Solution Manual for Principles of Environmental

Science 8th Edition Cunningham Cunningham

0078036070 9780078036071
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Cunningham 8e Answers to Practice Quizzes

Chapter 1
1. Global populations are rising, but in the future they should stabilize, although at what
level and when depends on fertility changes. Fertility rates are falling everywhere, and
the global average has declined from 5 to less than 2.5 children per woman.

2. Ecological services include many factors and resources we rely on. Often they’re
described in terms of provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. Climate
regulation, water filtration, and food provision are a few examples.
3. A hypothesis is a testable, provisional explanation. A scientific theory is an explanation
supported by a large body of empirical evidence and regarded by a majority of scientists
as likely to be correct.
4. The scientific method involves 1) identifying a question, 2) forming a testable hypothesis,
3) collecting data, 4) interpreting results, 5) reporting results for peer review,
6) publishing findings. See figure 1.4.
5. Probability is a measure of how likely something is to occur. An example is flipping a
coin. Each toss has a 50% probability of landing on a particular side.
6. Scientists try to reserve judgment because they know that better evidence could emerge
from future tests or evidences. Thus they try to be skeptical of evidence and to look for
solid, unbiased evidence. This is also why tests require replication: one test result could
be an accident or an outlier. Many tests are better than a few.
7. The first step in critical thinking is to ask, “What is the purpose of my thinking?”
8. Utilitarian conservation is pragmatic, efficient resource use for the greatest good for the
greatest number for the longest time. Gifford Pinchot and Teddy Roosevelt were leaders
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 in this movement. Biocentric preservation emphasizes the right of other organisms—and
nature as a whole—to exist regardless of their usefulness to us. John Muir was a leading
proponent of this philosophy.
9. Water is a critical resource because 1.1 billion people lack access to clean water, 15
million people die annually from diseases linked to polluted water or inadequate
sanitation, and by 2025, the U.N. warns, three-quarters of all humans may live in water-
stressed countries.
10. In figure 1.5, the most dramatic warming occurs at high latitudes, especially northern
Canada, Siberia, and parts of the Arctic Ocean.
11. The ratio of per capita income is about 52:35 (or a little less than 5:3) for North America:
East Asia. For North America:South Asia, the ratio is about 52:2 (or about 25:1).

12. The poorest people are often both the victims and agents of environmental degradation.
Forced to meet short-term survival needs at the cost of long-term sustainability, they
suffer most from environmental damage because they have few other options.
13. Sustainability is a search for ecological stability and human progress that can last over the
long term. Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Chapter 2
1. Two primary nutrients that cause eutrophication are nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P).
2. Systems are networks of interactions among interdependent units or compartments as
well as processes or flows that link those components. A positive feedback loop enhances
or accelerates a process and a state variable. A negative feedback inhibits or reverses a
process or reduces a state variable.
3. Carbon atoms, like all matter, are constantly cycled in living organisms. Given the huge
number of carbon atoms in your body, it’s almost certain that some of them were also
part of some prehistoric organisms.
4. Water molecules are polar, which makes water a superb solvent. Water is the only
inorganic liquid that exists at normal ambient temperatures. This provides a liquid
medium for life processes. Water molecules are highly cohesive. This results in capillary
action. Water expands when it crystallizes so that ice floats. Water has a high heat of
vaporization, so we can remove a large amount of heat through evaporation. Water has a
high specific heat, making it an ideal medium for storing heat and moderating the earth’s
temperature.
5. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is an extremely complex, double helix-shaped molecule
that contains the genetic material that defines an organism’s traits. DNA exists in the
nucleus of cells (for all cell-based organisms). It is made up of nucleotides linked
together in long chains. The specific sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule carries
the genetic information that codes for protein structure and gives each organism its
unique inheritable characteristics.
6. Heat is stored energy, but if it is stored in a diffuse form, it is usually hard to convert
from one form to another. We use the term “low-quality energy” to refer to diffused,
dispersed, low temperature energy that is difficult to gather or use for productive work.
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 “High-quality energy,” in contrast, is intense, concentrated, high-temperature, and useful
for work.
7. Materials cycle endlessly in the biosphere, or between biosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere, because of the law of conservation of matter. Energy
follows a linear path because it continually degrades to lower-quality forms as it is re-
used, and ultimately energy dissipates to space as heat. This is the second law of
thermodynamics—in every energy exchange, some of the energy is converted from
higher quality to lower quality. Thus, to keep living processes going, there has to be a
constant energy input and a sink to which surplus waste energy (such as heat) can
dissipate.
8. Our eyes are sensitive only to visible light (0.4 to 0.7 um), which happens to be the most
common wavelengths in solar radiation. Short ultraviolet wavelengths (microwaves (10
nm or 10 x 10-9 m) are 1 million (1 x 106) times shorter than microwaves (1 mm or 1 x
10-3 m).
9. Extremophiles live in extreme conditions at the bottom of the ocean, in hot springs, or
deep in the earth’s crust. They get the energy they need to live by chemosynthesis:
reactions that use chemicals, such as hydrogen sulfide or hydrogen gas as an energy
source.
10. For most organisms on the earth’s surface, the ultimate source of energy is the sun, and
the sink for waste energy is outer space.
11. Green plants capture solar energy through photosynthesis, a series of chemical reactions
that occur in chloroplasts. The energy captured in this process is used to create chemical
bonds in organic molecules. These molecules serve both as an energy source and building
material for all plants and animals.
12. A species is made of all the organisms of the same kind that are able to breed under
natural conditions and produce live, fertile offspring. A population consists of all the
members of a species living in a given area at the same time. A biological community is
made up of all the populations of different species living and interacting in a given area at
a specific time.
13. Big, fierce animals (such as grizzly bears, tigers, and great white sharks) are usually the
top carnivores in their ecosystem. They need to be large and fierce to catch their prey.
Because they are at the top of the ecological pyramid, it takes many organisms at lower
trophic levels (and therefore, large home ranges) to support these big carnivores. Thus,
there are never very many of them in a given area. Their adaptations as top predators
make them dangerous to humans. They also often compete with us for food, so we tend to
eliminate them either directly by hunting, or indirectly by reducing their food supplies or
eliminating their habitat.
14. An example of an inverted ecological numbers pyramid might be a single large tree
supporting many herbivorous insects, or a single coyote supporting many parasites.
15. Humans release about 7 GT of carbon annually compared to 100 GT released by
respiration from land-based plants, animals, and microbes.

Chapter 3
1. Tolerance limits restrict the distribution and abundance of species by forcing them to live
in a specific environment. Saguaro cactus cannot withstand extended freezing
temperatures, so their distribution is strictly limited by elevations at which freezing nights
Copyright ©McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 occur regularly. Similarly, young desert pupfish only live in hot water (20-36°C), forcing
them to remain near hot springs in the desert. By contrast, at all ages the common carp
and European starling survive in a broad range of temperatures, and through human
introduction now occupy every continent in the world except Antarctica.
2. Allopatric speciation is the evolution of separate species in different locations. This
occurs when an ancestor population has been separated. Sympatric speciation is the
evolution of separate species in the same location. This might occur when subsets of a
population come to occupy different niches or use different resources.
3. Selective pressure is the case in which certain traits, such as a heavy beak in a place with
thick-coated seeds, allow some individuals somewhat greater reproductive success than
other individuals. Eventually those traits become common in the population, while other
traits become rare. Selective pressures in your locality could include temperature, water,
wind, predation, food, fire, or a number of other environmental factors.
4. In the Type I curve, most individuals survive to a relatively mature age, then die at an old
age. Type II describes a population that is equally likely to die at any age. Type III
represents a population in which most individuals die very young, but a small proportion
of individuals survive to reach maturity.
5. Symbiotic relationships involve two species living together. Mutualism refers to a
relationship in which both species benefit, as in the case of algae or ox pickers on an
antelope. Commensalism refers to a relationship in which one species clearly benefits
while the other neither benefits nor is disadvantaged.
6. Coevolution is the evolution of two species into forms that define a relationship between
them. Madagascar’s star orchid and the hawk moth that pollinates it, for example, have
both evolved highly traits specialized to each other. Cheetahs and their prey are also
coevolved, in an “arms race” of traits emphasizing speed: as a predator becomes more
efficient in catching prey, and prey become more effective at escape and avoidance.
7. Intraspecific competition describes the struggle between members of the same species for
food, water, sunlight, living space or other scarce resources. Individuals might compete
by threatening, out-running, or even fighting each other. Interspecific competition
involves competition of different species for a common resource: in your yard, for
example, grass and dandelions might compete for space and sunlight. Grass competes by
growing a thick mat of roots; dandelions compete by growing and dispersing quickly.
8. K-selected species are those with traits that give them longevity, so that carrying capacity
(K) limits their abundance. R selected species have traits for rapid growth rate (r), such as
rapid reproduction, which means that population crashes may occur relatively regularly.
We think of elephants as a K-selected species; we think of mice as an r-selected species.
9. Regrowth of a forest after a fire is an example of secondary succession. The first
organisms to recolonize the burned forest are usually annual species, such as grasses and
forbs that have highly mobile seeds and that can tolerate full sun and strong winds. Over
time, organic material builds up the soil so that shrubs and, eventually, trees can survive.
Some trees, such as lodge pole and jack pines, have seeds that are protected from fire and
sprout profusely in the ashes, restoring the original forest very quickly after a fire. These
communities may be dependent on periodic disturbance for their continued existence.
Without these disturbances, other species would grow in, and the fire-adapted species,
unable to compete, would disappear.

