EDUCATION Revista Mexicana de Fı́sica E 17 (2) 156–164 JULY–DECEMBER 2020

Horizontal projectile motion: comparing free fall and drag resistance

R. Yáñez Valdez, P. A. Gómez Valdez, and F. de Armas Rivero
División de Ingenierı́a Mecánica e Industrial, Facultad de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Circuito exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, 07510, CDMX, México.
Received 4 February 2020; accepted 26 March 2020

The motion of a particle that is projected into a resistant medium and subjected to a uniform gravitational field is considered. The drag force
that acts upon the particle within the medium is proportional to the particle’s speed, the density of the medium, and the cross-section area of
the projectile. We review the problem of a horizontal motion with a drag force that is linear in speed. The problem is formulated in terms of
particle speed, mass, height, time, and expelled gas velocity. The equations of motion are solved analytically, and a case study is discussed.
As a result, we obtain the deviation of the projectile as a function of time because of the expelled gases with or without drag force.

Keywords: Newtons Laws; drag force; projectile.

El movimiento de una partı́cula que es proyectada en un medio con fricción y sujeta a un campo gravitacional uniforme es considerada. La
fuerza de arrastre que actua sobre la partı́cula debida al medio es proporcional a la velocidad de la partı́cula, la densidad del medio y la
sección transversal del proyectil. En este trabajo se revisa el problema del movimiento horizontal con fuerza de arrastre lineal en velocidad.
Dicho problema es formulado en terminos de la velocidad de la partı́cula, la masa, la altura, el tiempo y la velocidad del gas expulsado. Las
ecuaciones de movimiento son resueltas de manera analı́tica, y un caso de estudio es discutido. Como resultado, se obtiene la desviación del
proyectil como función del tiempo debida a la expulsión del gas con o sin fuerza de arrastre.
Descriptores: Leyes de Newton; fuerza de arrastre; proyectil.

PACS: 01.40.Ha; 45.20.D DOI: https://doi.org/10.31349/RevMexFisE.17.156

1. Introduction accelerate by pushing against the ground constantly with his

feet, or a car, which uses the road to accelerate due to the
Newton’s second law was stated in the masterpiece of Sir friction between the wheels and the road surface, or even a
Isaac Newton, “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathemat- plane, which uses chemical energy from the fuel for heating
ica”, in 1687 [1]. and accelerating the air that is expelled from the rear side of a
This law establishes a quantification method for the con- turbine, a rocket moves itself by expelling its own mass rear-
cept of force and describes that the acceleration of a body is ward. Thus, a rocket does not need a medium to impulse it-
proportional to the force applied on it and is inversely pro- self. If an object does not have any external agent that pushes
portional to its mass, i.e., it or one that it can push, how can the rocket get moving?
X The engine of a rocket is designed to throw the burned fuel
F = ma. (1) out rearward, and by Newton’s third law, the fuel pushes the
rocket forward. If the reader has ever tried to build a proto-
That means that the heavier the body is, the stronger the ap- type and recreate the experience of launching a scale rocket,
plied force must be in order to achieve greater acceleration. they could have had some questions, e.g., what is the influ-
This relation is true when the mass of the body is constant, ence of air resistance? After obtaining the equations for the
but what happens if the mass is not constant? A good exam- velocity as a function of time of a rocket fired vertically up-
ple of this is a rocket system that burns fuel as it rises in the ward near the surface of the Earth, what are the conditions
air; in this case, Eq. (1) is not correct. Now, remembering for liftoff? If the rocket’s initial motion followed a horizon-
that Newton stated his law as tal path instead of a vertical one, the same questions would
X d(mv) apply.
F= . (2)
dt
An object moving through a fluid is influenced by the re-
In this way it is possible to relate force with mass and ac- sistant force, or drag, that acts oppositely to the relative mo-
celeration. In the case where the mass is constant, it can be tion of objects. Depending upon the characteristics of the
pulled out of the derivate and thus we obtain Eq. (1); there- flow, represented by a Reynolds number, two different types
fore, the force is a concept that is equal to the derivate of the of drag models are used: a linear drag model and a quadratic
linear momentum of a given particle. This law helps us to un- drag model. To handle a projectile’s motion while incorpo-
derstand why it is harder to accelerate a heavier object than a rating these drag models, various researches have been con-
lighter one. ducted to find their solutions while addressing several aspects
Rocket propulsion is an interesting field of study because of the problem [2-7]. Since neglecting the resistant force to
its own method of acceleration is different from that of any projectile motion is impractical, is desirable to develop an-
other object. Compared to a runner, who uses the ground to alytic solutions from a simplified model so as to elucidate
 HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION: COMPARING FREE FALL AND DRAG RESISTANCE 157

