LESSON IV

Geometric Construction
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to be able to:
1. draw the basic elements used to create the most complex drawings,
2. understand the basic geometric construction techniques,
3. understand the different terms used in geometric construction, and
4. perform accurate instrumental drawing.

Introduction
Many of the constructions used in technical and design drawings are based upon plane
geometry, and every draftsman or engineer should be sufficiently familiar with them to be able to apply
them to the solutions of problems. Pure geometry problems may be solved only with the compass and a
straightedge, and in some cases these methods may be used to advantage in technical drawing.
However the draftsman or designer has available the T-square, triangles, dividers, and other equipment
such as drafting machines, that in many cases can yield accurate results more quickly by what we may
term “prepared methods”.
Technical Terms. Before actually solving the geometrical drawing problems, drills and
exercises, it is advantageous to learn the various technical terms used in this study in order to
understand the problems well.

TECHNICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Point – This refers to a geometric figure without any dimension. It only shows position.
2. Line – This is a figure made by a moving point. It has length.
2.1 Perpendicular lines – are lines that are drawn 90˚ in relation to a horizontal line
2.2 Parallel lines – two or more lines equidistant from each other at all points and they never
meet.
2.3 Horizontal lines – are lines parallel to the horizon or the lower edge of the drawing paper.
2.4 Vertical lines – are lines which are parallel to the vertical edge of the paper.
2.5 Inclined lines – are lines which are neither vertical nor horizontal.
2.6 Diagonal lines – a line used to connect two opposite corners.
3. Angle – This refers to the space or opening between two straight lines that meet.
3.1 Right angle – is an angle that contains 90˚.
3.2 Acute angles – are angles that are less than 90˚.
3.3 Obtuse angles – are angles that are more than 90˚ but less than 180˚.
3.4 Reflex angles – are angles that are more than 180˚.
3.5 Straight angle – is an angle having 180˚.
4. Triangle – a figure having three (3) angles and three sides.
4.1 Scalene triangle – is a triangle with unequal sides and angle.
4.2 Isosceles triangle – is a triangle with two equal sides and angle.
4.3 Equilateral triangle/ equiangular triangle – is a triangle which has 3 equal sides and 3
equal angles.
4.4 Right triangle – is a triangle with a right angle.
5. Bisect – to divide a line into two equal parts.
6. Trisect – to divide a line in three equal parts.
7. Tangent – a line (straight or curve) which touches the circumference of a circle at only one
point.
8. Arc – a portion or a segment of a circumference of the circle.
9. Circumference – the entire length of the circular extremities of the circle.
10. Radius – the shortest distance from a point and the circumference to the center of the circle.
11. Chord – a straight line connecting two points in the circumference of a circle without passing
through the center.
12. Sector – a segment of a circle bounded by two radii and the arc between the radii.
13. Diameter – the distance from two points of the circumference passing through the center.
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 14. Center – a common point which is equidistant to the circumference of a circle.
15. Circumscribe – to enclose within certain lines or boundaries.
16. Intersection – act or place of intersecting.
17. Intersecting lines – two or more lines cutting or crossing each other.
18. Point of intersection – a point made by two intersecting lines.
19. Equilateral – having equal sides.
20. Equiangular – having equal or the same angle.
21. Equidistant – at equal distance.
22. Semicircle – one-half of a circle.
23. Axis – an imaginary straight line or real shaft around which something revolves; a central point
or pivot.
24. Quadrilateral – a plane figure bounded by four sides (square, rectangle, rhombus, rhomboid,
trapezoid, trapezium)
25. Ellipses – named after the methods of construction): 1. Trammel method, 2. pin and string, 3.
four-center, 4. parallelogram, 5. concentric circles, and 6. circle).
26. Conic sections – these include the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
27. Regular polygons – are polygons having equal sides and angles.
27.1 Square – is a regular polygon with 4 equal sides and four right angles.
27.2 Pentagon – is a regular polygon of 5 equal sides and 5 equal angles.
27.3 Hexagon – is a regular polygon with 6 equal sides and angles.
27.4 Heptagon – is a regular polygon with 7 equal sides and equal angles.
27.5 Octagon – is a regular polygon with 8 equal sides and equal angles.
27.6 Nonagon – is a regular polygon with 9 equal sides and equal angles.
27.7 Decagon – is a regular polygon with ten equal sides and equal angles.
27.8 Dodecagon – a polygon having twelve equal sides.
27.9 Pentadecagon – a polygon having fifteen equal sides.