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 10. Tropical rainforests, estuaries, and coral reefs have the highest biological productivity of
any natural ecosystem. They also generally have the highest species diversity. Deserts
(because they’re so dry) and the open ocean (lack of nutrients) have the lowest
productivity of the major ecosystems.
11. The term resilience refers to a system’s ability to return to its previous state after a
disturbance. It appears that biological diversity may contribute to resilience because a
when more species are present, it’s more likely that some will be able to recover rapidly
after a disturbance.

Chapter 4
1. The human population reached 1 billion in 1804 (so our species existed about 200,000
years or so before this). Diseases, famines, wars, and limited access to resources
restricted population growth before that time. In the past two centuries increased
commerce and communications, agricultural developments, better power sources, health
care, and hygiene all played a role in rapid human population growth.
2. Human population growth has been growing exponentially over the past 200 years. We
called this a J-curve in chapter 3.
3. The ecological footprint is an estimate of our impacts on nature and natural resources. It
is expressed as the area of “bioproductive” land needed to supply the goods and services
we use. This is useful because it gives us a simple, single number to compare different
lifestyles. Current estimates are that it would take about 3.5 additional earths to support
all of humanity at American rates of consumption.
4. Some economists, such as Julian Simon, believe that ingenuity, he argues, can overcome
obstacles, such as natural resource limitations. Consequently, they argue that pollution,
crime, unemployment, crowding, the loss of species, or any other resource limitation will
necessarily worsen with population growth.
5. The vast majority of population growth in this century is expected to be in the less-
developed regions of the world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Unmet
needs for education, health care, civil rights, and family planning, together with cultural,
religious, and economic factors are the driving forces behind this population growth.
6. The crude birth rate is the number of births in a year, per thousand persons. The total
fertility rate is the number of children born to an average woman in a population during
her entire reproductive life. The crude death rate is the number of deaths in a year per
thousand persons. Zero population growth occurs when births plus immigration in a
population just equal deaths plus emigration. In most developed countries this rate is
usually about 2.1 children per couple because some people are infertile, have children
who do not survive, or choose not to have children.
7. Life span is the maximum age to which a species is known to survive. Life expectancy is
the average age that a newborn infant can expect to attain in any given society.
8. The dependency ratio is the number of nonworking people compared to the workers in a
population. Those individuals under age 15 or over age 65 are generally considered to be
dependent on others (to some degree) for support. The growing number of retired persons
and shrinking numbers of workers in the United States (and other developed countries)
may increase the dependency ratio.
9. Children can be a source of pleasure, pride, and comfort. They may support elderly
parents, provide status in society, express parental creativity, help support the family, and
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The number of counters in all is 8 times 7, or 56. But (as in fig. I.) enclose each
four rows in oblong figures, such as and . The number in each oblong is 4 times
7, or 28, and there are two of those oblongs; so that in the whole the number of
counters is twice 28, or 28 x 2, or 7 first multiplied by 4, and that product multiplied
by 2. In figure II. it is shewn that 7 multiplied by 8 is also 7 first multiplied by 2,
and that product multiplied by 4. The same method may be applied to other
numbers. Thus, since 80 is 8 times 10, 256 times 80 is 256 multiplied by 8, and that
product multiplied by 10. If we use the signs, the foregoing assertions are made
thus:
7 × 8 = 7 × 4 × 2 = 7 × 2 × 4.
256 × 80 = 256 × 8 × 10 = 256 × 10 × 8.

EXERCISES.
Shew that 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 2 × 4 × 3 × 5 = 5 × 4 × 2 × 3, &c.
 Shew that 18 × 100 = 18 × 57 + 18 × 43.

56. Articles (51) and (55) may be expressed in the following way, where by ab
we mean a taken b times; by abc, a taken b times, and the result taken c times.
ab = ba.
abc = acb = bca = bac, &c.
abc = a × (bc) = b × (ca) = c × (ab).
If we would say that the same results are produced by multiplying by b, c, and d,
one after the other, and by the product bcd at once, we write the following:
a × b × c × d = a × bcd.
The fact is, that if any numbers are to be multiplied together, the product of any
two or more may be formed, and substituted instead of those two or more; thus, the
product abcdef may be formed by multiplying

ab cde f
abf de c
abc def &c.
57. In order to multiply by 10, annex a cipher to the right hand of the
multiplicand. Thus, 10 times 2356 is 23560. To shew this, write 2356 at length
which is
2 thousands, 3 hundreds, 5 tens, and 6 units.
Take each of these parts ten times, which, by (52), is the same as multiplying the
whole number by 10, and it will then become
2 tens of thou. 3 tens of hun. 5 tens of tens, and 6 tens,
which is
2 ten-thou. 3 thous. 5 hun. and 6 tens.
This must be written 23560, because 6 is not to be 6 units, but 6 tens. Therefore
2356 × 10 = 23560.
In the same way you may shew, that in order to multiply by 100 you must affix
two ciphers to the right; to multiply by 1000 you must affix three ciphers, and so on.
The rule will be best caught from the following table:
13 × 10 = 130
13 × 100 = 1300
13 × 1000 = 13000
13 × 10000 = 130000
142 × 1000 = 142000
 23700 × 10 = 237000
3040 × 1000 = 3040000
10000 × 100000 = 1000000000
58. I now shew how to multiply by one of the numbers, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. I
do not include 1, because multiplying by 1, or taking the number once, is what is
meant by simply writing down the number. I want to multiply 1368 by 8. Write the
first number at full length, which is
1 thousand, 3 hundreds, 6 tens, and 8 units.
To multiply this by 8, multiply each of these parts by 8 (50) and (52), which will
give
8 thousands, 24 hundreds, 48 tens, and 64 units.
Now 64 units are written thus 64
48 tens 480
24 hundreds 2400
8 thousands 8000
Add these together, which gives 10944 as the product of 1368 and 8, or 1368 × 8 =
10944. By working a few examples in this way you will see for following rule.
59. I. Multiply the first figure of the multiplicand by the multiplier, write down
the units’ figure, and reserve the tens.
II. Do the same with the second figure of the multiplicand, and add to the
product the number of tens from the first; put down the units’ figure of this, and
reserve the tens.
III. Proceed in this way till you come to the last figure, and then write down the
whole number obtained from that figure.
IV. If there be a cipher in the multiplicand, treat it as if it were a number,
observing that 0 × 1 = 0, 0 × 2 = 0, &c.
60. In a similar way a number can be multiplied by a figure which is
accompanied by ciphers, as, for example, 8000. For 8000 is 8 × 1000, and therefore
(55) you must first multiply by 8 and then by 1000, which last operation (57) is
done by placing 3 ciphers on the right. Hence the rule in this case is, multiply by the
simple number, and place the number of ciphers which follow it at the right of the
product.

EXAMPLE.
Multiply 1679423800872
by 60000
 100765428052320000

61. EXERCISES.
What is 1007360 × 7? Answer, 7051520.
123456789 × 9 + 10 and 123 × 9 + 4?—Ans. 1111111111 and 1111.
What is 136 × 3 + 129 × 4 + 147 × 8 + 27 × 3000?—Ans. 83100.
An army is made up of 33 regiments of infantry, each containing 800 men; 14 of
cavalry, each containing 600 men; and 2 of artillery, each containing 300 men. The
enemy has 6 more regiments of infantry, each containing 100 more men; 3 more
regiments of cavalry, each containing 100 men less; and 4 corps of artillery of the
same magnitude as those of the first: two regiments of cavalry and one of infantry
desert from the former to the latter. How many men has the second army more than
the first?—Answer, 13400.

