VIETNAM AVIATION ACADEMY

FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

Student: Hà Minh Thư

Code: 2252210019 Class: 22ĐHNA01

SYNTAX: THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE

MAJOR: LINGUISTICS INTRODUCTION

Code: 0101000937

Lecturer: Nguyễn Kim Loan, PH.D

VAA, 17 Oct 2023

Contents

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I. Introduction.......................................................................................1
II. Definition of Syntax and Its Significance in Understanding
Language Structure................................................................................2
1. Definition of syntax:......................................................................................................................2
2. The Importance of Syntax Understanding:.................................................................................2

III. Origin of Syntax................................................................................2

IV. Basic Syntax Principles and Rules & Example illustrating the
Application of Syntax in Linguistic Analysis.......................................3
1. Phrase Structure Rules:................................................................................................................3
A. Definition:...................................................................................................................................3
B. Here are the key components of phrase structure rules:........................................................3
C. Example:.....................................................................................................................................4
2. Grammatical Categories:..............................................................................................................4
A. Definition:...................................................................................................................................5
B. Common grammatical categories include:...............................................................................5
3. Syntactic Ambiguity:.....................................................................................................................6
A. Definition:...................................................................................................................................6
B. Example:.....................................................................................................................................6
4. Constituency and Dependency in Syntax:....................................................................................7
A. Constituency:.............................................................................................................................7
B. Dependency:...............................................................................................................................8

V. Conclusion..........................................................................................8

I. Introduction
Language is one of the most intricate and distinctive components of human
cognition, allowing us to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and experiences
with astonishing breadth and diversity. Syntax, the invisible structure that gives
language its order and consistency, lies underneath the surface of this linguistic

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 manifestation. We will embark on a journey to comprehend the nature and
relevance of syntax in the field of linguistics in this essay. We shall investigate its
definition, the origins of syntax, the principles and rules that govern its operation,
and its application in linguistic analysis. Ultimately, we will recognize syntax as
the foundation of language, enabling us to convey meaning, exhibit creativity, and
connect on a profound level.
II. Definition of Syntax and Its Significance in Understanding Language
Structure

1. Definition of syntax:
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the rules, principles, and
patterns that dictate how words and phrases are combined to form sentences in a
language. It is the system that underlies the structure of sentences, providing a set
of guidelines for creating grammatically correct and meaningful expressions.
Syntax encompasses a range of elements, including word order, sentence structure,
and grammatical relationships.

At its core, syntax seeks to answer fundamental questions such as: How do we
organize words into meaningful sentences? What is the proper sequence of words
and phrases in a sentence? What rules govern the formation of sentences, and how
do these rules vary across different languages? Syntax is instrumental in
addressing these questions, ultimately unveiling the architecture of language.

2. The Importance of Syntax Understanding:

Understanding syntax is essential for understanding a language's fundamental
structure. It allows us to analyze sentences, define the roles of various elements,
and determine the meaning conveyed. Without syntax, language would be a
disorganized collection of words with no structure or clarity. It provides the ability
to produce, understand, and analyze the complex material of language.

III. Origin of Syntax

 The origins of syntax harken back to the earliest forms of human communication.
Early humans likely relied on gestures, vocalizations, and rudimentary sounds to
convey meaning. However, as societies grew more complex, the need for a more
structured and effective means of communication became evident. This led to the
emergence of syntax as a systematic way to organize thoughts and ideas into
coherent linguistic expressions.

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  The formal study of syntax gained prominence in the mid-20th century, largely
attributed to linguists like Noam Chomsky. Chomsky's transformational-
generative grammar theory proposed that humans have an innate capacity for
language acquisition, providing the foundation for modern syntactic studies.
 The question of how syntax originated in the evolutionary history of language is
complex and debated. Several theories attempt to explain its emergence:
 Social Communication: The development of syntax may have been linked to the
increasing complexity of early human societies. As societies expanded, so did the
need for structured communication systems, which led to the emergence of syntax.
 Cognitive Advancements: Some theories suggest that the evolution of syntax is
closely tied to cognitive advances in early humans. As cognitive capacities
developed, humans became better equipped to handle complex linguistic
structures.
 Biological Predisposition: The innateness hypothesis, as proposed by Chomsky,
suggests that humans are biologically predisposed to acquire language with
syntactic structures. This implies that syntax is an inherent feature of human
language.