some of the essential features and structure of this problem.

The linear model, in which the resistance is taken to be pro-
portional to the instantaneous velocity of the projectile, is
generally accepted as the first approximation to such resis-
tive behavior [8, 9] and it is the model we use here. Simula-
tion of the projectile’s motion with and without drag forces
is extended. The equation of motion was formulated in order
to cancel the inertial velocity of the projectile mounted on a
mobile that is able to move at a constant inertial velocity.

2. Variable mass problem

Rocket propulsion is based on the principle that the rate of
change of the linear momentum is equivalent to an external
net force, and if the external net force is zero, the change in
the linear momentum is also zero and so the linear momen-
tum must be conserved. Consider Fig. 1, in which a rocket of F IGURE 2. Rocket ejecting gas with velocity u [10].
mass m is shown to be under the action of an external force
F, is expelling gas with a constant velocity u relative to the the mass and velocity of the rocket at time t + dt is equal
rocket, and has a time-dependent velocity v. m + dm and v + dv, respectively, where dm = −|dm| is
Let the initial linear momentum of the rocket be written a small decrease in rocket mass due to its loss of fuel in the
as short time dt. The gas mass ejected is then −dm and has
velocity v + u relative to the ground, as shown in Fig. 2.
pi = mv. (3)
The total linear momentum of the rocket-gas system is
As soon as the rocket begins to burn and expel gas at velocity
u relative to it, its mass decreases as a function of time. Let PT = (m + dm)(v + dv) − dm(v + u)
PT = mv + mdv − udm. (4)

In Eq. (4), the small term dmdv has been neglected. The
net force over the system, by the second law of Newton, is

∆P ∆Pf − ∆Pi
F = lim = lim ,
x→0∆t x→0 ∆t
dv dm
or m =u + F. (5)
dt dt
Equation (5) is known as the rocket equation.

3. Velocity as a function of time

In this section, two different situations can be considered, one
in which the rocket is leaving the Earth’s surface and other in
which the rocket has already left the Earth’s surface and finds
itself in outer space without any external forces acting on it.

Free Space

Assuming a constant gas-expelled velocity in free space,

there are no external forces acting on the rocket and the force
F = 0. From Eq. (5), using v = v̂ and u = −u̂, where u is
constant, we get
µ ¶
F IGURE 1. Mass rocket m under the action of an external force F
dv dm
m =− u. (6)
[10]. dt dt

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

158 R. YÁÑEZ VALDEZ, P. A. GÓMEZ VALDEZ, AND F. DE ARMAS RIVERO

The right term in Eq. (6) is known as the thrust; it acts to

propel the rocket forward and it is a negative quantity. That
differential equation can be solved to yield
Zv Zm
dm
dv = −u , (7)
m
v0 m0

where m is the mass of the rocket’s structure and the engine,

m0 , is the initial fuel plus m. Thus, we have the velocity
equation as a function of the relation between the fuel and
useful load
µ ¶
m
v = v0 − u ln ,
m0
µ ¶
m
or v = v0 + u ln . (8)
m0
F IGURE 3. Setup sketch.
This equation implies that a large amount of fuel is needed
(m0 /m > 1) to reach high velocities.