62. Suppose it is required to multiply 23707 by 4567. Since 4567 is made up of

4000, 500, 60, and 7, by (53) we must multiply 23707 by each of these, and add the
products.

Now (58) 23707 × 7 is 165949

(60) 23707 × 60 is 1422420
23707 × 500 is 11853500
23707 × 4000 is 94828000
The sum of these is 108269869
which is the product required.
It will do as well if, instead of writing the ciphers at the end of each line, we
keep the other figures in their places without them. If we take away the ciphers, the
second line is one place to the left of the first, the third one place to the left of the
second, and so on. Write the multiplier and the multiplicand over these lines, and
the process will stand thus:

23707
4567
165949
142242
118535
94828
108269869

63. There is one more case to be noticed; that is, where there is a cipher in the
middle of the multiplier. The following example will shew that in this case nothing
more is necessary than to keep the first figure of each line in the column under the
figure of the multiplier from which that line arises. Suppose it required to multiply
365 by 101001. The multiplier is made up of 100000, 1000 and 1. Proceed as
before, and

365 × 1 is 365
(57) 365 × 1000 is 365000
365 × 100000 is 36500000
The sum of which is 36865365
and the whole process with the ciphers struck off is:

365
101001
365
365
365
36865365

64. The following is the rule in all cases:

I. Place the multiplier under the multiplicand, so that the units of one may be
under those of the other.
II. Multiply the whole multiplicand by each figure of the multiplier (59), and
place the unit of each line in the column under the figure of the multiplier from
which it came.
III. Add together the lines obtained by II. column by column.
65. When the multiplier or multiplicand, or both, have ciphers on the right hand,
multiply the two together without the ciphers, and then place on the right of the
product all the ciphers that are on the right both of the multiplier and multiplicand.
For example, what is 3200 × 3000? First, 3200 is 32 × 100, or one hundred times as
great as 32. Again, 32 × 13000 is 32 × 13, with three ciphers affixed, that is 416,
with three ciphers affixed, or 416000. But the product required must be 100 times as
great as this, or must have two ciphers affixed. It is therefore 41600000, having as
many ciphers as are in both multiplier and multiplicand.
66. When any number is multiplied by itself any number of times, the result is
called a power of that number. Thus:

6 is called the first power of 6

6×6 second power of 6
6×6×6 third power of 6
6×6×6×6 fourth power of 6
 &c. &c.
The second and third powers are usually called the square and cube, which are
incorrect names, derived from certain connexions of the second and third power
with the square and cube in geometry. As exercises in multiplication, the following
powers are to be found.

Number
Square. Cube.
proposed.
972 944784 918330048
1008 1016064 1024192512
3142 9872164 31018339288
3163 10004569 31644451747
5555 30858025 171416328875
6789 46090521 312908547069
The fifth power of 36 is 60466176
fourth 50 6250000
fourth 108 136048896
fourth 277 5887339441
67. It is required to multiply a + b by c + d, that is, to take a + b as many times
as there are units in c + d. By (53) a + b must be taken c times, and d times, or the
product required is (a + b)c + (a + b)d. But (52) (a + b)c is ac + bc, and (a + b)d is
ad + bd; whence the product required is ac + bc + ad + bd; or,
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + bc + ad + bd.
By similar reasoning
(a - b)(c + d) is (a - b)c + (a - b)d; or,
(a - b)(c + d) = ac - bc + ad - bd.
To multiply a-b by c-d, first take a-b c times, which gives ac-bc. This is not
correct; for in taking it c times instead of c-d times, we have taken it d times too
many; or have made a result which is (a-b)d too great. The real result is therefore
ac-bc-(a -b)d. But (a-b)d is ad- bd, and therefore
(a - b)(c - d) = ac - bc - ad - bd
= ac - bc - ad + bd (41)
From these three examples may be collected the following rule for the
multiplication of algebraic quantities: Multiply each term of the multiplicand by
each term of the multiplier; when the two terms have both + or both-before them,
put + before their product; when one has + and the other-, put-before their product.
In using the first terms, which have no sign, apply the rule as if they had the sign +.
 68. For example, (a + b)(a + b) gives aa + ab + ab + bb. But ab + ab is 2ab;
hence the square of a + b is aa + 2ab + bb. Again (a- b)(a-b) gives aa-ab-ab + bb.
But two subtractions of ab are equivalent to subtracting 2ab; hence the square of a-
b is aa-2ab + bb. Again, (a + b)(a-b) gives aa + ab-ab -bb. But the addition and
subtraction of ab makes no change; hence the product of a + b and a- b is aa-bb.
Again, the square of a + b + c + d or (a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d) will be found
to be aa + 2ab + 2ac + 2ad + bb + 2bc + 2bd + cc + 2cd + dd; or the rule for
squaring such a quantity is: Square the first term, and multiply all that come after by
twice that term; do the same with the second, and so on to the end.

SECTION IV.
DIVISION.

69. Suppose I ask whether 156 can be divided into a number of parts each of
which is 13, or how many thirteens 156 contains; I propose a question, the solution
of which is called . In this case, 156 is called the dividend, 13 the divisor,
and the number of parts required is the quotient; and when I find the quotient, I am
said to divide 156 by 13.
70. The simplest method of doing this is to subtract 13 from 156, and then to
subtract 13 from the remainder, and so on; or, in common language, to tell off 156
by thirteens. A similar process has already occurred in the exercises on subtraction,
Art. (46). Do this, and mark one for every subtraction that is made, to remind you
that each subtraction takes 13 once from 156, which operations will stand as
follows:

156
13 1
———
143
13 1
———
130
13 1
———
117
13 1
———
104
13 1
———
91
13 1
———
78
13 1
 ———
65
13 1
———
52
13 1
———
39
13 1
———
26
13 1
———
13
13 1
———
0

Begin by subtracting 13 from 156, which leaves 143. Subtract 13 from 143,
which leaves 130; and so on. At last 13 only remains, from which when 13 is
subtracted, there remains nothing. Upon counting the number of times which you
have subtracted 13, you find that this number is 12; or 156 contains twelve thirteens,
or contains 13 twelve times.
This method is the most simple possible, and might be done with pebbles. Of
these you would first count 156. You would then take 13 from the heap, and put
them into one heap by themselves. You would then take another 13 from the heap,
and place them in another heap by themselves; and so on until there were none left.
You would then count the number of heaps, which you would find to be 12.
71. Division is the opposite of multiplication. In multiplication you have a
number of heaps, with the same number of pebbles in each, and you want to know
how many pebbles there are in all. In division you know how many there are in all,
and how many there are to be in each heap, and you want to know how many heaps
there are.
72. In the last example a number was taken which contains an exact number of
thirteens. But this does not happen with every number. Take, for example, 159.
Follow the process of (70), and it will appear that after having subtracted 13 twelve
times, there remains 3, from which 13 cannot be subtracted. We may say then that
159 contains twelve thirteens and 3 over; or that 159, when divided by 13, gives a
quotient 12, and a remainder 3. If we use signs,
159 = 13 × 12 + 3.

EXERCISES.
146 = 24 × 6 + 2, or 146 contains six twenty-fours and 2 over.
 146 = 6 × 24 + 2, or 146 contains twenty-four sixes and 2 over.
300 = 42 × 7 + 6, or 300 contains seven forty-twos and 6 over.
39624 = 7277 × 5 + 3239.
73. If a contain b q times with a remainder r, a must be greater than bq by r; that
is,
a = bq + r.
If there be no remainder, a = bq. Here a is the dividend, b the divisor, q the quotient,
and r the remainder. In order to say that a contains b q times, we write,
a/b = q, or a : b = q,
which in old books is often found written thus:
a ÷ b = q.
74. If I divide 156 into several parts, and find how often 13 is contained in each
of them, it is plain that 156 contains 13 as often as all its parts together. For
example, 156 is made up of 91, 39, and 26. Of these

91 contains 13 7 times,
39 contains 13 3 times,
26 contains 13 2 times;
therefore 91 + 39 + 26 contains 13 7 + 3 + 2 times, or 12 times.
Again, 156 is made up of 100, 50, and 6.

Now 100 contains 13 7 times and 9 over,

50 contains 13 3 times and 11 over,
6 contains 13 0 times[9] and 6 over.
Therefore 100 + 50 + 6 contains 13 7 + 3 + 0 times and 9 + 11 + 6 over; or 156
contains 13 10 times and 26 over. But 26 is itself 2 thirteens; therefore 156 contains
10 thirteens and 2 thirteens, or 12 thirteens.
75. The result of the last article is expressed by saying, that if
a = b + c + d, then
a b c d
= + +
m m m m
76. In the first example I did not take away 13 more than once at a time, in order
that the method might be as simple as possible. But if I know what is twice 13, 3
times 13, &c., I can take away as many thirteens at a time as I please, if I take care
to mark at each step how many I take away. For example, take away 13 ten times at
once from 156, that is, take away 130, and afterwards take away 13 twice, or take
away 26, and the process is as follows:

156
130 10 times 13.
26
26 2 times 13.
0

Therefore 156 contains 13 10 + 2, or 12 times.

Again, to divide 3096 by 18.

3096
1800 100 times 18.
1296
900 50 times 18.
396
360
36
36
0

Therefore 3096 contains 18 100 + 50 + 20 + 2, or 172 times.

77. You will now understand the following sentences, and be able to make
similar assertions of other numbers.
450 is 75 × 6; it therefore contains any number, as 5, 6 times as often as 75
contains it.

135 contains 3 more than 26 times; therefore,

Twice 135 ” 3 ” 52 or twice 26
10 times 135 ” 3 ” 260 or 10 times 26
50 times 135 ” 3 ” 1300 or 50 times 26
472 contains 18 more than 21 times; therefore,
4720 contains 18 more than 210 times,
47200 contains 18 more than 2100 times,
472000 contains 18 more than 21000 times,
32 contains 12 more than 2 times, and less than 3 times.
320 ” 12 ” 20 times, ” ” 30 times.
3200 ” 12 ” 200 times, ” ” 300 times.
32000 ” 12 ” 2000 times, ” ” 3000 times.
&c. &c. &c.
 78. The foregoing articles contain the principles of division. The question now
is, to apply them in the shortest and most convenient way. Suppose it required to
divide 4068 by 18, or to find 4068/18 (23).
If we divide 4068 into any number of parts, we may, by the process followed in
(74), find how many times 18 is contained in each of these parts, and from thence
how many times it is contained in the whole. Now, what separation of 4068 into
parts will be most convenient? Observe that 4, the first figure of 4068, does not
contain 18; but that 40, the first and second figures together, does contain 18 more
than twice, but less than three times.[10] But 4068 (20) is made up of 40 hundreds,
and 68; of which, 40 hundreds (77) contains 18 more than 200 times, and less than
300 times. Therefore, 4068 also contains more than 200 times 18, since it must
contain 18 more times than 4000 does. It also contains 18 less than 300 times,
because 300 times 18 is 5400, a greater number than 4068. Subtract 18 200 times
from 4068; that is, subtract 3600, and there remains 468. Therefore, 4068 contains
18 200 times, and as many more times as 468 contains 18.
It remains, then, to find how many times 468 contains 18. Proceed exactly as
before. Observe that 46 contains 18 more than twice, and less than 3 times;
therefore, 460 contains it more than 20, and less than 30 times (77); as does also
468. Subtract 18 20 times from 468, that is, subtract 360; the remainder is 108.
Therefore, 468 contains 18 20 times, and as many more as 108 contains it. Now,
108 is found to contain 18 6 times exactly; therefore, 468 contains it 20 + 6 times,
and 4068 contains it 200 + 20 + 6 times, or 226 times. If we write down the process
that has been followed, without any explanation, putting the divisor, dividend, and
quotient, in a line separated by parentheses it will stand, as in example(A).
Let it be required to divide 36326599 by 1342 (B).
A. B.

)
18 4068 (200 + 20 + 6 )
1342 36326599 (20000 + 7000 + 60 + 9
3600 26840000
468 9486599
360 9394000
108 92599
108 80520
0 12079
12078
1
As in the previous example, 36326599 is separated into 36320000 and 6599; the
first four figures 3632 being separated from the rest, because it takes four figures
from the left of the dividend to make a number which is greater than the divisor.
Again, 36320000 is found to contain 1342 more than 20000, and less than 30000
times; and 1342 × 20000 is subtracted from the dividend, after which the remainder
is 9486599. The same operation is repeated again and again, and the result is found
to be, that there is a quotient 20000 + 7000 + 60 + 9, or 27069, and a remainder 1.
Before you proceed, you should now repeat the foregoing article at length in the
solution of the following questions. What are
10093874 66779922 2718218
, , ?
3207 114433 13352
the quotients of which are 3147, 583, 203; and the remainders 1445, 65483, 7762.
79. In the examples of the last article, observe, 1st, that it is useless to write
down the ciphers which are on the right of each subtrahend, provided that without
them you keep each of the other figures in its proper place: 2d, that it is useless to
put down the right hand figures of the dividend so long as they fall over ciphers,
because they do not begin to have any share in the making of the quotient until, by
continuing the process, they cease to have ciphers under them: 3d, that the quotient
is only a number written at length, instead of the usual way. For example, the first
quotient is 200 + 20 + 6, or 226; the second is 20000 + 7000 + 60 + 9, or 27069.
Strike out, therefore, all the ciphers and the numbers which come above them,
except those in the first line, and put the quotient in one line; and the two examples
of the last article will stand thus:

)
18 4068 (226 )
1342 36326599 (27069
36 2684
46 9486
36 9394
108 9259
108 8052
0 12079
12078
1
80. Hence the following rule is deduced:
I. Write the divisor and dividend in one line, and place parentheses on each side
of the dividend.
II. Take off from the left-hand of the dividend the least number of figures which
make a number greater than the divisor; find what number of times the divisor is
contained in these, and write this number as the first figure of the quotient.
III. Multiply the divisor by the last-mentioned figure, and subtract the product
from the number which was taken off at the left of the dividend.
IV. On the right of the remainder place the figure of the dividend which comes
next after those already separated in II.: if the remainder thus increased be greater
than the divisor, find how many times the divisor is contained in it; put this number
at the right of the first figure of the quotient, and repeat the process: if not, on the
right place the next figure of the dividend, and the next, and so on until it is greater;
but remember to place a cipher in the quotient for every figure of the dividend
which you are obliged to take, except the first.
V. Proceed in this way until all the figures of the dividend are exhausted.
In judging how often one large number is contained in another, a first and rough
guess may be made by striking off the same number of figures from both, and using
the results instead of the numbers themselves. Thus, 4,732 is contained in 14,379
about the same number of times that 4 is contained in 14, or about 3 times. The
reason is, that 4 being contained in 14 as often as 4000 is in 14000, and these last
only differing from the proposed numbers by lower denominations, viz. hundreds,
&c. we may expect that there will not be much difference between the number of
times which 14000 contains 4000, and that which 14379 contains 4732: and it
generally happens so. But if the second figure of the divisor be 5, or greater than 5,
it will be more accurate to increase the first figure of the divisor by 1, before trying
the method just explained. Nothing but practice can give facility in this sort of
guess-work.
81. This process may be made more simple when the divisor is not greater than
12, if you have sufficient knowledge of the multiplication table (50). For example, I
want to divide 132976 by 4. At full length the process stands thus:

)
4 132976 (33244
12
12
12
9
8
17
16
16
16
0

But you will recollect, without the necessity of writing it down, that 13 contains
4 three times with a remainder 1; this 1 you will place before 2, the next figure of
the dividend, and you know that 12 contains 4 3 times exactly, and so on. It will be
more convenient to write down the quotient thus:

)
4 132976
———
33244
 While on this part of the subject, we may mention, that the shortest way to
multiply by 5 is to annex a cipher and divide by 2, which is equivalent to taking the
half of 10 times, or 5 times. To divide by 5, multiply by 2 and strike off the last
figure, which leaves the quotient; half the last figure is the remainder. To multiply
by 25, annex two ciphers and divide by 4. To divide by 25, multiply by 4 and strike
off the last two figures, which leaves the quotient; one fourth of the last two figures,
taken as one number, is the remainder. To multiply a number by 9, annex a cipher,
and subtract the number, which is equivalent to taking the number ten times, and
then subtracting it once. To multiply by 99, annex two ciphers and subtract the
number, &c.
In order that a number may be divisible by 2 without remainder, its units’ figure
must be an even number.[11] That it may be divisible by 4, its last two figures must
be divisible by 4. Take the example 1236: this is composed of 12 hundreds and 36,
the first part of which, being hundreds, is divisible by 4, and gives 12 twenty-fives;
it depends then upon 36, the last two figures, whether 1236 is divisible by 4 or not.
A number is divisible by 8 if the last three figures are divisible by 8; for every digit,
except the last three, is a number of thousands, and 1000 is divisible by 8; whether
therefore the whole shall be divisible by 8 or not depends on the last three figures:
thus, 127946 is not divisible by 8, since 946 is not so. A number is divisible by 3 or
9 only when the sum of its digits is divisible by 3 or 9. Take for example 1234; this
is
1 thousand, or 999 and 1
2 hundred, or twice 99 and 2
3 tens, or three times 9 and 3
and 4 or 4
Now 9, 99, 999, &c. are all obviously divisible by 9 and by 3, and so will be any
number made by the repetition of all or any of them any number of times. It
therefore depends on 1 + 2 + 3 + 4, or the sum of the digits, whether 1234 shall be
divisible by 9 or 3, or not. From the above we gather, that a number is divisible by 6
when it is even, and when the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Lastly, a number is
divisible by 5 only when the last figure is 0 or 5.
82. Where the divisor is unity followed by ciphers, the rule becomes extremely
simple, as you will see by the following examples:

)
100 33429 (334
300
342
300
429
400
29
 This is, then, the rule: Cut off as many figures from the right hand of the
dividend as there are ciphers. These figures will be the remainder, and the rest of the
dividend will be the quotient.

)
10 2717316
271731 and rem. 6.

Or we may prove these results thus: from (20), 2717316 is 271731 tens and 6; of
which the first contains 10 271731 times, and the second not at all; the quotient is
therefore 271731, and the remainder 6 (72). Again (20), 33429 is 334 hundreds and
29; of which the first contains 100 334 times, and the second not at all; the quotient
is therefore 334, and the remainder 29.
83. The following examples will shew how the rule may be shortened when
there are ciphers in the divisor. With each example is placed another containing the
same process, all unnecessary figures being removed; and from the comparison of
the two, the rule at the end of this article is derived.

I. 1782000 ) 6424700000 (3605 )

1782 6424700 (3605
5346000 5346
10787000 10787
10692000 10692
9500000 9500
8910000 8910
590000 590000

)
II. 12300000 42176189300 (3428 123 ) 421761 (3428
36900000 369
52761893 527
49200000 492
35618930 356
24600000 246
110189300 1101
98400000 984
11789300 11789300
The rule, then, is: Strike out as many figures[12] from the right of the dividend as
there are ciphers at the right of the divisor. Strike out all the ciphers from the
divisor, and divide in the usual way; but at the end of the process place on the right
of the remainder all those figures which were struck out of the dividend.
 84. EXERCISES.
Dividend. Divisor. Quotient. Remainder.
9694 47 206 12
175618 3136 56 2
23796484 130000 183 6484
14002564 1871 7484 0
310314420 7878 39390 0
3939040647 6889 571787 4
22876792454961 43046721 531441 0
Shew that
100 × 100 × 100 - 43 × 43 × 43
I. ———————————— = 100 × 100 + 100 × 43 + 43 × 43.
100 - 43

100 × 100 × 100 + 43 × 43 × 43

II. ———————————— = 100 × 100 - 100 × 43 + 43 × 43.
100 + 43

76 × 76 + 2 × 76 × 52 + 52 × 52
III. ———————————— = 76 + 52.
76 + 52

12 × 12 × 12 × 12 - 1
IV. 1 + 12 + 12 × 12 + 12 × 12 × 12 = ————————.
12 - 1
What is the nearest number to 1376429 which can be divided by 36300 without
remainder?—Answer, 1379400.
If 36 oxen can eat 216 acres of grass in one year, and if a sheep eat half as much
as an ox, how long will it take 49 oxen and 136 sheep together to eat 17550 acres?
—Answer, 25 years.
85. Take any two numbers, one of which divides the other without remainder;
for example, 32 and 4. Multiply both these numbers by any other number; for
example, 6. The products will be 192 and 24. Now, 192 contains 24 just as often as
32 contains 4. Suppose 6 baskets, each containing 32 pebbles, the whole number of
which will be 192. Take 4 from one basket, time after time, until that basket is
empty. It is plain that if, instead of taking 4 from that basket, I take 4 from each, the
whole 6 will be emptied together: that is, 6 times 32 contains 6 times 4 just as often
as 32 contains 4. The same reasoning applies to other numbers, and therefore we do
not alter the quotient if we multiply the dividend and divisor by the same number.
 86. Again, suppose that 200 is to be divided by 50. Divide both the dividend and
divisor by the same number; for example, 5. Then, 200 is 5 times 40, and 50 is 5
times 10. But by (85), 40 divided by 10 gives the same quotient as 5 times 40
divided by 5 times 10, and therefore the quotient of two numbers is not altered by
dividing both the dividend and divisor by the same number.
87. From (55), if a number be multiplied successively by two others, it is
multiplied by their product. Thus, 27, first multiplied by 5, and the product
multiplied by 3, is the same as 27 multiplied by 5 times 3, or 15. Also, if a number
be divided by any number, and the quotient be divided by another, it is the same as
if the first number had been divided by the product of the other two. For example,
divide 60 by 4, which gives 15, and the quotient by 3, which gives 5. It is plain, that
if each of the four fifteens of which 60 is composed be divided into three equal
parts, there are twelve equal parts in all; or, a division by 4, and then by 3, is
equivalent to a division by 4 × 3, or 12.
88. The following rules will be better understood by stating them in an example.
If 32 be multiplied by 24 and divided by 6, the result is the same as if 32 had been
multiplied by the quotient of 24 divided by 6, that is, by 4; for the sixth part of 24
being 4, the sixth part of any number repeated 24 times is that number repeated 4
times; or, multiplying by 24 and dividing by 6 is equivalent to multiplying by 4.
89. Again, if 48 be multiplied by 4, and that product be divided by 24, it is the
same thing as if 48 were divided at once by the quotient of 24 divided by 4, that is,
by 6. For, every unit which is repeated 6 times in 48 is repeated 4 times as often, or
24 times, in 4 times 48, or the quotient of 48 and 6 is the same as the quotient of 48
× 4 and 6 × 4.
90. The results of the last five articles may be algebraically expressed thus:
ma a
= (85)
mb b
If n divide a and b without remainder,
a/n a
= (86)
b/n b
a/b a
= (87)
c bc
ab b
=a× (88)
c c
ac a
= (89)
b b/c
It must be recollected, however, that these have only been proved in the case
where all the divisions are without remainder.
 91. When one number divides another without leaving any remainder, or is
contained an exact number of times in it, it is said to be a measure of that number,
or to measure it. Thus, 4 is a measure of 136, or measures 136; but it does not
measure 137. The reason for using the word measure is this: Suppose you have a
rod 4 feet long, with nothing marked upon it, with which you want to measure some
length; for example, the length of a street. If that street should happen to be 136 feet
in length, you will be able to measure it with the rod, because, since 136 contains 4
34 times, you will find that the street is exactly 34 times the length of the rod. But if
the street should happen to be 137 feet long, you cannot measure it with the rod; for
when you have measured 34 of the rods, you will find a remainder, whose length
you cannot tell without some shorter measure. Hence 4 is said to measure 136, but
not to measure 137. A measure, then, is a divisor which leaves no remainder.
92. When one number is a measure of two others, it is called a common measure
of the two. Thus, 15 is a common measure of 180 and 75. Two numbers may have
several common measures. For example, 360 and 168 have the common measures
2, 3, 4, 6, 24, and several others. Now, this question maybe asked: Of all the
common measures of 360 and 168, which is the greatest? The answer to this
question is derived from a rule of arithmetic, called the rule for finding the
, which we proceed to consider.
93. If one quantity measure two others, it measures their sum and difference.
Thus, 7 measures 21 and 56. It therefore measures 56 + 21 and 56-21, or 77 and 35.
This is only another way of saying what was said in (74).
94. If one number measure a second, it measures every number which the
second measures. Thus, 5 measures 15, and 15 measures 30, 45, 60, 75, &c.; all
which numbers are measured by 5. It is plain that if
15 contains 5 3 times,
30, or 15 + 15 contains 5 3 + 3 times, or 6 times,
45, or 15 + 15 + 15 contains 5 3 + 3 + 3 or 9 times;
and so on.
95. Every number which measures both the dividend and divisor measures the
remainder also. To shew this, divide 360 by 112. The quotient is 3, and the
remainder 24, that is (72) 360 is three times 112 and 24, or 360 = 112 × 3 + 24.
From this it follows, that 24 is the difference between 360 and 3 times 112, or 24 =
360-112 × 3. Take any number which measures both 360 and 112; for example, 4.
Then

4 measures 360,
4 measures 112, and therefore (94) measures 112 × 3,
or 112 + 112 + 112.

