Sec. 2.

1 Definition of a Group 27

system there will fow out facts and insights into the example at hand which
would have been obscured from us by the mass of inessential information
available to us in the particular, special case.
We should like to stress that these algebraic systems and the axioms
which define them must have a certain naturality about them. They must
come fronm the experience of looking at many examples; they should be rich
in meaningful results. One does not just sit down, list a few axioms, and
then proceed to study the system so described. This, admittedly, is done
by some, but most mathematicians would dismiss these attempts as poor
mathematics. The systems chosen for study are chosen because particular
cases of these structures have appeared time and time again, because some
one finally noted that these special cases were indeed special instances of
a general phenomenon, because one notices analogies between two highly
disparate mathematical objects and so is led to a search for the root of
these analogies. To cite an example, case after case after case of the special
object, which we know today as groups, was studied toward the end of
the eighteenth, and at the beginning of the nineteenth, century, yet it was
not until relatively late in the nineteenth century that the notion of an
abstract group was introduced. The only algebraic structures, so far en
countered, that have stood the test of time and have survived to become
of importance, have been those based on a broad and tall pillar of special
cases. Amongst mathematicians neither the beauty nor the significance of
the first example which we have chosen to discuss--groups is disputed.

2.1 Definition of a Group

At this juncture it is advisable to recall a situation discussed in the first

chapter. For an arbitrary nonempty set S we defined A(S) to be the set of
all one-to-one mappings of the set S onto itself. For any two elements o,
te A(S) we introduced a product, denoted by oo t, and on further investi
gation it turned out that the following facts were true for the elements of
A(S) subject to this product:
1. Whenever o, t e A(S), then it follows that oot is also in A(S). This is
described by saying that A(S) is closed under the product (or, sometimes,
as closed under multiplication).
2. For any three elements a,t, ue A(S), a o (t " u) = (o " t) " u. This
relation is called the associative law.
3. There is a very special element iE A(S) which satisfies o G = ooI=
for all o e A(S). Such an element called an identity element for A(S).
4. For every oe A(S) there is an element, written as a ,also in A(S),
such that oool = oloo = 1 This is usually described by saying
that every element in A(S) has an inverse in A(S).
 22
Sec. 2.2 Some Examples of Groups

2.2 Some Examples of Groups

where we
Example 2.2.1 Let G consist of the integers 0, +1, t2,... ab = a + b.
integers, that is,
mean by a"b for a, be G the usual sum of
group in
Then the reader can quickly verify that G is an infinite abelian
a- .
which 0 plays the role of e and -a that of
under the
Example 2.2.2 Let G consist of the real numbers 1, -1l
multiplication of real numbers. G is then an abelian group of order 2.

Example 2.2.3 Let G= Ss, the group of all 1-1 mappings of the set
in Chapter 1.
{*1, X, X} onto itself, under the product which we defined
Gis a group of order 6. We digress a little before returning to Ss.
For a ncater notation, not just in Ss, but in any group G, let us define for
a = aa1, and
any ae G, a = e, a' = a, a' = a'a, a = aa',...,
-2 = (a)', a = (a-), etc. The reader may verify that the usual
rules of cxponents prevail; namely, for any two integers (positive, negative,
or zero) m, n,
aa = t. (1)
(2)
(It is worthwhile noting that, in this notation, if Gis the group of Example
2.2.1, means the integer na).
With this notation at our disposal let us examine S, more closely. Con
sider the mapping defined on the set x, Xz, X, by

and the mapping

Checking, we readily see that = e, y= e, and that

whereas

Copghtes mtor
30 Group Theory Ch. 2

It is clear that - y for they do not take x, into the same image.
Since =e, it follows that = y'. Let us now compute the action
of on x,, Xz, Xy. Since = y' and

we have that

In other words, = y1. Consider the elements e, d, u, y, "y,

; these are all distinct and are in G (since Gis closed), which only has
six elements. Thus this list enumerates all the elements of G. One might ask,
for instance, What is the entryin the list for y( )? Using = y,
we see that ( - ) = y ( - ) = (u-) = = . Of more
interest is the form of ( ) (h) = ( ( ) ) = ( · ) =
(y) = ( ) = y= ey = y. (The reader should not be
frightened by the long, wearisome chain of equalities here. It is the last
time we shall be so boringly conscientious.) Using the same techniques as
we have used, the reader can compute to his heart's content others of the
25 products which do not involve e. Some of these will appcar in the
exercises.

Example 2.2.4 Let n be any integer. We construct a group of order n

as follows: G will consist of all symbols a', i= 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1 where
we insist that aº = =e, a'a' = a'+j if i +jsn and a'a' = a+j-a
if i +j> n. The reader may verify that this is a group. It is called a
cyclic group of order n.

A geometric realization of the group in Example 2.2.4 may be achieved

as follows: Let S be the circle, in the plane, of radius 1, and let P, be a
rotation through an angle of 2r/n. Then p, e A(S) and p, in A(S) generates
a group of order n, namely, {e, Pas P,'.,pM}.
Example 2.2.5 Let S be the set of integers and, as usual, let A(S) be
the set of all one-to-one mappings of S onto itself. Let G be the set of all
elements in A(S) which move only a finite number of elements ofS; that is,
oeG if and only if the number of xin S such that xo # * is finite. If
a, TeG, let gt be the product of oand t as elements of A(S). We claim
that G is a group relative to this operation. We verify this now.
To begin with, if o, t e G, then o and t each moves only a finite number
of elements of S. In consequence, gt can possibly move only those elements
in S which are moved by at least one of o or t. Hence gt moves only a
32 Group Theory Ch. 2

makes sense. Moreover,

ad - bc
# 0,
(ad - bc) 2 ad - bc

hence the matrix

d -b
ad - bc ad - bc

ad - bc ad be

is in G. An easy computation shows that

-b
ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc ad bc
c

ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc
ad - bc

thus this clement of Gacts as the inverse In short, G is a group.