IV. Basic Syntax Principles and Rules & Example illustrating the
Application of Syntax in Linguistic Analysis

1. Phrase Structure Rules:

A. Definition:
Phrase Structure Rules, also known as phrase structure grammar, are a set of
grammatical rules that specify the hierarchical structure of sentences in a
language. These rules determine how words and phrases can be combined to
create well-formed sentences. They are a fundamental part of generative
grammar, a linguistic theory developed by Noam Chomsky. Phrase structure
rules describe the internal structure of sentences, indicating how constituents
(phrases) are arranged within a sentence.

B. Here are the key components of phrase structure rules:

Constituents: Phrase structure rules define how words and smaller phrases
(constituents) are combined to create larger phrases or sentences. These
constituents can include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), prepositional
phrases (PP), and more.

Hierarchical Structure: Phrase structure rules establish a hierarchical structure

for sentences, indicating the relationships between constituents. For example, a

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 sentence can be broken down into phrases, phrases into smaller phrases, and so
on, creating a tree-like structure.

Phrase Labels: Each phrase is labeled with its grammatical category, such as
NP for noun phrases or VP for verb phrases. This labeling helps in identifying
the type of phrase and its function in the sentence.

Recursive Rules: Phrase structure rules often include recursive elements,

allowing phrases to contain other phrases of the same type. This recursion is a
fundamental property of human language and allows for the generation of
complex and lengthy sentences.

C. Example:

 S → NP VP

The first rule states that a sentence (S) can be composed of a noun phrase
(NP) followed by a verb phrase (VP).

- Example: "The bird (NP) caught the fish (VP)."

 NP → { Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN }

The second rule states that a noun phrase (NP) can be rewritten as either an
article plus an optional adjective plus a noun (N), or a pronoun (Pro), or a
proper noun (PN).

- Example: "The (Art) big (Adj) chipmunk (N) climbed the tree."

 VP → V NP

In the third rule, a verb phrase (VP) can be rewritten as a verb (V) plus a
noun phrase (NP).

- Example: "He (NP) eats (V) hamburger for lunch."

2. Grammatical Categories:

A. Definition:

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Grammatical categories, also known as syntactic categories or parts of speech,
are linguistic classifications that categorize words based on their grammatical
properties and functions within a sentence. These categories are essential for
understanding the structure of a language and how words can be combined to
create meaningful sentences.

B. Common grammatical categories include:

Nouns (N): Nouns represent people, places, things, or ideas. They often serve
as subjects, objects, or complements in sentences. Examples include "cat,"
"city," and "happiness."

Verbs (V): Verbs express actions, processes, or states. They are typically the
core of a sentence and convey what the subject is doing. Examples include
"run," "eat," and "is."

Adjectives (Adj): Adjectives modify nouns by providing additional

information about their qualities or characteristics. Examples include "red,"
"happy," and "tall."

Adverbs (Adv): Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs to provide

information about how, when, where, or to what degree an action or state
occurs. Examples include "quickly," "very," and "here."

Pronouns (Pro): Pronouns are used in place of nouns to avoid repetition. They
include words like "he," "she," "it," and "they."

Prepositions (P): Prepositions are used to indicate relationships between

elements in a sentence, typically showing the spatial or temporal relationships.
Examples include "in," "on," and "under."

Conjunctions (Conj): Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or

clauses. They include coordinating conjunctions (e.g., "and," "but") and
subordinating conjunctions (e.g., "although," "because").

Determiners (Det): Determiners, often called articles, specify whether a noun

is definite ("the") or indefinite ("a" or "an"). They also include demonstratives
like "this" and "those."

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 Interjections (Intj): Interjections are exclamatory words used to express strong
emotions, often appearing as standalone expressions. Examples include
"Wow!" and "Oh!"

