CHAPTER – 3

HOW TO ORGANISM REPRODUCE

REPRODUCTION

“Reproduction is the process of producing offspring that are biologically or genetically

similar to the parent organism.”

NEED OF REPRODUCTION

1). Reproduction maintains the continuation of organism and species.

2). Preservation of species.

3). Replacement of dead individuals.

4). Role in evolution.

TYPE OF REPRODUCTION

There are two types of reproduction –

1- Asexual reproduction
2- Sexual reproduction

1). ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

“In this type of reproduction only one individual can give birth or produce two new
individual.”

There is no gamete formation or fertilization occurs. The new offspring are exact copy of
their parents. So, they are called clone.

2). SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

In this type of reproduction 2 parents are required for producing their offspring.

Both individual produce special type of cell called gamete (sperm and ova). Which fuse to
each other and form zygote. And further zygote develops into embryo then in to adult.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASEXUAL & SEXUAL REPRODUCTION-

ASEXUAL REDUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

No use of sex organ. Sex organs are required
One parent is needed to produce a new Two parents are needed to produce a new
organism. organism.
No fusion of gametes. Fusion of gametes takes place.
Mitosis takes place. Meiosis takes place.
Daughter organisms are genetically Daughter organisms are genetically diff. from
identical to the parent. the parents.
Eg. Amoeba, Hydra, Rhizopus etc. Humans, fish frogs etc.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

It is differentiate into 5 types –

i. Fission
ii. Budding
iii. Fragmentation
iv. Regeneration,
v. Spore formation.

FISSION

In the process of fission, a unicellular organism divides in to 2 or more than 2 new

organisms.

in fission, Karyokinesis occurs first then cytokinesis. The fission is divided into two
categories.

1). Binary Fission

2). Multiple Fission

Binary Fission:- When single cell organism divided into two offspring using mitosis known
as binary fission.

For example – Amoeba – Simple binary fission

Paramecium – Transverse binary fission

Euglena – Longitude binary fission

Multiple Fission:-

When single cell organism divided into more than two offspring using mitosis known as
multiple fission. It occurs under unfavourable conditions. Eg. – Plasmodium.

At unfavourable conditions plasmodium secrete a protective covering called cyst around the
cell. Inside the cyst, nucleus of cell divides mitotically into several time and cell divides
several time called sporozoit due to high pressure on cyst, it reptures and sporozoit comes
out these are called merozooit.

BUDDING

It is the formation of new organism as an outgrowth (bud) from parent organism.

The bud derives nutrition and shelter from the parent organism and detaches once it is fully
grown.For example – Yeast, Hydra (external budding), Sponges (internal budding).

SPORE FORMATION

In the fungi like Rhizopus (bread mould), thread like structures called hyphae develops on
the bread. It produces many sporangiophores which has develops sporangia in which many
sporngiospores are present. Each sporangiospore germinate into new bread moulds whenever
fall on the food.
FRAGMENTATION

It is the process of breaking up the body of an organism into two or more fragment and each
of which growing into new individuals. For examples – Spirogyra, Hydra, Planaria.

REGENERATION

It is the capacity to repare its body part that is injured or lost. For example – Hydra and
planaria.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction where the part of plant body such
as root, stem or leaf develop into a new plant. It is the simplest method of reproduction in
plants most of the ornamental plants, grasses, orchids, cactus and medicinal plant has
economic importance are grown by vegetative propagation.
Vegetative propagation is of two types-

1). Natural

2). Artificial

1). Natural Vegetative Propagation

When vegetative reproduction occurs naturally in the plant it is called vegetative

propagation. it occurs in root, stem and leaf.

a). Vegetative Propagation in Roots:-

Roots of some plants develop adventitious buds on them. After proper growth these separate
from mother plant and grow separately into adults.

For examples – i). Dahlia and sweet potato (tuberous roots).

ii). Roots of guava develops buds which capable for growing into new plant.

b). Vegetative Propagation by Stem

There are three types of stem may be present in plant-

1). Underground Stem

2). Creeping Stem

3). Aerial Stem

i). By Underground Stem

The stems which are present inside the soil are called underground stem.