Air resistance

The function f (v) that gives the magnitude of the air resis-
tance varies with speed v in a complicated way. It is quite
useful to describe it with a Taylor expansion series as
f (v) = a + bv + cv 2 + . . . , (9)
in which the term a = 0 when f = 0 with a speed v = 0.
This implies both linear and quadratic terms for the function
f (v). That is
f (v) = flin + fquad , (10)
where flin and fquad stand for the linear and quadratic terms,
respectively. There are objects in which the linear term dom-
inates over the function and the quadratic term can be dis-
carded; this happens in large objects inside highly viscous
fluids, like a sphere that moves through dense honey. The
linear term arises from the viscous drag of the medium and
is generally proportional to the viscosity of the medium and
linear size of the projectile.
On the other side, for most objects that move like pro-
jectiles, such as tennis balls, bowling balls, and even the hu-
man body, the dominant term in the air resistance force is F IGURE 4. System at time t0 .
quadratic and the linear term can be discarded. The quadratic
term is proportional to the density of the medium and the At time t0 , the system has a constant inertial velocity vs ,
cross-sectional area of the projectile. as shown in Fig. 4.
At time t1 , the spring and the rocket are set free in such a
4. The model problem way that at time t2 , the rocket reaches a null inertial velocity,
as shown in Fig. 5. This way, at time t2 , the gravitational
A system composed of three parts is introduced in this sec- effects will cause a free-fall motion on the rocket.
tion: a mobile that slides without friction over a smooth sur- Now, if the effects of the spring at the time when it is re-
face at a certain height; a spring built into the mobile, which leased are viewed from a local reference frame fixed in the
is fully compressed at the initial time; and an idealized rocket mobile, and assuming that the idealized rocket slides without
that acts as a point mass laying on the mobile beside the friction over the mobile, the following equations describe the
spring (Fig. 3). motion of the rocket from a non-inertial reference frame:

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

 HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION: COMPARING FREE FALL AND DRAG RESISTANCE 159

F IGURE 5. System at time t1 and t2 .

X
Fcx = mc acx , (11)

−Kx(t) = mc acx , (12)

where: acx = ẍ(t), so:

mc ẍ(t) + Kx(t) = 0. (13)

As the system is being observed from a non-inertial reference

frame, the velocity vCL0 = 0; also, the initial distance xo is
equal to the compression distance of the spring dr .
x0 = −dr vCL0 = 0 ms
Solving the differential equation (13) under the initial condi-
tions allows us to obtain the equation for relative horizontal
displacement (14)

x(t) = −dr cos(ωt), (14)

p
where: ω = K/mc . To obtain velocity vCL (t), is neces- F IGURE 6. Sketch of the rocket at time t2 .
sary to differentiate Eq. (14)
To analyze the horizontal deviation of the rocket from its
vCL (t) = ẋ(t) = ωdr sin(ωt). (15) free-fall trajectory because of the external force produced by
the expulsion of a gas contained inside the rocket, we assume
For the inertial horizontal velocity to be null at time t2 , con- that the rocket should have a deviation in the opposite direc-
dition Eq. (16) must be satisfied. tion of the freed gas velocity. Figure 6 shows a sketch of the
rocket at time t2 , exactly when the gas is released. Assuming
vCL2 (t2 ) = vCL2 = −vs (16) a constant gas-expelled velocity u, the following equations
describe the motion of the rocket from time t2 .
If the inertial reference frame vs is negative, condition (16)
shows that the relative velocity of the rocket has reached the X dvcy dm
same magnitude as the inertial velocity of the system and in Fcy = mc − uy (17)
dt dt
the opposite direction. In that instant, the rocket will start X dvcx dm
a free fall in which, if no external horizontal forces act on Fcx = mc − ux (18)
dt dt
the rocket, it would fall in a straight line until it reaches the
ground. where: ux À uy , so uy ∼
= 0 m/s.