It is easy to see that G is an infinite, non-abelian group.

#Example 2.2.7 Let Gbe the set of all 2 x 2 matrices, where

a, b, c, d are real numbers such that ad bc = 1. Define the operation in

G, as we did in Example 2.2.6, via the multiplication of matrices. We
leave it to the reader to verify that Gis a group. It is, in fact, an infinite,
non-abelian group.
One should make a comment about the relationship of the group in
Example 2.2.7 to that in Example 2.2.6. Clearly, the group of Example 2.2.7
is a subset of that in Example 2.2.6. However, more is true. Relative to the
same operation, as an entity in its own right, it forms a group. One could
describe the situation by declaring it to be a subgroup of the group of Example
2.2.6. We shall see much more about the concept of subgroup in a few
pages.

#Example 2.2.8 Let G be the set of all 2 x 2 matrices

where a and b are real numbers, not both 0. (We can state this more
succinctly by saying that a² + b # 0.) Uing the same operation as in
the preceding two examples, we can casily show that G bccomes a group.
In fact,G is an infinite, abelian group.
 Some Preliminary Lemmas 33
Sec. 2.3

Does the multiplication in Cremind you of anything? Write )

as al + bJ whereJ - -1 and compute the product in these terms.
0)
Perhaps that will ring a bellwith you.

where
#Example 2.2.9 Let G be the set of all 2 x 2 matrices
such that ad bc # 0.
4, b, e, d are integers modulo , pa prime number, 2.2.6, understanding
Define the multiplication in G as we did in Example
those modulo . We
the multiplication and addition of the entries to be
leave it to the reader to verify that Gis a non-abelian finite group.
be instructive
In fact, how many clements does G have? Perhaps it might one can write
for the reader to try the early cases p = 2 and þ = 3. Here 3,
down all the elements of G explicitly. (A word of warning! For p =
Galready has 48 elements.) To get the case of ageneral prime, þ will require
an idea rather than a direct hacking-out of the answer. Try it!

2.3 Some Preliminary Lemmas

We have now been exposed to the theory of groups for several pages and as
It is high time
yet not a single, solitary fact has been proved about groups.demonstratc
to remedy this situation. Although the first few results we arc,
admittedly, not very exciting (in fact, they are rather dull) they will be
extremely useful. Learning the alphabet was probably not the most intcresting
part of ourchildhood education, yet, once this hurdle was cleared, fascinating
vistas were opened before us.
We begin with

LEMMA 2.3.1 IG is a group, then

a. The identity element of G is unique.
b. Every ae G has a unique inverse in G.
c. For every a e G, (a)-1 = a.
d. For all a, be G, (a b) 1= 6-1"a-1,

Proof. Before we proceed with the proof itself it might be advisable to

see what it is that we are going to prove. In part (a) we want to show that if
two elements e andf in G enjoy the property that for every ae C, a =
a'e= ea = a f = f a, then e =f. In part (b) our aim is to show that
if xa= a* = e and y a = a'y = e, where allof a, x, yare in G, then
* = ).
Group Theory Ch. 2

First let us consider part (a). Since ea = a for every a e G, then, in

particular, ef= f. But, on the other hand, since b"f= b for every
be G, we must have that ef = e. Piecing these two bits of information
together we obtainf = ef= e, and so e =j.
Rather than proving part (b), we shall prove something stronger which
immediately willimply part (b) as a consequence. Suppose that for a in G,
a"x =eand ay = e; then, obviously, a·x = ay. Let us make this our
starting point, that is, assume that ax = ay for a, x, yin G. There is an
element beG such that ba =e (as far as we know yet there may be
several such b's). Thus b (a·*) = b(a:); using the associative law this
leads to

* =ex = (ba) * = b· (a*) = b· (a ) = (6 a) y = ey = y.

We have, in fact, proved that a x = a'y in a group G forces * = y.
Similarly we can prove that x a =y"aimplies thatx =y. This says that
we can cancel, from the same side, in equations in groups. A note of caution,
however, for we cannot conclude that a x =y"a implies x = y for we have
no way of knowing whether a"* = **a. This is illustrated in S, with a = ,
* = , y = y1.
Part (c) follows from this by noting that a (a)=e=ala;
canceling off the a-l on the left leaves us with (al)-1 = a. This is the
analog in general groups of the familiar result -(-5) = 5, say, in the
group of real numbers under addition.
Part (d) is the most trivial of these, for
(ab) (6-1·a-l) = a ((6"b-1)-) = a(ea) = eal = ,
and so by the very defnition of the inverse, (ab) - = 6-l·a 1:
Certain results obtained in the proof just given are important enough to
single out and we do so now in

LEMMA 2.3.2 Given a, b in the group G, then the equations ax = b and

y'a = b have unique solutions for x and yin G. In particular, the twocancellation
laws,
a"u = aw implies u = W
and
2a = wa implies u = w
hold in G.

The few details needed for the proof of this lemma are left to the reader.
36 Group Theory Ch. 2

13. