BASIC STATISTICS CONCEPT

• STATISTICS (singular sense) – a science that deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
numerical data
• STATISTICS (plural sense) – quantitative or numerical data
• DATA - information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses

GENERAL USES OF STATISTICS

Ø Aids in decision making by
a. providing comparison
b. explaining action that has taken place
c. justifying a claim or assertion
d. predicting future outcome
e. estimating unknown quantities
Ø Summarizes data for public use

2 TYPES OF STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS – is concerned with the collection, organization, and summarizing of a set of data without drawing
conclusions or inferences. Uses graphs, tables, percentages and averages as tools

Examples:

¨ A bowler wants to determine his bowling average for the past 12 games.
¨ A housewife wants to determine the average weekly amount she spent on groceries in the past three months

2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – is concerned with the formulation of predictions or inferences about a population using the
information gathered from a sample

Examples:

¨ A bowler wants to estimate his chance of winning a game based on his current season averages and the averages of his
opponents
¨ A housewife would like to predict, based on last year’s grocery bills, the average weekly amount she will spend on
groceries for this year.

Practice 1: Identify whether each statement tells about Descriptive Statistics or Inferential Statistics.

1. __ Out of the three hundred commerce graduates of UNO-R last year, two hundred sixty are already employed.
2. __ A politician would like to estimate, based on opinion poll, his chance of winning in the upcoming election.
3. __ A teacher summarizes students’ grades by finding the mean, median and mode.
4. __ A student would like to assess his possibility of passing the licensure examination.
5. __ A school estimates the possible number of enrollees for the next 10 years.

TYPES OF DATA
1. QUANTITATIVE DATA – data which can be subjected to arithmetic operations (number responses)
- indicates how many or how much
a. DISCRETE DATA – data which can be obtained through counting (whole number)

b. CONTINUOUS DATA – data which can be obtained through measuring. They can assume any value within a
specified interval or range (decimal)

2. QUALITATIVE DATA – a variable which categorizes or describes an individual or item (word responses)

Practice2:

Classify each of the following data as quantitative or qualitative. If quantitative, determine if it is discrete or continuous.

1. IQ score of a student – 6. number of admissions in a hospital –

2. speed of a car - 7. political affiliation -
3. blood type of a patient - 8. monthly income of a teacher –
4. brand of toothpaste - 9. time required to repair a television –
5. weight of a package - 10. place of residence -

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SCALES (or LEVEL) OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Scale - qualitative only; numbers merely used to NAME OR LABEL differences in kind
- No mathematical computations can be made at this level
- Example: a) religion
b) blood type

2. Ordinal Scale - qualitative or quantitative

- numbers are used to ORDER OR RANK the data according to magnitude. However, the differences or ratios
between such numbers are meaningless.
- Example: a) consumers’ satisfaction : very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, not satisfied
b) rank in class standing: first, second, third

3. Interval Scale - quantitative

- the distance between two numbers is the same, but there is no absolute zero point
- it is inappropriate to express Interval level measurements as ratios
- Example: a) temperature in Celsius (or Fahrenheit) scale
b) time of day in a 12-hour clock

4. Ratio Scale - same as the interval scale, but there is a fixed zero point which allows for the interpretation of ratio comparisons
- applies to data that can be ranked and for which all arithmetic operations can be used
- Example: a) grade average
b) years of experience

Practice 3:
Classify the following data as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio:
1. brands of softdrinks 6. Shoe size
2. birth orders of children in the family 7. colors of shirts
3. scores in a test 8. ratings of colleges
4. speed of cars 9. ages of employees
5. models of cellphones 10. distance from UNO-R to your residence