The elements of lines, their positions and physical features studied in freehand drawings are
practically the same in mechanical or instrumental drawings. The only difference is that these lines are
done instrumentally, no longer done freehand.

a. Horizontal Line

f. Perpendicular Lines

d. Intersecting Line

b. Vertical Line

g. Curved Line

c. Inclined Line e. Parallel Line h. Tangent Line

SOLIDS - are geometrical figures or elements having three dimensions.

Polyhedron – a solid bounded by plane surfaces, called faces. If the faces are equal regular
polygons, the solids are called regular polyhedra.
Prism - a solid which has two bases, which are parallel equal polygons, and three or more
lateral faces, which are parallelograms. A triangular prism has a triangular base; a
rectangular prism has rectangular bases; and so on. If the bases are parallelograms,
the prism is a parallelepiped. A right prism has faces and lateral edges perpendicular

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 to the bases; an oblique prism has faces and lateral edge oblique to the bases. If one
end is cut off to form an end and not parallel to the bases, the prism is said to be
truncated.
Pyramid – has a polygon for a base and triangular lateral faces intersecting at a common point
called the vertex. The center line from the center of the base to the vertex is the axis. If
the axis is perpendicular to the base, the pyramid is a right pyramid; otherwise it is an
oblique pyramid. A triangular pyramid has a triangular base; a square pyramid has a
square base; and so on. If a portion near the vertex has been cut off, the pyramid is
truncated, or is referred to as frustum.
Cylinder – generated by a straight line, called the generatrix, moving in contact with a curved
line and always remaining parallel to its previous position or to the axis.
Cone - generated by a straight line moving in contact with a curved line and passing through the
fixed point, the vertex of the cone.
Sphere – generated by a circle revolving about one of its diameters. This diameter becomes the
axis of the sphere, and the ends of the axis are poles of the sphere.
Torus – a figure shaped like a doughnut, is generated by a circle (or other curve) revolving
about an axis that is eccentric to the curve.
Oblate or prolate ellipsoid – generated by revolving an ellipse about its minor or major axis,
respectively.

Fig. 3.1 Points and Lines

Fig. 3.2 Quadrilaterals

Fig. 3.3 Regular Polygons

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 Fig. 3.4 The Circle

Fig. 3.5 Solids

BISECTING A LINE OR CIRCULAR ARC ( Fig. 3.6 )

I. From A and B draw equal arcs with radius greater than half AB.
II and III. Join intersections D and E with a straight line to locate center C.

Fig. 3.6 Bisecting a Line or a Circular Arc.

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BISECTING AN ANGLE ( Fig. 3.7 )
I. Strike large arc R.
II. Strike equal arcs r with radius slightly larger than half BC, to intersect at D.
III. Draw line AD, which bisects the angle.

Fig. 3.7 Bisecting an Angle

DRAWING AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE ( Fig. 3.8a and Fig. 3.8b )

Method 1. Given side AB. With A and B as centers and AB as radius, strike arcs to intersect at C
(Fig. 3.8a). Draw lines AC and BC to complete the triangle.
Method 2. Draw lines through points A and B, making angles of 60° with the given line and
intersecting C ( Fig. 3.8b ).