Examples – a). Stem of ginger and banana having rhizomes which produce new buds from
the nodes.
b). Tuber of potato having eye which produce several buds to grow into new plants.

c). The bulb of onion produce aerial stem under favourable conditions.

ii). By creeping stem:- The stems which grow parallel to the ground are called creeping
stems. These are as follows-

Runner- Runner present in grasses which produce adventitious roots and whenever the
adventitious roots touch the ground, produce lateral branch.

Offset- These present in water hyacinth (Eeichornia or Terror of Bengal) which is able to
produce new plants in water.

Stolen- These are present in stem of strawberry which are capable to produce new plants.

Sucker- These are present in mint and chrysanthemum.

iii). Vegetative propagation by leaves- In Bryophyllum and Begonia, the adventitious buds
develop from notches of leaves which develop into plantlets in favourable conditions. After
sometime, it detach from mother plant and grow separately.
ii) Artificial Vegetative Propagation

All methods those are carried by human beings to produce plants vegetatively are called
artificial methods. These includes layering, cutting and grafting.

a. Cutting

In this method, we cut a part of plant and artificially stimulate for vegetative propagation.

i. Root cutting- A part of root of a plant cut and transfer to another place and embedded
in the soil. After sometime, new plant germinate from it. Eg. Sweet potato, Dahlia,
Blackberry etc.
ii. Stem cutting- In some plants, stem is cut obliquely and planted into moist soil. After
sometime, stem produce adventitious roots and stem then develops into new plants.
Each cutted stem should have two nodes and internodes. For eg.- sugarcane, rose,
lemon, china rose etc.
iii. Leaf cutting- Some plants with succulent leaves can be propagated by this method.
For eg.- Vegonia and Peperonia.

b. Layering

It is a process in which the soil layered on a branch of plant. It is of following types-

i) Mould layering ii) Air layering iii) Grafting

i) Mould layering- It is the type of layering which can easily held in those plants that
have lower branches. The lower branch of plant pressed under soil. After some time,
 adventitious roots and buds germinate from its node. Cut the branch and planted
anywhere. For eg.- Grapevine, Jasmine, Strawberry etc.

ii) Air layering- In this technique, the bark of stem is removed about 1 inches deep and
covered with moist grass and wrapped with polythene sheets. An earthen pot with a
hole at the bottom is hang from the branch above the layering to supply the water.
When adventitious roots develop the stem is cut and planted anywhere. Eg.- Orange,
Guava, Lemon, Litchi etc.

iii) Grafting- It is a process in which low plants of closely related varieties perform
(between dicotyledons). The plant of which the root is to be taken is called stock and
the other stem is called scion. Both cut obliquely and fixed over. The joined place
bounded tightly by thin clothes and waxed to avoid the infection.

Difference between Scion and Stock-

Scion- The cut stem of plant without roots is called scion.

It is the upper part of a plant that have leaves but no roots.

Stock- The cut stem of a plant having roots and fixed in soil is called stock.

Stock is the lower part of plant having the roots.

Advantages of Grafting-

1- It is used to improve varieties and production of mango, apple, guava and citrus etc.
2- A young scion may flower when it is grafted on a mature tree.
3- On a same stalk, different varieties can be grafted.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation-

1- It is a cheaper, rapid and convenient method for growing plants.

2- Some plants like banana, grapes, orange, pineapple and rose do not form visible seeds.
So, they can grow by vegetative propagation.
3- These plants can easily be introduced in new area.
4- These are of uniform size, quality and taste.

Limitations of Vegetative Propagation-

1- It does not produce new varieties.

2- It loses vigour when grown repeatedly.
3- Undesirable characters are transmitted from on generation to another.
4- Diseases controlled by the parent plant are transmitted to daughter plant.

TISSUE CULTURE
This is a technique of plant propagation by culturing cells or tissues in a culture medium
when vegetative propagation is not possible in plants, its buds, shoots apex, some other part
is used for micro propagation. This is called ‘ex plant’. The steps of micro propagation are
as follows-
i) A sterilized bud or apical part of stem is cultured in a nutrient medium called
culture medium.
ii) The ex plant grow into callus.
iii) Small portion of callus secretes some hormone due to which adventitious roots
and buds start to germinate and modify into plantlet.
ADVANTAGES OF TISSUE CULTURE

1- It provides rapid propagation of identical individual.