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

POPULATION - includes all members of a defined group that are under study
• SAMPLE - a subset of a population
ü A parameter is a numerical description of a population characteristic.
ü A statistic is a numerical description of a sample characteristic.
Example:
The mean income of all subscribers of Sky Cable is P12,000. We draw a random
sample of 100 subscribers and find that their mean income is P14,000. Identify
the population, sample, parameter, and statistic.
Answer:
(a) population: all subscribers of Sky Cable
(b) sample: 100 randomly selected subscribers
(c) parameter: P12,000
(d) statistic: P14,000
Practice 4:
Determine whether the underlined value is a STATISTIC or a PARAMETER.
1. S In a large sample of households, the median annual income per household for high school graduates is P15,856.
2. P Among the U.S. Senators in the current Congress, 44% are Democrats.
3. P A study of all 2223 passengers aboard the Titanic found that 706 survived when it sank.
4. P If the areas of the 50 states of America are added and the sum is divided by 50, the result is 196,533 square kilometers.
5. P The average (mean) atomic weight of all elements in the periodic table is 134.355 unified atomic mass units.
6. P A researcher found that the average voltage supplied to his home on 40 different days is 123.7 volts.
7. S In a sample of 1200 students, 73% did not like tests.
8. S Sixty-two of the 97 passengers aboard the M/V San Juan survived its explosion.
9. P In a recent year, the average math scores of all the takers of NSAT was 81.0.
10. P 68% of students out of 1000 surveyed planned to go to college right after high school.

A STATISTICAL INVESTIGATION involves the following steps:

1. Collection of Data
2. Organization and Presentation of Data
3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

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COLLECTION OF DATA

SOURCES OF DATA
1. PRIMARY OR DIRECT SOURCE
Ex: government agencies, business firms, organizations, individuals who have first-hand information relevant to the
given problem
2. SECONDARY SOURCE
Ex: newspapers, magazines, journal, WEBSITES

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

1. SURVEYS – soliciting information from people

- may be administered through
a. QUESTIONNAIRE – written questions mailed or hand-carried to intended respondents; inexpensive method that is
useful where literacy rates are high and respondents are cooperative (GOOGLE FORMS – ONLINE)

b. INTERVIEW – a person-to-person encounter between the one soliciting information (interviewer) and the one
supplying the data (interviewee); more expensive than questionnaires, but they are better for more complex
questions, low literacy or less cooperation. (OPEN ENDED & CLOSED ENDED-EXACT FIGURE) – ORGANIZATION
STRUCTURE – PROVIDED MANUALS/BROCHURES

2. DIRECT OBSERVATIONS – recording of behavior at appropriate time and situation (HANDS-ON) – SCHEDULE/TIME
3. EXPERIMENTS – involve tests, and the results of the tests are the data

ü RANDOM SAMPLE – a sample that is chosen from the population without any bias

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY (UNBAISED SAMPLE)
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (SRS) – every member of the population has equal chances of being included in the sample.
- used when the population is homogeneous Ex: lottery

2. Systematic Sampling – selects every nth element in the population for the sample with the starting point determined at random

Illustration: sample (every 3rd element)

3. Stratified Sampling – dividing the population into homogeneous groups called strata then selects at random from each group
Illustration:

4. Cluster Sampling
– different groups within
a population are used as a
sample. This is different
from stratified sampling
because you will use the
entire group, or cluster, as
a sample rather than a
randomly selected
member of all groups.

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NON PROBABILITY (BIASED SAMPLE)

Non Random Sampling – some members of the population HAVE NO CHANCE of being included in the sample
a) Purposive or Judgmental Sampling – selects samples based on criteria
Illustration: Sample which target a specific group of people

b) Quota Sampling – the population is first divided into subgroups, then convenience or judgment is used to select samples
from each subgroup based on a predetermined number of samples. Illustration:

c) Convenience Sampling – selects samples in a way that is convenient to the researcher

Illustration:

Practice 5: Identify which type of sampling is used. If non-random, identify what type of non-random sampling is used.

1. Questioning students as they leave a university library, a researcher asks 358 students about their drinking habits.
2. After a hurricane, a disaster area is divided into 200 equal grids. Thirty of the grids are selected, and every occupied household
in the grid is interviewed to help focus relief efforts on what residents require the most.
3. Among the 50 applicants, the computer literates were selected to be interviewed.
4. Every tenth person entering a mall is asked to name his or her favorite store.
5. Soybeans are planted on a 48-acre field. The field is divided into one-acre subplots. A sample is taken from each subplot to
estimate the harvest.
6. Select three students from a class to receive ice cream by putting all the students' names in a hat and picking out three names
randomly.
7. All of the teachers from 45 randomly selected public schools in the province were interviewed
8. A college student interviews everyone in a Statistics class to determine the percentage of students who own a cell phone.
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 9. Using random digit dialing, researchers call 1400 people and ask what obstacles keep them from doing physical exercises.
10. Chosen at random, 500 rural and 500 urban persons age 65 or older are asked about their health and their experience with
prescription drugs.