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

160 R. YÁÑEZ VALDEZ, P. A. GÓMEZ VALDEZ, AND F. DE ARMAS RIVERO

From the vertical forces balance, Eq. (17), we have In the vertical direction, the only external force present is
X the one applied by the gravitational field of the Earth, which
dvcy
Fcy = mc = mc acy , (19) leads to Eq. (33).
dt
acy = −g, (20) dvcy dm
−mc g = mc + uy , (33)
dt dt
dvcy dm
−mc g = mc + uy . (21) where: uy = 0 m/s y vcyi = 0 m/s
dt dt
From the vertical forces balance, Eq. (18), two cases can be dvcy
−mc g = mc (34)
derived. dt
dvcy = −gdt (35)
Case I: No air resistance
vcy (t) = −gt (36)
In this case, there are no external forces in the horizontal di-
so, by integrating Eq. (36)
rection acting on the rocket other than the one generated by
the expulsion of the gas. g 2
yc (t) = t − yci . (37)
2
dvcx dm
0 = mc + ux (22) Equation (37) and its equivalent expressions for all differ-
dt dt
ent cases are essential because by solving them for time t in
Solving Eq. (22), an expression for the horizontal velocity of which yc (t) = 0, a time limit for the rocket to develop a
the rocket as a function of time can be obtained. deviation from its free-fall trajectory is determined.
dvcx dm
mc = ux (23)
dt dt Case II: Considering linear air resistance.
dvcx ux dm
=− (24) Since the study is stated for an idealized rocket as a particle
dt mc dt with small dimensions, low velocities, and low heights, this
dm case will only consider a linear air resistance.
dvcx = −ux (25)
mc dvcx dm
vZcxf m
Z cf Fdx = mc + (38)
dm dt dt
dvcx = −ux (26) dvcx dm
mc mc + ux = −bvcx , (39)
vcxi=0 mci dt dt
mcf where Fdx = bvcx (linear term). In particular, for a spherical
vcxf = −ux ln (27)
mci projectile, the coefficient b have the form b = βDvcx , where
where vcxf = vcx (t), D denotes the diameter of a sphere and the coefficient β de-
pend on the nature of the medium (β = 1.6 × 10−4 m/s in air
m˙A = ρA Aux , (28) at standard temperature and pressure).
In addition, as the changes of mass and velocity are de-
where ρA denotes the expelled gas density, A is the cross-
pendent on time, by applying the chain rule, these changes
sectional area where the gas is being expelled and ux =
can be expressed with respect to a mass deferential instead of
const.
a time deferential, giving us
mcf = mc (t) = mci − ρA Aux t, (29) d dm d d
= =α , (40)
so dt dt dm dm
µ ¶ whit
mci − ρA Aux t
vcx (t) = −ux ln , (30) d d
mci α = , (41)
µ ¶ dm dt
ρA Aux t
vcx (t) = −ux ln 1 − . (31) dm
mci α= . (42)
dt
By integrating Eq. (31), we obtain the deviation of the rocket
The coefficient α represents the mass flow rate. Thus,
due to of the expelled gases as a function of time.
Eq. (39) can be expressed as
½ · µ ¶¸
ρA Aux t−mci ρA Aux t dvcx
xc (t)=−ux . . . ln 1− −1 mc α + αux + bvcx = 0 (43)
ρA Aux mci dm
¾
ρA Aux t − mci dvcx dm
+ (32) = (44)
ρA Aux −bvcx − αux mcα