2- It is cheap, best and small space required process.
3- Obtained plants are disease free.
4- Process can be conducted throughout the year and can be started with small sterile
plant.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION (Amphimixis)

In this type of reproduction, two individuals are required for the production of offspring.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Angiosperm is so characteristic phylum and known as ‘flowering phylum’. The flowers are
reproductive part of a plant which consist of male reproductive part (stemen) and female
reproductive part (pistil) with petals and sepals.

(*Bisexual- Flower contain both types of sex organ.)

A flower consists of following parts-

i) Sepals (Calyx)
These are green and form the outermost whorl of flower.
ii) Petals (Corolla)
These are coloured next whorl of flower which helps attracting the insects for
pollination.
iii) Stamens (Androecium)
The stamens are next whorl to corolla. Each stamen consists of cylindrical stalk called
filament and bilobed anther which contain pollen sacs. In pollen sacs, pollen grains are
formed by meiosis in mother cell.
iv) Carpels (Gynoecium)
It consists of upper part stigma, middle-style and lower-ovary which contains ovules.
The ovary convert into fruit and ovule into seed. Ovule forms egg by meiosis in egg
mother cell.

POLLINATION

The transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of pistil is called pollination. There are 2 types of
pollination.

i) Self Pollination

Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower or another flower of
same plant is called self pollination. Eg.- Pansy, Groundnut etc.

ii) Cross Pollination

Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another flower of another plant of
same species is called cross pollination. Eg.- China rose, Maize etc. It is completed by
agents like insects, birds, wind, humans etc.

Development of pollen grain inside anther

In pollen sacs, many mother cells are present. PMC undergoes meiosis and form pollen
tetrad and then pollen grains. A mature pollen grain consists of 1 vegetative nucleus and 2
male gametes.
Development of egg inside ovule

Inside ovulue, one cell undergoes meiosis and form an embryo sac which contains 2 polar
nuclei, 3 antipodal cells, 1 egg cell and 2 synergid cells.

FERTILIZATION

When pollen grains land on stigma of the pistil then the pollen tube germinate and reach to
the microphyle of ovule. Then, both male gamete goes inside the ovule. Here, one male
gamete fuses to the egg cell, it is called syngamy and then forms zygote. Other male gamete
fuses with both polar nuclei, it is called triple fusion and forms endosperm.

POST FERTILIZAITON CHANGES

1- Zygote divides to form an embryo.

2- Embryo possesses a radical, a plumule and cotyledons to store food.
3- Ovule changes seed and ovary to fruit.
4- Wall of ovule forms seed coat (testa) and wall of ovary form fruit wall (pericarp).

SEED GERMINATION

On favourable condition seed germinate to form small seedling which grows into a plant. A
mature seed is made up of-

i) Seed coat- It is the hard layer that protects seed internally.

ii) Embryo- Radicle- It forms young root.
Plumule- It forms shoot.
Cotyledons- To embryonic axis one or two cotyledons are attached

Endosperm- Seeds may be endospermic or non-endospermic.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

It is a phenomenon in which two sexes of unisexual animal species are different in their
external character.

Sexual Dimorphism in Males and Females-

CHARACTERS BOY GIRLS

Body build More muscular and stronger Less muscular and weaker
Hair Facial and chest Absent
Shoulder Broad Narrow
Breast Undeveloped Developed
Pelvis Narrow Broad
Voice Low pitch High pitch

PUBERTY

It is the period of sexual maturity during adolescence when reproductive organ become
functional. Boys attain puberty at the age of 13-14 years and girls attain puberty at the age of
10-12 years.

Causes of Puberty

In boys, puberty in induced by the secretion of testosterone hormone secreted by endocrine

cells of testes. In girls, puberty is induced by hormone called estrogen and progesterone
secreted by endocrine cells of ovaries.