Therefore (93) it measures 360-112 × 3, which is the remainder 24. The same
reasoning may be applied to all other measures of 360 and 112; and the result is,
that every quantity which measures both the dividend and divisor also measures the
remainder. Hence, every common measure of a dividend and divisor is also a
common measure of the divisor and remainder.
96. Every common measure of the divisor and remainder is also a common
measure of the dividend and divisor. Take the same example, and recollect that 360
= 112 × 3 + 24. Take any common measure of the remainder 24 and the divisor 112;
for example, 8. Then

8 measures 24;
and 8 measures 112, and therefore (94) measures 112 × 3.

Therefore (93) 8 measures 112 × 3 + 24, or measures the dividend 360. Then
every common measure of the remainder and divisor is also a common measure of
the divisor and dividend, or there is no common measure of the remainder and
divisor which is not also a common measure of the divisor and dividend.
97. I. It is proved in (95) that the remainder and divisor have all the common
measures which are in the dividend and divisor.
II. It is proved in (96) that they have no others.
It therefore follows, that the greatest of the common measures of the first two is
the greatest of those of the second two, which shews how to find the greatest
common measure of any two numbers,[13] as follows:
98. Take the preceding example, and let it be required to find the g. c. m. of 360
and 112, and observe that
360 divided by 112 gives the remainder 24,
112 divided by 24 gives the remainder 16,
24 divided by 16 gives the remainder 8,
16 divided by 8 gives no remainder.
Now, since 8 divides 16 without remainder, and since it also divides itself
without remainder, 8 is the g. c. m. of 8 and 16, because it is impossible to divide 8
by any number greater than 8; so that, even if 16 had a greater measure than 8, it
could not be common to 16 and 8.

Therefore 8 is g. c. m. of 16 and 8,
(97) g. c. m. of 16 and 8 is g. c. m. of 24 and 16,
g. c. m. of 24 and 16 is g. c. m. of 112 and 24,
g. c. m. of 112 and 24 is g. c. m. of 360 and 112,
Therefore 8 is g. c. m. of 360 and 112.
The process carried on may be written down in either of the following ways:
 )
112 360 (3
336

)
24 112 (4
96

)
16 24 (1
16

)
8 16 (2
16
0

112 360 3
96 336 4
16 24 1
16 16 2
0 8
The rule for finding the greatest common measure of two numbers is,
I. Divide the greater of the two by the less.
II. Make the remainder a divisor, and the divisor a dividend, and find another
remainder.
III. Proceed in this way until there is no remainder, and the last divisor is the
greatest common measure required.
99. You may perhaps ask how the rule is to shew when the two numbers have no
common measure. The fact is, that there are, strictly speaking, no such numbers,
because all numbers are measured by 1; that is, contain an exact number of units,
and therefore 1 is a common measure of every two numbers. If they have no other
common measure, the last divisor will be 1, as in the following example, where the
greatest common measure of 87 and 25 is found.

)
25 87 (3
75

)
12 25 (2
24

)
1 12 (12
12
 0

EXERCISES.
Numbers. g. c. m.
6197 9521 1
58363 2602 1
5547 147008443 1849
6281 326041 571
28915 31495 5
1509 300309 3

What are 36 × 36 + 2 × 36 × 72 + 72 × 72
and 36 × 36 × 36 + 72 × 72 × 72;

and what is their greatest common measure?—Answer, 11664.

100. If two numbers be divisible by a third, and if the quotients be again

divisible by a fourth, that third is not the greatest common measure. For example,
360 and 504 are both divisible by 4. The quotients are 90 and 126. Now 90 and 126
are both divisible by 9, the quotients of which division are 10 and 14. By (87),
dividing a number by 4, and then dividing the quotient by 9, is the same thing as
dividing the number itself by 4 × 9, or by 36. Then, since 36 is a common measure
of 360 and 504, and is greater than 4, 4 is not the greatest common measure. Again,
since 10 and 14 are both divisible by 2, 36 is not the greatest common measure. It
therefore follows, that when two numbers are divided by their greatest common
measure, the quotients have no common measure except 1 (99). Otherwise, the
number which was called the greatest common measure in the last sentence is not so
in reality.
101. To find the greatest common measure of three numbers, find the g. c. m. of
the first and second, and of this and the third. For since all common divisors of the
first and second are contained in their g. c. m., and no others, whatever is common
to the first, second, and third, is common also to the third and the g. c. m. of the first
and second, and no others. Similarly, to find the g. c. m. of four numbers, find the g.
c. m. of the first, second, and third, and of that and the fourth.
102. When a first number contains a second, or is divisible by it without
remainder, the first is called a multiple of the second. The words multiple and
measure are thus connected: Since 4 is a measure of 24, 24 is a multiple of 4. The
number 96 is a multiple of 8, 12, 24, 48, and several others. It is therefore called a
common multiple of 8, 12, 24. 48, &c. The product of any two numbers is evidently
a common multiple of both. Thus, 36 × 8, or 288, is a common multiple of 36 and 8.
But there are common multiples of 36 and 8 less than 288; and because it is
convenient, when a common multiple of two quantities is wanted, to use the least of
them, I now shew how to find the least common multiple of two numbers.
103. Take, for example, 36 and 8. Find their greatest common measure, which is
4, and observe that 36 is 9 × 4, and 8 is 2 × 4. The quotients of 36 and 8, when
divided by their greatest common measure, are therefore 9 and 2. Multiply these
quotients together, and multiply the product by the greatest common measure, 4,
which gives 9 × 2 × 4, or 72. This is a multiple of 8, or of 4 × 2 by (55); and also of
36 or of 4 × 9. It is also the least common multiple; but this cannot be proved to
you, because the demonstration cannot be thoroughly understood without more
practice in the use of letters to stand for numbers. But you may satisfy yourself that
it is the least in this case, and that the same process will give the least common
multiple in any other case which you may take. It is not even necessary that you
should know it is the least. Whenever a common multiple is to be used, any one will
do as well as the least. It is only to avoid large numbers that the least is used in
preference to any other.
When the greatest common measure is 1, the least common multiple of the two
numbers is their product.
The rule then is: To find the least common multiple of two numbers, find their
greatest common measure, and multiply one of the numbers by the quotient which
the other gives when divided by the greatest common measure. To find the least
common multiple of three numbers, find the least common multiple of the first two,
and find the least common multiple of that multiple and the third, and so on.

EXERCISES.
Least
Numbers proposed. common
multiple.
14, 21 42
16, 5, 24 240
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 2520
6, 8, 11, 16, 20 2640
876, 864 63072
868, 854 52948
A convenient mode of finding the least common multiple of several numbers is
as follows, when the common measures are easily visible: Pick out a number of
common measures of two or more, which have themselves no divisors greater than
unity. Write them as divisors, and divide every number which will divide by one or
more of them. Bring down the quotients, and also the numbers which will not divide
by any of them. Repeat the process with the results, and so on until the numbers
brought down have no two of them any common measure except unity. Then, for
the least common multiple, multiply all the divisors by all the numbers last brought
down. For instance, let it be required to find the least common multiple of all the
numbers from 11 to 21.

)
2, 2, 3, 5, 7 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
11 1 13 1 1 4 17 3 19 1 1
There are now no common measures left in the row, and the least common
multiple required is the product of 2, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 4, 17, 3, and 19; or
232792560.
 SECTION V.
FRACTIONS.

104. Suppose it required to divide 49 yards into five equal parts, or, as it is called, to find the fifth part
of 49 yards. If we divide 45 by 5, the quotient is 9, and the remainder is 4; that is (72), 49 is made up of 5
times 9 and 4. Let the line represent 49 yards:

A————————————————————B
C ——————— I —
D ——————— K —
E ——————— L —
F ——————— M —
G ——————— N —

I K L M N
H | | | | | |
Take 5 lines, , , , , and , each 9 yards in length, and the line , 4 yards in length. Then, since 49 is
5 nines and 4, , , , , , and , are together equal to . Divide , which is 4 yards, into five equal
parts, , , , , and , and place one of these parts opposite to each of the lines, , , , , and . It follows
that the ten lines, , , , , , , , , , , are together equal to , or 49 yards. Now and together are
of the same length as and together, and so are and , and , and and . Therefore, and together,
repeated 5 times, will be 49 yards; that is, and together make up the fifth part of 49 yards.
105. is a certain number of yards, viz. 9; but is a new sort of quantity, to which hitherto we have
never come. It is not an exact number of yards, for it arises from dividing 4 yards into 5 parts, and taking
one of those parts. It is the fifth part of 4 yards, and is called a of a yard. It is written thus, ⁴/
₅(23), and is what we must add to 9 yards in order to make up the fifth part of 49 yards.
The same reasoning would apply to dividing 49 bushels of corn, or 49 acres of land, into 5 equal parts.
We should find for the fifth part of the first, 9 bushels and the fifth part of 4 bushels; and for the second, 9
acres and the fifth part of 4 acres.
We say, then, once for all, that the fifth part of 49 is 9 and ⁴/₅, or 9 + ⁴/₅; which is usually written (9⁴/₅),
or if we use signs, 49/5 = (9⁴/₅).