3. Syntactic Ambiguity:

A. Definition:
Syntactic ambiguity is a phenomenon in linguistics and grammar where a
sentence can be interpreted in multiple ways due to the structural arrangement
of its elements, without necessarily changing the individual meanings of
words. Syntactic ambiguity arises when the sentence's structure allows for
different groupings or relationships between words or phrases, leading to more
than one possible interpretation. This ambiguity can create confusion in
understanding the intended meaning of a sentence.
Syntactic ambiguity is distinct from semantic ambiguity, where the meaning of
individual words or phrases is unclear, but the sentence structure is not. In
syntactic ambiguity, the words have clear meanings, but the arrangement of
those words creates multiple possible sentence structures.

B. Example:

- Example 1: "The chicken is ready to eat."

This sentence can also be interpreted in two different ways:

Interpretation 1: "The chicken is prepared for consumption."

 In this interpretation, the phrase "to eat" is seen as an adjective phrase
modifying the noun "chicken." It means that the chicken is cooked and
prepared for someone to consume it.
Interpretation 2: "The chicken is ready to engage in eating."
 In this interpretation, the phrase "to eat" is interpreted as an infinitive phrase. It
suggests that the chicken is hungry and prepared to eat something else.

 Explanation: The syntactic ambiguity in this sentence arises from the phrase "to
eat," which can be understood in two different ways:

 In Interpretation 1, "to eat" is seen as an adjective phrase describing the

state or condition of the chicken. It implies that the chicken is in a state of
readiness for consumption. This interpretation focuses on the chicken being
cooked and prepared for consumption.

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  In Interpretation 2, "to eat" is interpreted as an infinitive phrase, indicating
the chicken's readiness to engage in eating. This suggests that the chicken is
hungry and prepared to consume something else.

- Example 2: "She told him that her dog was dangerous."

Interpretation 1: "She informed him that her own dog was dangerous."
 In this interpretation, the relative clause "that her dog was dangerous" is
attached to the main clause "She told him." This means that she conveyed
to him that her own dog posed a danger.

Interpretation 2: "She warned him about the dangerous dog that belonged
to someone else."
 In this interpretation, the relative clause "that her dog was dangerous" is
attached to "the dog." This suggests that she warned him about a dangerous
dog, but this dog may not necessarily belong to her.

 Explanation: The syntactic ambiguity in this sentence arises from the relative
clause "that her dog was dangerous." This clause can be associated with either the
main verb "told" or the noun "dog."

 In Interpretation 1, the clause modifies the action of telling. She is

informing him about the danger posed by her own dog.

 In Interpretation 2, the clause describes the dog itself, emphasizing its

dangerous nature. She is warning him about a potentially hazardous dog,
which may not be her own.

4. Constituency and Dependency in Syntax:

A. Constituency:
 Definition: Constituency in syntax refers to the hierarchical grouping of
words into meaningful units, known as constituents. These constituents can
be phrases, clauses, or individual words that function as a single unit within
a sentence.
 Importance: Understanding constituency helps in analyzing the structure of
sentences. It allows us to identify units that work together to convey a
particular meaning.

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 B. Dependency:
 Definition: Dependency in syntax focuses on the relationships between
words based on their roles in a sentence. It describes the links or
connections between words, indicating which word governs or modifies
another.
 Importance: Dependency relations provide information about how words
relate to each other in terms of roles like subject, object, modifier, etc. This
information is crucial for understanding sentence structure and meaning.

V. Conclusion
In conclusion, syntax stands as the silent architect of language, shaping the way
we express ourselves and communicate with one another. It provides the rules and
principles that govern the structure of sentences, allowing us to convey meaning,
express creativity, and connect on a profound level.
The origins of syntax trace back to the dawn of human communication, evolving
alongside the growth of societies. It is deeply intertwined with human cognition
and our innate capacity for language acquisition.
Basic syntax principles and rules, exemplified by phrase structure rules, serve as
the foundation for constructing sentences. These rules guide the assembly of
phrases, allowing for systematic analysis.
By applying syntactic analysis, we can dissect sentences and reveal the roles of
individual elements, providing insight into how meaning is conveyed. This
structured framework is indispensable for linguistic analysis.
In essence, syntax is the invisible thread that weaves through language, shaping
our ability to communicate effectively and understand the rich tapestry of human
expression.

References:

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT press.

Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge
University Press.
O'Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Katamba, F. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics:
An Introduction. Bedford/St. Martin's.
Radford, A. (2009). An Introduction to English Sentence Structure. Cambridge
University Press.