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.8 Drawing an Equilateral Triangle

DRAWING A REGULAR PENTAGON ( Fig. 3.9a and Fig. 3.9b )

Method 1. Divide the circumference of the circle into five equal parts with the dividers, and join
the points with the straight lines ( Fig. 3.9a ).
Method 2. Geometrical Method ( Fig. 3.9b )
I. Bisect radius OD at C.
II. With C as center and CA as radius, strike arc AE. With A as center and AE as
radius, strike arc EB.
III. Draw the line AB; then set off distances AB around the circumference of the circle,
and draw the sides through these points.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.9 Drawing a Pentagon

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Sketching a Horizontal Line
1. Mark off two points spaced at a distance equal to the length of the line to be drawn making
them parallel to the top or bottom edge of your paper.
2. Move your pencil back and forth and connect these points with a construction line.
3. Start from the left point and sketch an object line to the right point. This line is sketched over
the construction line.

Sketching a Vertical Line

1. Mark off two points spaced at a distance equal to the length of the line to be drawn, making
them parallel to the right or left edge of the sheet. Move your pencil back and forth and connect
these points with a construction line.
2. Start from the top point and sketch down and over the construction line to produce an object
line.
3. Vertical lines can also be sketched by rotating the paper to a horizontal position and proceeding
as explained in “ How to Sketch a Horizontal Line”.

Sketching an Inclined Line

1. Mark off two points at the desired angle. Move your pencil back and forth and connect these
points with a construction line.
2. Sketch an object line over the construction line. Sketch up when line inclines to the right.
Sketch down when line inclines to the left.
3. Mark off two points at desired angle. Rotate the sheet so that the points will be in a horizontal
position. Move your pencil back and forth to connect the points with a construction line. Start at
the left and sketch an object line over the construction line.
4. Inclined lines can also be sketched by marking off the two points at the desired angle and
rotating your paper until the points are in a vertical position. Proceed as explained in “ How to
Sketch a Vertical Line”.

Sketching Squares and Rectangles

1. Sketch a horizontal line and a vertical line (axes).

2. Begin at the intersection of these lines (axes) and

Lay out equal units on both lines in each direction.
For example, if you want to draw a 2 in. square, you
Would estimate a unit of ¼ in. and mark off four
of these units on the vertical axis above and below
the horizontal axis. Lay out the horizontal axis in
the same manner.

3. Sketch construction lines through the desired points

Perpendicular (90º) to the axes.

4. Go over the construction lines forming the square

to produce object lines.

5. Rectangles are sketched in the same way except

that you will have more units on one axis (line)
than on the other axis (line).

Sketching Angles
1. Sketch vertical and horizontal construction lines.
These lines will form a 90º or right angle.

2. To sketch a 45º angle, mark off an equal number

Of units on both lines and connect the last unit of each
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 line. This line will form a 45º angle with the vertical and
the horizontal lines.

3. To sketch 30º and 60º angles, mark off three units on

one line and five units on the other line. Connecting
the last unit on each line will give the required angles.

4. Other angles may be sketched by first sketching one

of the above angles and subdividing this angle into the
approximate number of degrees required. Example –
Dividing the 30º angle into thirds will give a 10º angle.

5. Another method used to develop angles in sketching,

is to sketch a quarter circle and divide the resulting arc
into the required divisions. Example – Dividing the arc
into three parts will give 30º and 60º angles.

Sketching Circles
1. Sketch vertical, horizontal and inclined axes.

2. Mark off units equal to the radius of the required circle on

each axis.

3. A quick and accurate method of locating these units is to

mark the desired radius on a piece of paper and use the
paper as a measuring tool.

4. Sketch a construction line through the points. When

satisfied with the construction line, fill it in with an
object line.

Isometric Circle
Any circle will appear true in shape only when it is viewed “straight on”. When circle appears in
an isometric drawing or sketch, they no longer appear normal but as an ellipse or “flattened circle”.

1. Four radii are used to construct the isometric circle.

2. A circle within a square will touch at the mid-point of each side

of the square.

2. An isometric circle within an isometric square will also touch

at the midpoint of each side of the square.

Sketching an Arc
1. Sketch a right (90º) angle. Use construction lines.

2. Mark off units on each leg of the angle equal in length

to radius of desired arc. Connect these points with a
construction line.