PRESENTATION OF DATA
3 Forms of Presenting Data

1. TEXTUAL - the data are presented in PARAGRAPH FORM

- utilized when data are purely qualitative or when very few numbers are involved
- directs reader’s attention to data which need emphasis
- Example :
Studies show that smoking causes about 90 to 95% of all cases of lung cancer, 75% of chronic bronchitis and 25% of
heart and circulatory diseases in men under 65 years of age.
2. TABULAR - the data are presented using rows and columns
- data are readily understood
- comparisons can easily be made

Example:

3. GRAPHICAL – visual form of presenting data (DATA VISUALIZATION) / TIME SERIES, POWER BI & DASHBOARD)
- numerical values or relationships are shown in graphs, charts or pictures
- attracts attention and are readily understood
Ø TYPES OF GRAPHS:
a) LINE GRAPH – connecting the points plotted b) BAR GRAPH – consists of bars of equal width, either all
vertical or all horizontal
Example: Example:

c) PIE OR CIRCLE GRAPH – dividing a circle into sectors d) PICTOGRAPH – picture symbols are used to
proportional to the percentage it represents represent values
Example: Example: Number of Visitors in Manila Zoo

Monthly Budget of Mrs. Santos

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FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
- a table that displays the frequency or number of observations of data in a sample

A. SUMMARIZING QUALITATIVE DATA

Examples: 1.

2.

Practice 6: The following data were obtained from a sample of 50 soft drink purchases. Construct a frequency distribution
to summarize the data. Construct the bar graph of the data.

1. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

CATEGORY TALLY FREQUENCY(f)

COKE 1
COKE ZERO
PEPSI
PEPSI MAX
SPRITE
MOUNTAIN DEW
TOTAL 50

EXCEL = COUNTIF
2. CONSTRUCT A BAR GRAPH OF THE DATA

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B. SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Example:
CLASS WIDTH
CLASS Frequency LOWER UPPER CLASS MARK
OR CLASS
INTERVAL (CI) (f) BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES (x)
INTERVAL (i)
30 – 34 3 29.5 34.5 32 5
35 – 39 6 34.5 39.5 37 5
40 – 44 8 39.5 44.5 42 5
45 – 49 7 44.5 49.5 47 5
50 – 54 4 49.5 54.5 52 5
55 - 59 2 54.5 59.5 57 5
Total 30

DEFINITIONS:
¨ CLASS INTERVAL (CI) – the grouping defined by a lower and upper limit

Example: 30 - 34

lower limit
upper limit

¨ CLASS BOUNDARIES – the numbers that separate the classes without forming gaps between them.
- found halfway between the upper limit of a class interval and the lower limit of the next class

Example: 29.5 – 34.5

lower boundary
upper boundary

Class width or Interval Size (i) – the width of the class interval
- the difference between two successive lower (or upper) limits
Example: 30 – 34
35 – 39 i= 5
40 – 44
¨ Class Mark (x) – the midpoint or middle value of a class interval
- the representative of a class

"##$% &'(')*&+,$% &'(')

Formula: X=
-

Example: Using the class 30 + 34/2, the class mark is

X = 32

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 CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Construct a frequency distribution table for the following test scores of 20 students in Algebra:
21 39 16 43 24
31 28 27 32 48
41 32 37 29 32
33 36 49 44 37
Step 1: Find the RANGE (R)
R = HIGHEST VALUE - LOWEST VALUE. (49-16) 49
= 33
Step 2: Select the number of classes desired (C); usually between 5 and 15; (for uniformity, the teacher shall decide for the
number of class intervals) Example: 7 (given)

Step 3: Determine the INTERVAL SIZE (i).

.
i= = 4.7 or 5 i=33/7
/
Step 4: Choose an appropriate lower limit for the first class interval; should be less than or equal to the lowest value in the
data;
if possible, should be divisible by the interval size. (For convenience, let us choose the lowest value in the given data.)
Step 5: Form the classes.
Step 6: Find the frequencies.

Construct a frequency distribution table for the following test scores of 20 students in Algebra: (DATA SETS)
21 39 16 43 24
31 28 27 32 48
41 32 37 29 32
33 36 49 44 37

PRACTICE 7
Test Scores of 20 Students in Algebra. CLASS SIZE= 7 (GIVEN) CLASS INTERVAL = 5 (COMPUTED).
CLASS
CLASS LOWER UPPER CLASS WIDTH
FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE RELATIVE
INTERVAL TALLY BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES PERCENTAGE MARK OR CLASS
(f) FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
CI (-.5) (+.5) (x) INTERVAL
(i)
16-20 1 1 15.5 20.5 1 .05 5 18 5
21-25 11 2 20.5 25.5 3 23 5
26-30 111 3 6 28 5
31-35 11111 5 11 33 5
36-40 1111 4 15 38 5
41-45 111 3 18 43 5
46-50 11 2 20 48 5
TOTAL 20
CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY = FIRST FREQUENCY + THE SUCCEEDING FREQUENCY
RELATIVE FREQUENCY = FREQUENCY DIVIDE BY TOTAL FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE = RELATIVE FREQUENCY MULTIPLIED BY 100%
Questions:
1. _______ What is the lower limit of the 5th class?
2. _______ How many got scores within the 3rd class?
3. _______ What is the upper boundary of the class with the highest frequency?
4. _______ What is the class mark of the class with the lowest frequency?
5. _______ What is the upper limit of the 6th class?
6. _______ What is lower boundary of the 2nd class?

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PRACTICE 8
Test Scores of 20 Students in Algebra. CLASS SIZE= 5 (GIVEN) CLASS INTERVAL =
CLASS
CLASS LOWER UPPER CLASS WIDTH
FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE RELATIVE
INTERVAL TALLY BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES PERCENTAGE MARK OR CLASS
(f) FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
CI (-.5) (+.5) (x) INTERVAL
(i)

TOTAL 20
CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY = FIRST FREQUENCY + THE SUCCEEDING FREQUENCY
RELATIVE FREQUENCY = FREQUENCY DIVIDE BY TOTAL FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE = RELATIVE FREQUENCY MULTIPLIED BY 100%
Questions:
1. _______ What is the lower limit of the 5th class?
2. _______ How many got scores within the 3rd class?
3. _______ What is the upper boundary of the class with the highest frequency?
4. _______ What is the class mark of the class with the lowest frequency?
5. _______ What is the upper limit of the 5th class?
6. _______ What is lower boundary of the 2nd class?

GRAPHS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

1. The Histogram – the bar graph of the frequency distribution 2. The Frequency Polygon – the line graph of the
- frequencies on the vertical axis; frequency distribution
class marks on the horizontal axis

Practice 8:

1. Answer the questions below based on the given frequency table.

Frequency Distribution for 50 Medical Students in a Biology Exam
Test Scores Frequency
40-49 5
50-59 10
60-69 15
70-79 12
80-89 7
90-99 1
Total 50

a. _______ How many classes are in the table?

b. _______ What is the class size?
c. _______ How many students took the Biology exam?
d. _______ What is the class with the highest frequency?
e. _______ What are the class boundaries of the class with the lowest frequency?

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 2. Construct a frequency distribution table for the following data using 10 classes. Then answer the questions that follow.

Scores of 40 Students in an IQ Test (DATA SETS)

75 89 66 52 90 68 83 94
38 47 87 65 97 49 75 70
85 77 83 56 63 79 69 82
62 75 29 88 74 37 51 76
69 73 91 87 76 58 63 60
a) RANGE
b) CLASS SIZE
c) INTERVAL

CLASS
FREQUENCY LOWER UPPER CUMULATIVE RELATIVE CLASS MARK CLASS WIDTH
INTERVAL TALLY PERCENTAGE
(f) BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES FREQUENCY FREQUENCY (x) CLASS INTERVAL (i)
CI

MEAN= OF MEDIAN= MODE= RANGE=

TOTAL (DATA SET) (DATA SET) (DATA SET)

CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY = FIRST FREQUENCY + THE SUCCEEDING FREQUENCY

RELATIVE FREQUENCY = FREQUENCY DIVIDE BY TOTAL FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE = RELATIVE FREQUENCY MULTIPLIED BY 100%

Questions:
1. _______ What is the interval size?
2. _______ What is the lower limit of the 7th class?
3. _______ What is the lower limit of the 3rd class?
4. _______ What is the lower boundary of the 8th class?
5. _______ What is the upper boundary of the 2nd class?
6. _______ What is the class mark of the class with the highest frequency?
7. _______ How many scored within the 4th class?
8. _______ Construct the frequency polygon of the data above.

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