Aim of Puberty

The main aim of puberty is to differentiate the specialized cell types called germ cells in the
gonads to carry out the reproductive system functional. Sexual reproduction involves the
formation and fusion of male and female gametes formed by the germ cells.
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system in humans is associated with the formation and transfer of
sperm into the ovum. It consists of following-

i. Primary Reproductive Organs - Testes

ii. Ducts - Vas efferentia, Epididymis and vas deferens & urethra.
iii. Accessory Reproductive organs - penis
iv. Accessory glands - Seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland, Prostate gland.

(i)TESTES

There is one pair of small sized, oval shaped testes, enclosed in scrotal sacs because it acts as
thermo regulator. Scrotum provides temperature for the formation of sperms i.e. 2’C – 3’C,
lower than normal body temperature. High temperature may kill the sperm mother cells in
testes.

Internally each testes contain 250 testicular lobules. Each testicular lobule have 1-3 highly
coiled seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubule Contain many sperm mother cell which
form sperm, sertoli cells which provide the nutrition to mature sperm and there are so many
interstitial cells present between two seminiferous tubules that act as endocrine and secrete
testosterone. Testosterone stimulate to sperm mother cell for spermatogenesis.

Spermatogenesis- After stimulation by testosterone, spermatogonia (sperm mother cell)

undergo meiosis division and form the spermatid. The spermatid undergo metamorphosis
and transform into mature sperm.

Sperm- A sperm has three regions- a head, middle piece and tail.

Sperms are motile. They remain alive in female body for a few days but their fertilizing
power is limited to one or two days only.

 The head is flattened and oval in shape. It contains a nucleus and is capped by an
enzyme-filled structure called acrosome. Acrosome facilitates the entry of the sperm
nucleus into the egg during fertilization.
  Middle piece of sperm has several mitochondria. It provides energy for the movement
of sperm.
 The tail helps in propulsion through the female genital tract.

(ii)EPIDIDYMIS

Each testis contains several small and coiled tubes. All these tubes of one testis open into one
large tube through which sperm cells leave the testis. Behind each testis, this large tube
forms a mass of coils called epididymes. Epididymes is about 4-6 metres long. Sperm cells
may remain temporarily stored in it. Lower end of each epididymes is joined to a duct called
vas deferens or seminal/sperm duct.

(iii) VAS DIFERENS

It is a pair of muscular tube-like structure that arises from epididymes. It is about 30 cm

long. It ascends the abdomen and joins tube coming from the urinary bladder i.e. urethra.
The terminal portion of each vas deferens enlarges to form the contractile ejaculatory duct.

GLANDS

(1)SEMINAL VESICLE

These are paired tubular glands located behind the neck of the urinary bladder. Secretions
from it make the sperms active.

(2) PROSTATE GLAND

These are situated near urinary bladder and around the urethra. Secretion of this gland is
thick milky and alkaline which is necessary for motality of sperms.

(3) COWPWER’S GLAND

These are situated below the prostate gland. Secretion of Cowper’s and Prostate gland make
the environment suitable for sperm to survive in urethra.

SEMEN

Secretions of epididiymis, seminal vesicle and prostate glands mix to form a whitish alkaline
fluid called semen. There are about 3-4 hundred millions of sperms in 2.5-4.0 mL of semen.
PENIS

The urethra continues to the outside through a thick muscular organ called penis. It contains
a spongy tissue surrounding the urethra. It is richly supplied with blood. The distal part of
penis is called glans penis. It bears the opening of urethra( urethral meatus) through which
urine and sperms are discharged.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary Reproductive Organ- Pair of ovaries

Accessory ducts- Fallopian tube

Accessory reproductive organ- uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary gland

1.OVARIES

These are one pair and almond in shape which are situated left and right side of vertebral
column in pelvic cavity. Each ovary is connected to the uterus by the help of ligament. The
ovary produce ova and hormones- estrogen and progesterone.

Estrogen

This hormone is produced by the granulose cells of ovarian follicle. It controls changes in
follicular phase which includes growth of new ovarian follicle and uterine wall.

