Chapter 1

Number-Theoretic Function

1.1 The function τ and σ

Definition 1.1.1. Given a positive integer n, let τ (n) denote the number of
positive divisor of n and σ(n) denote the sum of these divisor.

Definition 1.1.2. Any function whose domain of definition is the set of pos-
itive integers is called number theoretic function.

Note 1.1.1. σ(n), τ (n) are non theoretic function.

n
Y
Theorem 1.1.1. If n = pki i = pk11 pk22 ...pkr r is the prime factorization of
i=1
n > 1, then

a) τ (n) = (k1 + 1)(k2 + 1) · · · (kr + 1).

k +1 k +1
p1 1 −1 p2 2 −1 kr +1
b) σ(n) = ( p1 −1
)( p2 −1 ) · · · ( prpr −1−1 ).

Proof. Any divisor d of n is of the form d = pα1 1 pα2 2 ...pαr r where 0 ≤ αi ≤ ki ,

there are k1 + 1 choices for the exponent α1 , k2 + 1 choices for the exponent
α2 ,..., kr +1 choices for the exponent αr , hence there are (k1 +1)(k2 +1)···(kr +1)
possible divisor of n.
r
Y
⇒ τ (n) = (k1 + 1)(k2 + 1) · · · (kr + 1) = (ki + 1).
i=1
To evaluate σ(n) consider the product
(1 + p1 + p21 + ... + pk11 )(1 + p2 + p22 + ... + pk22 ) · · · (1 + pr + p2r + ... + pkr r )....(1)
each positive divisor of n is one of the terms in the expansion of this product
(1), so that

1
 k1 +1 k2 +1 kr +1
p −1 p −1
σ(n) = ( 1p1 −1 )( 2p2 −1 ) · · · ( prpr −1−1 )
r
Y pki i +1 − 1
= ( ).
i=1
pi − 1

Example 1.1.1. n = 23 · 47 = 376

τ (n) = (3 + 1)(1 + 1) = 8.
4 −1 (472 −1)
σ(n) = ( 22−1 ) (47−1) = 15 · 48 = 720.

Definition 1.1.3. A number theoretic functions f is called multiplicative num-

ber theoretic functions if f (mn) = f (m) · f (n), where gcd(m, n) = 1.

Theorem 1.1.2. The functions τ and σ are both multiplicative functions.

Proof. If gcd(m, n) = 1, then the result true if m = n = 1.

Assume m > 1, n > 1, if m = pk11 · · · pkr r , n = q1j1 · · · qsjs , pi 6= qi8
f or 1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ i8 ≤ s, then
mn = pk11 · · · pkr r q1j1 · · · qsjs
τ (mn) = (k1 + 1)(k2 + 1) · · · (kr + 1)(j1 + 1)(j2 + 1) · · · (js + 1)
= τ (m) · τ (n).
also
r s kj +1
Y pki i +1 − 1 Y pj −1
σ(mn) = ( )· ( )
i=1
pi − 1 j=1
pj − 1
= σ(m) · σ(n).
X
Definition 1.1.4. f (d) means the value f (d) runs over all the positive
d|n
divisors of the positive integer n.
X
Example 1.1.2. f (d) = f (1) + f (2) + f (4) + f (5) + f (10) + f (20).
d|20
special cases:
X
τ (n) = 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1 → number of divisor.
d|n
X
σ(n) = d → sum of divisor.
d|n

X
Example 1.1.3. τ (10) = 1=1+1+1+1=4
d|10
X
σ(10) = d = 1 + 2 + 5 + 10 = 18
d|10

2
Lemma 1.1.1. If gcd(m, n) = 1, then the set of positive divisor of mn consists
of all products d1 d2 , where d1 |n, d2 |n and gcd(d1 , d2 ) = 1, further more, these
products are all distinct.

Theorem 1.1.3. If f is a multiplicative function and F is defined by

X
F (n) = f (d); then F is also multiplicative.
d|n
X X
Proof. Let g.c.d(m, n) = 1, then F (mn) = f (d) = f (d1 d2 )
d|n d1 |n,d2 |n
Since every divisor of mn can be uniquely written as a product of a divisor d1
of m and a divisor d2 of n, where g.c.d(d1 , d2 ) = 1.
By the definition of a multiplicative functions we get

f (d1 d2 ) = f (d1 )f (d2 )

X
F (mn) = f (d1 )f (d2 )
d1 |n,d2 |n
X X
= f (d1 ) f (d2 )
d1 |n d2 |n
= F (m) · F (n)

Example X 1.1.4. Let m = 8, n = 3

F (8 · 3) = f (d)
d|24
= f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (6) + f (8) + f (12) + f (24)
= f (1·1)+f (2·1)+f (1·3)+f (4·1)+f (2·3)+f (8·1)+f (4·3)+f (8·3)
= f (1) · f (1) + f (2) · f (1) + f (1) · f (3) + f (4) · f (1) + f (2) · f (3)+
f (8) · f (1) + f (4) · f (3) + f (8) · f (3)
=X[f (1) + f (2)
X+ f (4) + f (8)][f (1) + f (3)]
= f (d) · f (d)
d|8 d|3
= F (8) · F (3).

