values of all the observations
divided by the total number of observation.

• The mean for grouped data can be found by:

(i) The direct method = X =

∑ fixi
∑ fi

(ii) The assumed mean method X = a +

∑ fidi , Where d i = x i − a.
∑ fi
∑ fiui X −a
(iii) The step deviation method: X = a + × h, where U l = i
∑ fi h

• The mode for the grouped data can be found by using the formula:

 f1 − f 0 
mod e = l +   ×h
 2f1 − f 0 − f 2 

l = lower limit of the modal class.

f1 = frequency of the modal class.

fo = frequency of the preceding class of the modal class.

f2 = frequency of the succeeding class of the modal class.

h = size of the class interval.

Modal class - class interval with highest frequency.

• The median for the grouped data can be found by using the formula:

 n / 2 − Cf 
median = l +   × h
 f

l = lower limit of the median class.

n = number of observations.

Page 18 of 20
 Key Notes
Cf = cumulative frequency of class interval preceding the median class.

f = frequency of median class.

h = class size.

• Empirical Formula: Mode = 3 median - 2 mean.

• Cumulative frequency curve or an Ogive:

(i) Ogive is the graphical representation of the cumulative frequency distribution.

(ii) Less than type Ogive:

• Construct a cumulative frequency table.

• Mark the upper class limit on the x = axis.

(i) More than type Ogive:

(ii) Construct a frequency table.

(iii) Mark the lower class limit on the x-axis.

• To obtain the median of frequency distribution from the graph:

(i) Locate point of intersection of less than type Ogive and more than type Ogive:

(ii) Draw a perpendicular from this point on x-axis.

(iii) The point at which it cuts the x-axis gives us the median.

Page 19 of 20
 Key Notes
Chapter-15

Probability

• Probability: If there are n elementary events associated with a random experiment and m of
them are favourable to an event A then the probability of happening of event A is defined as
m
the ratio and is denoted by P(A).
n

• The Theoretical probability of an event E written as (E) is

Number of outcomes favourable of E

P(E)=
Number of all possible outcomes of the exp eriment

• The sum of the probability of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.

• The probability of a sure event is 1 and probability of an impossible event is 0.

• ( )
If E is an event, in general, it is true that P ( E ) + P E = 1.

• From the definition of the probability, the numerator is always less than or equal to the
denominator therefore 0 ≤ P ( E ) ≤ 1 .

• Elementary Event: An outcome of a random experiment is called an elementary event.

• Compound Event: An event associated to a random experiment is a compound event, if it is

obtained by combining two or more elementary events associated to the random experiment.

• Sure Event: Those events whose probability is one.

• Impossible Event: Those events whose probability is zero.

• Occurrence of an Event: An event A associated to a random experiment is said to occur, if

any one of the elementary events associated to the event A is an outcome.

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