Outline of EE30041

I. Introduction and Review

II. State Space (Time-Domain Analysis)

III. Frequency-Domain Analysis

IV.Nonlinear System Analysis

 State Space

1. Introduction and Concepts

2. Canonical Forms
3. Transformation between State Space and
Transfer Function
4. Solutions of State Equations (Transition
Matrix and Matrix Exponential).
5. Controllability and Observability
6. Pole Placement and State Observer
State Space: Modeling

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 State Space Representation

Methods for (Dynamic) System Description or Modelling:

1. Differential Equations
2. Transfer Function
3. Block Diagram & Signal Flow Graph
4. State Space Representation

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State Space Representation
MIMO

system

Input-Output (I/O) mode State Space mode

Black box Dynamic properties

State Space is different from I/O mode (Black box)! 5

 Basic Terms & Definitions

(1) State: The conditions of the system in history, present,

and future.

(2) State Variables: A minimum set of variables, x1(t),…xn(t),

such that knowledge of these variables at any time t0, plus
information of the input signals, u(t), t>t0, are sufficient to
determine the state of the system at any time t>t0. (easy to
be measured) (energy storage elements)

(3) State Vector：Take n independent state variables

x1 (t ), , xn (t )
of a system as the vector of a component
x (t ) =  x1 (t ), , xn (t ) 
T 6
Basic Terms & Definitions

(4) State Space：Using the state variables

x1 (t ), , xn (t )
as the axis to construct a n dimensional space

(5) State Equations:

A collection of first order ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) that represent the relationship between inputs and
state variables.
dx1 (t )
= f1 ( x1 ,...xn , u1 ,..., um )
dt
x(t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu (t )
dxn (t )
= f n ( x1 ,...xn , u1 ,..., um )
7
dt
Basic Terms & Definitions

(6) Output Equations：Describe the relationship

between the outputs and the state variables & inputs：

y (t ) = Cx(t ) + Du (t )
Output equations are defined by users!
(7) State Space Representation: (5)+(6)

State Equations x(t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu(t )

Output Equations y(t ) = Cx(t ) + Du (t )

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Features of State Variables

(1) Independence：The state variables are linearly independent.

(2) Variety：The state variables are not unique, and they can be
selected in numerous ways theoretically.

(3) Equivalence：The two state vectors can be exchanged via a

nonsingular transformation.

(4) Reality：State variables are usually selected from the definite

physical variables in reality.

(5) Abstract：State variable can be selected from variables without

definite physical meaning if needed.
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General Form of State Space Representation

(1) Linear system

x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B (t )u (t )

x  Rn , u  R , y  R
q
y (t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u (t )
p

where，A is the system matrix，B is the control matrix，C is the

output matrix ，D is the direct transfer matrix.

(2) Nonlinear system

x(t ) = f ( x(t ), u (t ), t ) x = f ( x, u , t )
or
y (t ) = g ( x(t ), u (t ), t ) y = g ( x, u , t )
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State Space Representation in Graph

State Equation

Output Equation

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 State Graph

adder integrator amplifier

Steps for state graph：

(1) plot integrators
(2) plot adders and amplifiers
(3) connect the components, the arrows indicate the direction of signal
flow.
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State Graph

Example 11.1

The state equation of a first-order system is

x = ax + bu
The state graph is

u
b x
bu x x
+
a

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State Graph
Example 11.1
x = ax + bu

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State Graph
Example 11.2
The state space of a third-order system is
x1 = x2
x2 = x3
x3 = −6 x1 − 3 x2 − 2 x3 + u
y = x1 + x2
The state graph is

u x3 x2 x1 y
+
++
-2
-3
-6
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State Graph
Example 11.2 x1 = x2
x2 = x3
x3 = −6 x1 − 3 x2 − 2 x3 + u
y = x1 + x2
for output equation

u x3 x2 x1 + y
+
++
-2
-3
-6

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Construct State Space Representation

Method 1- Based on physical description

Method 2- Based on differential equations or

transfer functions

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Construct State Space Representation

Method 1- Based on the physical description

Example 11.3 : A circuit is shown as follows

L R2 duC
diL 1
iL = (u − L ) +C
iL dt R1 dt
u R1 uc
diL duC
L +C R2 + uC = u
dt dt

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Construct State Space Representation

diL u iL R1 R2 uC R1
Arrange as： = − −
dt L L R1 + R2 L R1 + R2
duC R1 1
= iL − uC
dt C ( R1 + R2 ) C ( R1 + R2 )
选择状态变量
State variables：
Energy storage elements
x1 = iL , x2 = uC ,
dx1 1 R1 R2 R1 x2 u
=− x1 − −+
State equations dt L R1 + R2 R1 + R2 L L
dx2 R1 1
= x1 − x2
dt C ( R1 + R2 ) C ( R1 + R2 )

Output equation y = uC = x2
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Construct State Space Representation