3
Definition 1.1.5. We say that n is not a square free if p2 |n, p is prime.
And n is a square free if n = p1 p2 · · · pr

1.2 The Möbius inversion formula

Definition
 1.2.1. For a positive integer n, define µby the rules
 1
 , if n = 1
µ= 0 , if p2 |n for some p

(−1)r , if n = p1 p2 · · · pr , where the pi are distinct primes


Example 1.2.1. µ(30) = µ(2 · 3 · 5) = (−1)3 = −1, µ(1) = 1, µ(2) = −1,

µ(4) = 0, µ(6) = µ(2 · 3) = (−1)2 = 1.
Note 1.2.1. If p is a prime number, it is clear that µ(p) = −1;
also, µ(pk ) = 0 f or k ≥ 2.
Theorem 1.2.1. The function µ is a multiplicative function.
Proof. We want to show that µ(mn) = µ(m) · µ(n), where g.c.d(m, n) = 1.
If either p2 |m or p a prime, then p2 |mn. Hence, µ(mn) = µ(m) · µ(n), and the
formula holds.
Let m = p1 p2 ···pr , n = q1 q2 ···qs , where pi 6= qj f or 1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ j ≤ s, then
µ(mn) = µ(p1 p2 ···pr )·µ(q1 q2 ···qs ) = (−1)r+s = (−1)r ·(−1)s = µ(m)·µ(n).
X
Note 1.2.2. If n = 1, then µ(d) = 1, ⇒ µ(d) = 1
d|n
X
suppose n > 1 and put F (n) = µ(d)
d|n
let n = pk , the positive divisor of pk are k + 1 integers (1, p, p2 , ..., pk ), so that
X
F (n) = F (pk ) = µ(d) = µ(1) + µ(p) + µ(p2 ) + ... + µ(pk )
d|pk
= µ(1) + µ(p) = 1 + (−1) = 0
If n = pk11 pk22
· · · pkr r
if pi 6= pj f or
X1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ j ≤ r, g.c.d(pi , pj ) = 1.
⇒ F (n) = µ(d) is multiplicative (since µ(d) is multiplicative)
d|n
⇒ F (n) = F (pk11 )F (pk22 ) · · · F (pkr r ) = 0
Theorem 1.2.2.
( For each positive integer n ≥ 1
X 1, if n = 1
µ(d) =
d|n
0, if n > 1
where d runs through the positive divisors of n.

4
Example
X 1.2.2. n = 10, The divisor of n are 1, 2, 5, 10
µ(d) = µ(1) + µ(2) + µ(5) + µ(10)
d/10
= µ(1) + µ(2) + µ(5) + µ(10)
= 1 + (−1) + (−1) + 1 = 0

Theorem 1.2.3. (Möbius inversion formula)

let F and f be tow number-theoretic functions related by the formula
X
F (n) = f (d)
d|n

then
X X
f (n) = µ(d)F (d|n) = µ(n|d)F (d)
d|n d|n

Proof. let d8 = nd , as d ranges over all positive divisors of n, so dose d8 .

X X X XX
(1) µ(d)F (d|n) = (µ(d) f (c)) = ( µ(d)f (c))
d|n d|n c|( n
d
) d|n c|d8
claim:
d|n and c|d8 = nd iff c|n and d| nc .
d|n ⇒ ∃k ∈ Z 3 n = d · k, k = nd
⇒ n = d · nd
If c| nd ⇒ c|n ( because c| nd and nd |n)
also, ∃s8 ∈ Z 3 nd = cs8 ⇒ nd = ds8 ⇒ d| nd
Because of this, the last expression in (1) becomes
XX XX
(2) ( µ(d)f (c)) = (f (c)µ(d))
d|n c|d8 c|n d|( nc )
X X
= (f (c) µ(d)).
c|n d|( nc )
X
n
By theorem 6.6 µ(d) = 0 except when d
=1
d|( nc )
That is when n = c, in this case it is equal to 1.
so the right hand side of equation(2) simplifies to
X X X
(f (c) µ(d)) = f (c) · 1 = f (n)
c|n d|( nc ) c=n

5
Example 1.2.3. Let n = 10, to illustrate how the double sum in (2) is turned.
In
Xthis
Xinstance we find that
(µ(d)f (c)) = µ(1)[f (1) + f (2) + f (5) + f (10)] + µ(2)[f (1) + f (5)]+
d|10 c|( 10 )
d
µ(5)[f (1) + f (2)] + µ(10)[f (1)]
= f (1)[µ(1) + µ(2) + µ(5) + µ(10)+]+
X X
f (2)[µ(1) + µ(5)+] + f (5)[µ(1) + µ(2)+] + f (10)[µ(1)+] = (f (c)µ(d))
c|10 d|( 10 )
c
To see how Möbius inversion works in a particular case, we remind the reader
that the functions τ and σ may both be described as sum functions
X X
τ (n) = 1 and σ(n) = d
d|n d|n

By theorem 6.7
X n X n
1=( µ( )τ (d)) and n = ( µ( )σ(d))
d d
d|n d|n

valid for all n ≥ 1.

X
Theorem 1.2.4. If F is a multiplicative function and F (n) = f (d), then
d|n
f is also multiplicative

Proof. Let m and n be relatively prime positive integers. we recalled that any
divisor d of mn can be uniquely written as d = d1 d2 , where d1 |m, d2 |n and
gcd(d1 , d2 ) = 1.
Thus, using the inversion formula.
X mn X mn
f (mn) = µ(d)F ( )= µ(d1 d2 )F ( )
d d1 d2
d|mn d1 |m,d2 |n
X m n
= µ(d1 )µ(d2 )F ( )F ( )
d1 d2
d1 |m,d2 |n
X m X n
= µ(d1 )F ( ) µ(d2 )F ( )
d1 d2
d1 |m d2 |n
= f (m)f (n)