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

 HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION: COMPARING FREE FALL AND DRAG RESISTANCE 161

Case II.1: Constant mass of the system

Zvcx m
Z cf
dvcx dm
=− (45)
bvcx + αux mcα dvcy
0 mci −bvcy − mc g = mc (56)
dt
1 1
(Ln|bvcx + αux | − Ln|αux |) = (Ln (mcf ) dvcy b
b α + vcy + g = 0 (57)
dt mc
− Ln (mci )) (46)
gmc ³ −bt ´
µ ¶ µ ¶ vcy (t) = e mc − 1 (58)
bvcx b mcf b
Ln 1 + = Ln (47) Ã !
αux α mci −bt
gmc mc e mc mc
yc (t) = − −t+ + yci (59)
µ ¶ αb b b b
bvcx mcf
1+ = (48)
αux mci
õ ¶b ! Case II.2: Neglectable air resistance in the vertical direc-
αux mcf α tion.
vcx (t) = −1 . (49)
b mci
From Eq. (42), we have dvcy
−mc g = mc (60)
dt
α = −ρA Aux . (50)
So, Eq. (49) takes the form dvcy
−g = (61)
õ ¶ −b ! dt
−ρA Au2x mcf ρA Aux
vcx (t) = −1 . (51) vcy (t) = gt (62)
b mci
Note that, mcf = mci − ρA Aux t, g 2
õ ! yc (t) = t − yci (63)
¶ −b 2
−ρA Au2x mci −ρA Aux t ρA Aux
vcx (t)= −1 , (52)
b mci From cases II.1 and II.2, a discrepancy between both consid-
erations will be observed.
õ ¶ρ −b !
−ρA Au2x ρA Aux t A Aux
vcx (t) = 1− − 1 . (53)
b mci
Cases study
By integrating Eq. (53), we obtain the deviation of the rocket
due to the effects of the expelled gases as function of time After developing the fundamental equations under the previ-
and while considering air resistance. ously stated conditions, the physics problem is fully defined.
µ At this point, it is possible to assign values to fixed parame-
−ρA Au2x (mc i − ρA Aux t)
xc (t) = − ... ters, such as the rocket mass mc , aperture area of the rocket
b b − ρA Aux
A from where the gas is expelled, gravity magnitude g, the
µ ¶ ρ −b ¶ expelled gas density (air) ρA , idealized rocket diameter D,
ρA Aux t A Aux mci
× 1− −t− (54) and linear air resistance constant β. All these parameters are
mci b − ρA Aux
listed in Table I.
As for the vertical direction, because the gas is being ex-
pelled horizontally, the equations for velocity and position
TABLE I. Parameters of the case study.
will be the following:
dvcy dm Parameter Unit
−bvcy − mc g = mc + uy , (55)
dt dt mc 0.5 kg
where: uy = 0 m/s and vcyi = 0 m/s. A 3.1416 × 10−6 m2
Also, as the mass of the expelled gas much smaller than g 9.81 m/s2
the initial mass of the system, we can consider the mass of the
ρA 1.225 kg/m3
system to be constant along the displacement on the vertical
direction or even that the air resistance can be neglected; this D 0.06 m
second assumption can be made because the small velocities β 1.6 × 10−4 Ns/m2
and reduced dimensions of the stated system. b 9.6 × 10−6 kg/s

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

162 R. YÁÑEZ VALDEZ, P. A. GÓMEZ VALDEZ, AND F. DE ARMAS RIVERO

F IGURE 7. Free fall time case I.

F IGURE 10. Horizontal deviation as function of time and gas ve-
locity, Case I.

F IGURE 8. Free fall time case II.1.

F IGURE 11. Horizontal deviation as function of time and gas ve-
locity, Case II.1 and II.2.

difference between the free fall times of cases I and II.1 is

5.8 × 10−6 s, and therefore, they can be considered equal.
Finally, in order to obtain the horizontal deviation of the
rocket, the values of expelled gas velocity values can vary
when using the time range 0.90304 ≤ t ≤ 1.74874 s. It is
necessary to remark that the velocity ranges for cases II.1 and
II.2 have larger magnitudes due to the air resistance; knowing
this, the expelled gas velocity ranges are:
Case I: 50 × 10−3 ≤ ux ≤ 1.74874 m/s.
Cases II.1 and II.2: 400 × 10−1 ≤ ux ≤ 150 m/s.