EXERCISES.
What is the seventeenth part of 1237?—Answer, (72-¹³/₁₇).

10032 663819 22773399

What are ———, ———, and ———— ?
1974 23710 2424

162 23649 2343

Answer, (5 ——), (27 ———), and (9394 ——) .
1974 23710 2424
106. By the term fraction is understood a part of any number, or the sum of any of the equal parts into
which a number is divided. Thus, ⁴⁹/₅, ⁴/₅, ²⁰/₇, are fractions. The term fraction even includes whole
numbers:[14] for example, 17 is ¹⁷/₁, ³⁴/₂, ⁵¹/₃, &c.
 The upper number is called the numerator, the lower number is called the denominator, and both of
these are called terms of the fraction. As long as the numerator is less than the denominator, the fraction is
less than a unit: thus, ⁶/₁₇ is less than a unit; for 6 divided into 6 parts gives 1 for each part, and must give
less when divided into 17 parts. Similarly, the fraction is equal to a unit when the numerator and
denominator are equal, and greater than a unit when the numerator is greater than the denominator.
107. By ⅔ is meant the third part of 2. This is the same as twice the third part of 1.
To prove this, let be two yards, and divide each of the yards and into three equal parts.

| | | | | | |
A D E C F G B
Then, because , , and , are all equal to one another, is the third part of 2. It is therefore ⅔.
But is twice , and is the third part of one yard, or ⅓; therefore ⅔ is twice ⅓; that is, in order to
get the length ⅔, it makes no difference whether we divide two yards at once into three parts, and take one
of them, or whether we divide one yard into three parts, and take two of them. By the same reasoning, ⅝
may be found either by dividing 5 into 8 parts, and taking one of them, or by dividing 1 into 8 parts, and
taking five of them. In future, of these two meanings I shall use that which is most convenient at the time,
as it is proved that they are the same thing. This principle is the same as the following: The third part of
any number may be obtained by adding together the thirds of all the units of which it consists. Thus, the
third part of 2, or of two units, is made by taking one-third out of each of the units, that is,

⅔ = ⅓ × 2.
This meaning appears ambiguous when the numerator is greater than the denominator: thus, ¹⁵/₇ would
mean that 1 is to be divided into 7 parts, and 15 of them are to be taken. We should here let as many units
be each divided into 7 parts as will give more than 15 of those parts, and take 15 of them.
108. The value of a fraction is not altered by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same
quantity. Take the fraction ¾, multiply its numerator and denominator by 5, and it becomes ¹⁵/₂₀, which is
the same thing as ¾; that is, one-twentieth part of 15 yards is the same thing as one-fourth of 3 yards: or, if
our second meaning of the word fraction be used, you get the same length by dividing a yard into 20 parts
and taking 15 of them, as you get by dividing it into 4 parts and taking 3 of them. To prove this,

let represent a yard; divide it into 4 equal parts, , , , and , and divide each of these parts
into 5 equal parts. Then is ¾. But the second division cuts the line into 20 equal parts, of which
contains 15. It is therefore ¹⁵/₂₀. Therefore, ¹⁵/₂₀ and ¾ are the same thing.
Again, since ¾ is made from ¹⁵/₂₀ by dividing both the numerator and denominator by 5, the value of a
fraction is not altered by dividing both its numerator and denominator by the same quantity. This principle,
which is of so much importance in every part of arithmetic, is often used in common language, as when we
say that 14 out of 21 is 2 out of 3, &c.
109. Though the two fractions ¾ and ¹⁵/₂₀ are the same in value, and either of them may be used for the
other without error, yet the first is more convenient than the second, not only because you have a clearer
idea of the fourth of three yards than of the twentieth part of fifteen yards, but because the numbers in the
first being smaller, are more convenient for multiplication and division. It is therefore useful, when a
fraction is given, to find out whether its numerator and denominator have any common divisors or
common measures. In (98) was given a rule for finding the greatest common measure of any two numbers;
and it was shewn that when the two numbers are divided by their greatest common measure, the quotients
have no common measure except 1. Find the greatest common measure of the terms of the fraction, and
divide them by that number. The fraction is then said to be reduced to its lowest terms, and is in the state in
which the best notion can be formed of its magnitude.

EXERCISES.
With each fraction is written the same reduced to its lowest terms.

2794 22 × 127 22
= =
2921 23 × 127 23

2788 17 × 164 17
= =
4920 30 × 164 30

93280 764 × 122 764

= =
13786 113 × 122 113

888800 22 × 40400 22
= =
40359600 999 × 40400 999

95469 121 × 789 121

= =
359784 456 × 789 456
110. When the terms of the fraction given are already in factors,[15] any one factor in the numerator
may be divided by a number, provided some one factor in the denominator is divided by the same. This
follows from (88) and (108). In the following examples the figures altered by division are accented.

12 × 11 × 10 3′ × 11 × 10 1′ × 11 × 5′
= = = 55
2×3×4 2 × 3 × 1′ 1′ × 1′ × 1′

18 × 15 × 13 2′ × 3′ × 1′ 1′ × 1′ × 1′
= = = ¹/₁₆.
20 × 54 × 52 4′ × 6′ × 4′ 2′ × 2′ × 4′

27 × 28 3′ × 4′ 3′ × 2′
= = = ⁶/₅.
9 × 70 1′ × 10′ 1′ × 5′
111. As we can, by (108), multiply the numerator and denominator of a fraction by any number,
without altering its value, we can now readily reduce two fractions to two others, which shall have the
same value as the first two, and which shall have the same denominator. Take, for example, ⅔ and ⁴/₇;
multiply both terms of ⅔ by 7, and both terms of ⁴/₇ by 3. It then appears that

2×7
⅔ is or ¹⁴/₂₁
3×7

4×3
⁴/₇ is or ¹²/₂₁
7×3
Here are then two fractions ¹⁴/₂₁ and ¹²/₂₁, equal to ⅔ and ⁴/₇, and having the same denominator, 21; in
this case, ⅔ and ⁴/₇ are said to be reduced to a common denominator.
 It is required to reduce ⅒, ⅚, and ⁷/₉ to a common denominator. Multiply both terms of the first by the
product of 6 and 9; of the second by the product of 10 and 9; and of the third by the product of 10 and 6.
Then it appears (108) that

1×6×9
⅒ is or ⁵⁴/₅₄₀.
10 × 6 × 9

5 × 10 × 9
⅚ is or ⁴⁵⁰/₅₄₀.
6 × 10 × 9

7 × 10 × 6
⁷/₉ is or ⁴²⁰/₅₄₀.
9 × 10 × 6
On looking at these last fractions, we see that all the numerators and the common denominator are
divisible by 6, and (108) this division will not alter their values. On dividing the numerators and
denominators of ⁵⁴/₅₄₀, ⁴⁵⁰/₅₄₀, and ⁴²⁰/₅₄₀ by 6, the resulting fractions are, ⁹/₉₀, ⁷⁵/₉₀, and ⁷⁰/₉₀. These are
fractions with a common denominator, and which are the same as ⅒, ⅚, and ⁷/₉; and therefore these are a
more simple answer to the question than the first fractions. Observe also that 540 is one common multiple
of 10, 6, and 9, namely, 10 × 6 × 9, but that 90 is the least common multiple of 10, 6, and 9 (103). The
following process, therefore, is better. To reduce the fractions ⅒ , ⅚ , and ⁷/₉, to others having the same
value and a common denominator, begin by finding the least common multiple of 10, 6, and 9, by the rule
in (103), which is 90. Observe that 10, 6, and 9 are contained in 90 9, 15, and 10 times. Multiply both
terms of the first by 9, of the second by 15, and of the third by 10, and the fractions thus produced are ⁹/₉₀,
⁷⁵/₉₀, and ⁷⁰/₉₀, the same as before.
If one of the numbers be a whole number, it may be reduced to a fraction having the common
denominator of the rest, by (106).

