Logic

ELEMENTARY LOGIC

Logic comes from the Greek word “logos” which means an idea, an argument or a
reason. It is the study of correct reasoning. It is the scientific method of judging the truth or
falsity of statements. Understanding this concept enables one to refrain from making
mistakes in his own reasoning, and it allows us to evaluate the reasoning of others. It makes
us better thinkers. Moreover, through logic, we are able to determine the validity of
arguments in and out of mathematics and it illustrates the importance of precision
and conciseness of the language of mathematics.
Mathematical logic is a broad subject but this section will cover only a brief treatment
of the elementary ideas of logic.

Definition: A proposition is a statement that is either true or false but not both true and false
under the same condition. Generally, a proposition is a declarative sentence.
Examples:
(a) Mayon Volcano is in Naga City.
(b) 14 is an even number.
(c) (-1, 0) is a point on the y-axis.
Some declarative sentences are also propositions, and determining whether it is true or false
depends on the specific value of the variable being used. Here are some examples.
(a) x + 4 = 10.
(b) He wrote the book “Mathematics in the Modern World”.
Note: Any sentence which contains a variable is called an open sentence.

Propositions are represented by small letters such as p, q and r. These letter symbols are
called sentential variables.
Examples: p: The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
q: 1 + 7 ≠ 7.
r: The cubic equation x3 – 8 = 0 has a root equal to 2 of multiplicity 3.
Definition 16: A compound proposition is a proposition formed by combining two or more
simple statements. It is formed with the use of logical connectives like “and”, “or”, “if ... then”,
and “if...and only if...”.

Types of Compound Propositions

1. Conjunction
Given any propositions p and q, the compound proposition “p and q” , written p ^ q, is
called the conjunction of p and q or simply a conjunction.
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The only way for a conjunction to be true is when all its components are true.

p q p^q Example:
p: June has 31 days.
T T T
q: 5 is odd.
T F F
p ^ q: June has 31 days and 5 is odd.
F T F
F F F Truth Value: False since p is false and q is true.

2. Disjunction
Given any propositions p and q, the compound proposition “p or q” , written as p v q, is
called the disjunction of p and q. In the discussion, the inclusive sense (one, or the other,
or both) is used.
The only way for a disjunction to be false is when all its components are false.

p q pvq Examples:
p: Taal Volcano is in Laguna.
T T T q: 3 + 2 = 6
T F T
p v q: Taal Volcano is in Laguna or 3 + 2 = 5.
F T T
Truth Value: True since p is true and q is false.
F F F

3. Negation
Negation is the denial of a statement. It uses phrases such as “not”, “it is not true that”
or “it is false that”. It can be written symbolically as ~.
If p is any proposition, then its negation is denoted by ~p
Examples:
Proposition Truth Negation of the Proposition Truth
Value Value
1. p: 5 is divisible by 2. False ¬p : 5 is not divisible by 2. True

2: q: 4 + 2 = 6. True ¬q: 4 + 2 ≠ 6. False

4. Conditional Proposition (Implication)

Given any propositions p and q, the compound proposition “if p, then q ” , written as p →
q, is called a conditional proposition or an implication. p is the antecedent or
hypothesis while q is the consequent or conclusion.
The only way for an implication to be false is when p is true and q is false.
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p q p →q Examples:
p: 32 = 6
T T T q: 5 is odd.
T F F
p → q: If 32 = 6, then 5 is odd.
F T T
F F T Truth Value: True since p is false and q is true.

Variants of a Conditional Statement

Condition/Implication : p → q
Converse : q → p
Inverse : ¬p → ¬q
Contrapositive : ¬q → ¬p

5. Biconditional Proposition (Double Implication or Equivalence)

Given any propositions p and q, the compound proposition “p if and only if q”, written as
p  q is called a biconditional proposition or an equivalence proposition.

The only way for biconditional to be false is when p and q have different truth values.

p q pq Examples:
p: 52 = 32 + 42
T T T q: 3 - 5  
T F F
p  q: 52 = 32 + 42 if and only if 3 - 5  .
F T F
F F T Truth Value: False since p is true and q is false.

QUANTIFIERS

Definition: Quantifiers are constructs that specify the quantity of specimens in the domain
of discourse that satisfy a formula.

2 Kinds of Quantifiers:
1. Universal Quantifier symbolized by ∀ means “for all, for every, for any”.
2. Existential Quantifier symbolized by  means “for some, there exists”.
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Definition: A statement involving a quantifier is called a quantified statement. Just like an

ordinary statement (proposition), a quantified statement has also its truth value.
Examples:
1. For all natural numbers x, x + 5 = 10.
1. For every real numbers x and y, x + y = y + x.
2. For some natural numbers x, x - 3 = 5.
3. There exists an integer such that 2x – 7 = 3.
4. For every real numbers x, there exists a real number y such that xy = 1 and yx = 1.

Note:
Two or more quantifiers of the same kind or of different kinds may be used in a single
sentence as in (5).

Definition: Universally quantified statements are denoted by x P(x) while

existentially quantified statements are denoted by x P(x) where P(x) is a
propositional function with domain of discourse D.
Remark:
1. x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for every x in D.
2. x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least one x in D.
Examples:
Convention/Symbol Truth Value
1. For all natural numbers x, x + 5 = 10. x x + 5 = 10 False
2. For every real numbers x, 1/x  R x 1/x False

Examples:
Convention/Symbol Truth Value
1. For some natural numbers x, x - 3 = 5. x x - 3 = 5 True
2. There exists an integer such that 2x – 7 = 3. x 2x – 7 = 3 True

NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS

Examples:
1. P: All math majors are male.
Notation: ∀x P(x)
Negation: There is at least one math major who is not a male.
2. P: Some teachers in the Department of Mathematics know how to operate a
computer.
Notation: x P(x)
Negation: All teachers in the Department of Mathematics do not know how
to operate a computer.