F IGURE 9. Free fall time case II.2.

5. Results
Now, it is possible to use Eqs. (27), (49), and (53) to ob-
tain the time that takes the rocket to reach the ground from the Figure 10 contains the plot for the horizontal rocket devia-
instant when it is released. For evaluating purposes, it’s nec- tion as a function of time and expelled gas velocity for case I
essary to variate the initial height value yci within a certain using Eq. (22). For the horizontal rocket deviations of cases
range applicable for all cases: 4 ≤ yci ≤ 15 m. II.1 and II.2. Figure 11 contains the same graph, because both
Figures 7, 8, and 9 represent the free-fall times as a func- cases use Eq. (44).
tion of initial height yci for cases I, II.1, and, II.2, respec- Figure 12 shows a graph of the trajectories of the rocket
tively. where the green line represents free-fall motion with ux = 0
Note that Eqs. (27) and (53) are the same, so the free-fall m/s. The red line represents case I where the air resistance is
times for cases I and II.2 are the same. Likewise, the average neglected and an expelled gas velocity of ux = 50×10−3 m/s

Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164

 HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION: COMPARING FREE FALL AND DRAG RESISTANCE 163

In practice, different difficulties would be presented when

one tried to carry out the experiment, such as determining the
time in which the spring is released to ensure that the inertial
horizontal velocity of the rocket is zero, determining a ge-
ometry for the idealized rocket that allows it to maintain its
orientation without turning on its center of gravity, or imple-
menting a system that keeps the expelled gas velocity effec-
tively constant.
On the other hand, the proper experiment requires the
measurement and determination of other necessary physical
parameters that are not within the scope of this work, e.g.,
the friction forces between sliding elements, dimensions of
the mobile, elastic spring constant, dimensions of the rocket,
materials to be used, volume of the gas, and pressure level.
In addition, if the experiment is performed in a vacuum,
the condition of zero air resistance can be ensured, thus pre-
senting an area of opportunity for future work that gives con-
tinuity to this topic.

F IGURE 12. Rocket trajectories, Free fall (Green), Case I (Red), 7. Conclusions
Case II (Blue).
In this work, the equations of motion to cancel the inertial
is used. The blue line represents cases II.1 and II.2 in which velocity of a rocket mounted on a mobile that moves at a
linear air resistances are considered and an expelled gas ve- constant inertial velocity have been formulated. It was done
locity of ux = 800 × 10−1 m/s is used; this large magnitude through the application of an elongation force of a spring cou-
of expelled gas velocity for case II was arbitrarily selected to pled to the mobile, which causes the relative speed of the
have the graphs on a similar scale. For all cases, a height of rocket on the mobile.
15 m and a respective time interval of: 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.74874 s In this way, both for the case that does not consider the
are used. air resistance as well as for the case that considers the air re-
sistance, under the conditions described in this work, it was
6. Discussion possible to formulate the equations of movement of the rocket
from the moment in which its inertial speed is zero and a
In both case studies, the horizontal deviation due to the expul- free-fall movement begins. Through these equations it can
sion of the gas is more noticeable when the gas velocity or the be verified that for vertical movement when there is no exter-
time increases. However, in these case studies, we decided to nal force that drives the rocket in that direction, the effects of
use air as the gas was expelled and to fix a value for the mass air resistance are negligible.
and diameter of the idealized rocket. All these parameters Finally, it was observed that for a rocket that expels a gas
could also be varied to increase the horizontal deviation. as a method of propulsion, several parameters, such as the
In the case studies, external forces are considered to act velocity of the gas, the mass of the system, the time during
on the center of gravity of the rocket in purely horizontal or which the gas is expelled, the geometry of the rocket, and the
vertical directions so that they do not generate any moment coefficient of resistance of the air, significantly impact the
on the rocket’s center of gravity. velocity and displacement of the rocket.

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Rev. Mex. Fı́s. E 17 (2) 156–164