EXERCISES.

Fractions proposed reduced to a common denominator.

2 1 1 20 6 5
3 5 6 30 30 30

1 2 3 12 3 28 24 18 48 63
3 7 14 21 4 84 84 84 84 84

3 4 5 6 3000 400 50 6
10 100 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

33 281 22341 106499

379 677 256583 256583
112. By reducing two fractions to a common denominator, we are able to compare them; that is, to tell
which is the greater and which the less of the two. For example, take ½ and ⁷/₁₅. These fractions reduced,
without alteration of their value, to a common denominator, are ¹⁵/₃₀ and ¹⁴/₃₁. Of these the first must be the
greater, because (107) it may be obtained by dividing 1 into 30 equal parts and taking 15 of them, but the
second is made by taking 14 of those parts.
 It is evident that of two fractions which have the same denominator, the greater has the greater
numerator; and also that of two fractions which have the same numerator, the greater has the less
denominator. Thus, ⁸/₇ is greater than ⁸/⁹, since the first is a 7th, and the last only a 9th part of 8. Also, any
numerator may be made to belong to as small a fraction as we please, by sufficiently increasing the
denominator. Thus, ¹⁰/₁₀₀ is ¹/₁₀, ¹⁰/₁₀₀₀ is ¹/₁₀₀, and ¹⁰/₁₀₀₀₀₀₀ is ¹/₁₀₀₀₀₀₀ (108).
We can now also increase and diminish the first fraction by the second. For the first fraction is made up
of 15 of the 30 equal parts into which 1 is divided. The second fraction is 14 of those parts. The sum of the
two, therefore, must be 15 + 14, or 29 of those parts; that is, ½ + ⁷/₁₅ is ²⁹/₃₀. The difference of the two must
be 15-14, or 1 of those parts; that is, ½-⁷/₁₅ = ¹/₃₀.
113. From the last two articles the following rules are obtained:
I. To compare, to add, or to subtract fractions, first reduce them to a common denominator. When this
has been done, that is the greatest of the fractions which has the greatest numerator.
Their sum has the sum of the numerators for its numerator, and the common denominator for its
denominator.
Their difference has the difference of the numerators for its numerator, and the common denominator
for its denominator.

EXERCISES.
1 1 1 1 53
+ + - =
2 3 4 5 60

44 153 18329
- =
3 427 1282

8 3 4 1834
1+ 10
+
100
-
1000
=
1000

1 12 253
2 -
7
+
13
=
91

1 8 94 3
+ + =
2 16 188 2

163 97 93066
- =
521 881 459001
114. Suppose it required to add a whole number to a fraction, for example, 6 to ⁴/₉. By (106) 6 is ⁵⁴/₉,
and ⁵⁴/₉ + ⁴/₉ is ⁵⁸/⁹; that is, 6 + ⁴/⁹, or as it is usually written, (6⁴/₉), is ⁵⁸/₉. The rule in this case is: Multiply
the whole number by the denominator of the fraction, and to the product add the numerator of the fraction;
the sum will be the numerator of the result, and the denominator of the fraction will be its denominator.
Thus, (3¼) = ¹³/₄, (22⁵/₉) = ²⁰³/₉, (74²/₅₅) = ⁴⁰⁷²/₅₅. This rule is the opposite of that in (105).
115. From the last rule it appears that
907 17230907
1723 10000 is
10000
,

225 667225
667 1000
is
1000
,
 99 2300099
and 23 10000 is
10000
,

Hence, when a whole number is to be added to a fraction whose denominator is 1 followed by ciphers, the
number of which is not less than the number of figures in the numerator, the rule is: Write the whole
number first, and then the numerator of the fraction, with as many ciphers between them as the number of
ciphers in the denominator exceeds the number of figures in the numerator. This is the numerator of the
result, and the denominator of the fraction is its denominator. If the number of ciphers in the denominator
be equal to the number of figures in the numerator, write no ciphers between the whole number and the
numerator.

EXERCISES.
Reduce the following mixed quantities to fractions:
23707
1
100000
,

6
2457 10 ,

2210
233 10000 .
116. Suppose it required to multiply ⅔ by 4. This by (48) is taking ⅔ four times; that is, finding ⅔ + ⅔
+ ⅔ + ⅔. This by (112) is ⁸/₃; so that to multiply a fraction by a whole number the rule is: Multiply the
numerator by the whole number, and let the denominator remain.
117. If the denominator of the fraction be divisible by the whole number, the rule may be stated thus:
Divide the denominator of the fraction by the whole number, and let the numerator remain. For example,
multiply ⁷/₃₆ by 6. This (116) is ⁴²/₃₆, which, since the numerator and denominator are now divisible by 6, is
(108) the same as ⁷/₆. It is plain that ⁷/₆ is made from ⁷/₃₆ in the manner stated in the rule.
118. Multiplication has been defined to be the taking as many of one number as there are units in
another. Thus, to multiply 12 by 7 is to take as many twelves as there are units in 7, or to take 12 as many
times as you must take 1 in order to make 7. Thus, what is done with 1 in order to make 7, is done with 12
to make 7 times 12. For example,

7 is 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
7 times 12 is 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12.
When the same thing is done with two fractions, the result is still called their product, and the process
is still called multiplication. There is this difference, that whereas a whole number is made by adding 1 to
itself a number of times, a fraction is made by dividing 1 into a number of equal parts, and adding one of
these parts to itself a number of times. This being the meaning of the word multiplication, as applied to
fractions, what is ¾ multiplied by ⅞? Whatever is done with 1 in order to make ⅞ must now be done with
¾; but to make ⅞, 1 is divided into 8 parts, and 7 of them are taken. Therefore, to make ¾ × ⅞, ¾ must be
divided into 8 parts, and 7 of them must be taken. Now ¾ is, by (108), the same thing as ²⁴/₃₂. Since ²⁴/₃₂ is
made by dividing 1 into 32 parts, and taking 24 of them, or, which is the same thing, taking 3 of them 8
times, if ²⁴/₃₂ be divided into 8 equal parts, each of them is ³/₃₂; and if 7 of these parts be taken, the result is
²¹/₃₂ (116): therefore ¾ multiplied by ⅞ is ²¹/₃₂; and the same reasoning may be applied to any other
fractions. But ²¹/₃₂ is made from ¾ and ⅞ by multiplying the two numerators together for the numerator,
and the two denominators for the denominator; which furnishes a rule for the multiplication of fractions.
119. If this product ²¹/₃₂ is to be multiplied by a third fraction, for example, by ⁵/₉, the result is, by the
same rule, ¹⁰⁵/₂₈₈; and so on. The general rule for multiplying any number of fractions together is therefore:
Multiply all the numerators together for the numerator of the product, and all the denominators
together for its denominator.
 120. Suppose it required to multiply together ¹⁵/₁₆ and ⁸/₁₀. The product may be written thus:

15 × 8 120
, and is, ,
16 × 10 160
which reduced to its lowest terms (109) is ¾. This result might have been obtained directly, by observing
that 15 and 10 are both measured by 5, and 8 and 16 are both measured by 8, and that the fraction may be
written thus:

3×5×8
2 × 8 × 2 × 5.

Divide both its numerator and denominator by 5 × 8 (108) and (87), and the result is at once ¾; therefore,
before proceeding to multiply any number of fractions together, if there be any numerator and any
denominator, whether belonging to the same fraction or not, which have a common measure, divide them
both by that common measure, and use the quotients instead of the dividends.
A whole number may be considered as a fraction whose denominator is 1; thus, 16 is ¹⁶/₁ (106); and the
same rule will apply when one or more of the quantities are whole numbers.

EXERCISES.
136 268 36448 18224
× = =
7470 919 6864930 3432465

1 2 3 4 1
× × × =
2 3 4 5 5

2 17 2
× =
17 45 45

2 13 241 6266
× × =
59 7 19 7874

13 601 7813
× =
461 11 5071
Fraction
Square. Cube.
proposed.
701 491401 344472101
158 24964 3944312

140 19600 2744000

141 19881 2803221

355 126025 44738875

113 12769 1442897
From 100 acres of ground, two-thirds of them are taken away; 50 acres are then added to the result,
and ⁵/₇ of the whole is taken; what number of acres does this produce?—Answer, (59¹¹/₂₁).