Progesterone

This is secreted by carpus luteum and helps in maintaining the pregnancy.

2. FALLOPIAN TUBE

These are paired tubes which is 10 to 12 cm long. It helps in convey the ova to the uterus. It
also provides the site for the fertilization. It contains 4 parts- Fimbrae, Infundibulum,
Ampulla and Isthemus.

3.UTERUS

It is a large, muscular, pear-shaped structure present in the pelvic cavity between the urinary
bladder and rectum. It is also called the womb. The narrow lower part of uterus is called
cervix which opens in to vagina.

4.VAGINA

It is a short and wide muscular structure. It is about 10 cm in length. It acts as copulation

canal and also birth canal.

5. VULVA

It is external genitilia of female. It consists of labia majora, labia minora and clitoris.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE-

Menstrual cycle involves the series of cyclic changes occurring in ovaries and female
reproductive tract during reproductive period of female.

The first menstruation begins at puberty is called menarche. The permanent stoppage of
menstruation is called menopause.
Reproduction period in females start from 10 to 11 years. Menstruation complete in 28 days
that havwe following phases-

1- Bleeding Phase- It lasts for 3 to 5 days. In this phase, endometrium breaks and blood
release out with unfertilized ovum.
2- Follicular Phase- It lasts for 6 to 13 days. In this phase, follicle matures into graaffian
follicle and endometrium repairs.
3- Ovulatory Phase- It occurs at 14th day from menstruation in which ovulation takes
place.
4- Lueal Phase- It lasts 14th-28th days. Endometrium becomes thick in this phase.

FERTILIZATION, GESTATION, PARTURITION

Fertilization- It involves fusion of sperm with ova and form the diploid (2n) zygote.
Fertilization occurs at the ampullary isthematic junction. Sperm travels to the egg present in
fallopian tube. Fertilization is completed with the fusion of sperm and ova.

Implantation- Seventh day after fertilization, blastula attached on endometrium of uterus. It

is called implantation.

Pregnancy- Once the embryo is implanted in the endometrium of uterine wall. The foetus
part of placenta is formed of villi. Umbilical cord connects the placenta with foetus.

Gestation period- It is the pregnancy period and extent from the fertilization to the child
birth. The human gestation period is 9 months.

Parturition- Deliveryof the baby is called parturition. It is a hormonal process in which

oxytocin plays an important role to stimulate the pituitary to secrete the relaxing hormone
which help in widening of pelvis and vagina for easy child birth.

FAMILY PLANNING

The family planning programme is being run to create awareness and to attain the following
objectives-

To avoid unwanted birth.

To have proper gap between pregnancies.

To limit the no. of children in family.

Subsequent care of the child by immunization etc.

Methods of Family Planning-

Education- It is the most effective method in making the people aware of the advantages of
small families and disadvantages of large families.
Contraception- It is the avoidance of pregnancy by preventing the fertilization of ovum.

Withdrawal Technique- Coitus interruption involves withdrawal of penis by male just before
ejaculation so that semen is not discharged into the vagina.

Barrier Methods- Some physical device is used to prevent the entry of sperms in female
genital tract.

Condom- It is used by men for prevention of the deposition of semen in the vagina. It also
protects from sexually transmitted diseases.

Diaphragm- It can be fitted in the vagina to prevent sperms entry.

IUCD- It is made of plastic or steel and is known as Copper-T. It is inserted in uterus.

Chemical Methods- Spermicides are the chemicals which kill sperms. Birth control pills are
taken by women to stop ovulation.

Surgical Methods- Vasectomy is performed in males. In this, vas deferns is removed and
both the cut ends are ligated. This prevent the sperm to move in urethra. Tubectomy is
performed in females. In this, small portion of fallopian tube is removed and cut ends are
ligated. It prevents the ovulated egg to enter uterus.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE

Gonorrhoea- It is caused by Neisseria gonorrhea mainly in females.

Syphilis- It is caused by Treponema pallidum.

Genital Herpes- It is caused by Herpes Simplex Virus.

Genital Warts- Caused by HPU (Human papilloma virus)

AIDS- Caused by HIV that destroy the immune system.

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