3. Divide this line into two equal parts. Starting from the
point where the legs of the angle intersect, sketch a line
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 through the dividing points of the diagonal line.

4. Mark off a point half-way between the diagonal line and

the intersection of legs of the angle. Sketch an arc through
the three points, as shown.

Sketching an Ellipse
1. Sketch horizontal and vertical center lines. Mark off
equal size units on the center lines to construct rectangle
with dimensions equal to the major and minor axes of
the desired ellipse.

2. Using construction lines, sketch through the outer

Points to complete the rectangle.

3. Sketch arcs tangent to the lines that form the rectangle.

4. Complete the ellipse by going over the construction lines

With object lines.
Sketching a Hexagon
1. Sketch vertical and horizontal center lines, and inclined
lines at 30º and 60º. Construct a circle with a diameter
equal to distance across the flats of the required hexagon.
Use construction lines.

2. Sketch horizontal parallel lines at right angles (90º) to the

vertical center line. The lines are tangent to the circle at
these points.

3. Sketch inclined parallel lines at 60º and tangent to the

circle at the point where the 30º inclined line intersects
the circle.

4. Complete the hexagon and go over the construction lines

to produce object lines.

Sketching an Octagon
1. Sketch vertical and horizontal center lines and inclined
lines at 45º. Construct a circle with a diameter equal
to the distance across the flats of the required octagon.
Use construction lines.

2. Sketch parallel lines tangent to the circle where the

horizontal and vertical center lines intersect the circle.

3. Sketch inclined parallel lines at 45º and tangent to

the circle at the point where the 45º inclined line
intersect the circle.

4. Complete the octagon and go over the construction

lines to produce an object line.

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EXERCISES

PROB. 1 – A STRAIGHT PAVING INTERSECTION (Fig. 1). For 45° triangle & scale. An
exercise in starting & stopping short lines. Draw a 4-in. square. Draw its diagonals with a 45° triangle.
With the scale, lay off 1/2 “ spaces along the diagonals from the intersection. With 45° triangle,
complete the figure, finishing a quarter at a time.

PROB. 2 – A SIX-POINT STAR (Fig. 2). For compass & 30-60° triangle. Draw a 4”
construction circle & inscribe the 6-point star with the T-square & 30-60 degree triangle. Accomplish this
with four successive changes of position of the triangle.

PROB. 3 – AIRCRAFT INSIGNIA (Fig 3). Draw a 4” circle & a 1-1/4 in. inner circle. Divide the
large circle into 5 equal parts by constructing a regular pentagon and construct the star by connecting
alternate points as shown. This device is a white star with a red center on a blue background. Red is
indicated by vertical lines & blue by horizontal lines spaced 1/16 in. apart.

Prob. 4 – STAMPING (Fig 4). For T-square, 30-60° triangle, & compasses. In a 4” circle, draw
6 diameters 30° apart. Draw a 3” construction circle to locate the centers of 5/16” radius circle arcs.
Complete the stamping with perpendiculars to the 6 diameters as shown.

PROB. 5 – SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES (Fig. 5). Draw a 4” construction circle. Divide the circle
into a number of equal parts, drawing radii & numbering them. Divide the radius 0-8 & draw concentric
arcs intersecting the radii corresponding numbers. Draw a smooth curve thru these intersections using a
French curve.

PROB. 6 – TANGENT LINES (OPEN BELT – Fig. 6). To draw a tangent to 2 circles. At center
O, draw a circle with radius R1 – R2 or R1 = 1-1/2” & R2 = ¾”. From P, draw a tangent to this circle.
Bisect OP and draw a circle arc thru centers O and P. Construct perpendicular chords OT & extend OT to
OT1 & draw PT2 parallel to OT1. Draw T1 and T2, giving the required tangent.

Exercise 24.0 – Geometric Figures (Pencil)

Exercise 25.0 – Geometric Figures (Ink)

Exercise 26.0 – Geometric Figures in Chapter I