Written in Matrix

 1 R1 R2 R1 
 − −   1
 x1   L R1 + R2 L( R1 + R2 )  x1   
 + L u
x  =    x2   
 2 R
−
1
 C(R + R )  0
 1 2 C ( R1 + R2 ) 

x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B (t )u (t )

 x1 
y =  0 1  
 x2  y (t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u (t )

xR , 2
u  R 1
, y  R1

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Construct State Space Representation

 1 R1 R2 R1 
 − −   1
 x1   L R1 + R2 L( R1 + R2 )  x1   
 + L u
x  =    x2   
 2 R
−
1
 C(R + R )  0
 1 2 C ( R1 + R2 ) 

 x1  x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B(t )u (t )

y =  0 1  
 x2  y(t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u(t )

x  R2 , u  R , y  R
1 1

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Construct State Space Representation

 1 R1 R2 R1 
 − −   1
 x1   L R1 + R2 L( R1 + R2 )  x1   
 + L u
x  =    x2   
 2 R
−
1
 C(R + R )  0
 1 2 C ( R1 + R2 ) 

 x1  x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B(t )u (t )

y =  0 1  
 x2  y(t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u(t )

x  R2 , u  R , y  R
1 1

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Construct State Space Representation

 1 R1 R2 R1 
 − −   1
 x1   L R1 + R2 L( R1 + R2 )  x1   
 + L u
x  =    x2   
 2 R
−
1
 C(R + R )  0
 1 2 C ( R1 + R2 ) 

 x1  x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B(t )u (t )

y =  0 1  
 x2  y(t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u(t )

x  R2 , u  R , y  R
1 1

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 Construct State Space Representation
Example 11.4
An electric motor system is shown
in the right figure R L

¦È

u = uR + uL + uM
u uf J

diL d Rf
= iR R + L + Ce
dt dt
Rotate angle of
electrical motor

electromotive force (EMF) constant

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Construct State Space Representation

u = uR + uL + uM R L

diL d ¦È
= iR R + L + Ce u uf J
dt dt
Rf

d 2 d
Cm i = J 2 + f
dt dt
viscous friction
coefficient

moment of inertia

electromagnetic torque
constant
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Construct State Space Representation
u = uR + uL + uM R L
diL d
= iR R + L + Ce ¦È
dt dt u uf J

Rf

d 2 d
Cmi = J 2 + f
dt dt
Then： x1 = x2
f Cm
x2 = − x2 + x3
State variables are selected as J J
Ce R 1
x1 =  , x2 =  , x3 = i x3 = − x2 − x3 + u;
L L L
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Construct State Space Representation

Output equation：
y =  = x1
State space is written in matrix：

 x1  0 1 0   x1   0 
 x  = 0 − f J C J   x2  +  0  u
 2  m    
 x3  0 − Ce L − R L   x3  1 L 
 x1 
y = 1 0 0  x2 
 
 x3 

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Construct State Space Representation

Output equation：
y =  = x1
State space is written in matrix ：

 x1  0 1 0   x1   0 
 x  = 0 − f J C J   x2  +  0  u
 2  m    
 x3  0 − Ce L − R L   x3  1 L 
 x1  x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B(t )u (t )
y = 1 0 0  x2 
  y(t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u(t )
 x3 
x  R3 , u  R1 , y  R
1

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Construct State Space Representation
Example 11.5
A dynamic motion system is shown as follows

d2s ds
ma = f = u − ks − hv m 2 = u − ks − h
dt dt
x1 = x2
k h 1 x1 = s, x2 = s
x2 = − x1 − x2 + u
m m m
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horizontal displacement
Construct State Space Representation

Output equation ：
y = s = x1
State space is written in matrix ：

 0 1  0
 x1    x1
x  =  k

h   +  1 u
 2 − −   x2   
 m m m
x(t ) = A(t ) x(t ) + B(t )u (t )
 x1 
y = 1 0   y(t ) = C (t ) x(t ) + D(t )u(t )
 2
x
x  R 2 , u  R1 , y  R
1

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Construct State Space Representation
Example 3-3, Ogata (pp.73-74)

State Variables

State
Equation

Output Equation
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Construct State Space Representation
Summary of Method 1- Based on the physical description

 Identify input(s), output(s) and number of state variables of

the system
 Key point:
# of states = # of energy storage elements
 Identify first order ODE of each state (i.e., to find the time
derivative of each state).

 x1     x1     u1 
x    x    u 
d  2   2+  2 
=
dt        
       
 xn     xn    um  32
Construct State Space Representation
Summary of Method 1- Based on the physical description
Exceptions
 Two of the same type of elements connected together are
treated as one element.
For example, two massed moving together, two springs in
series or in parallel are treated as one element (mass or
spring).

Output Equations

y = C x(t ) + Du (t )
C and D depend on the user selected output signal(s), purely
determined algebraically. No dynamics (do not depend on
the matrices A and B) 33
to be continued………

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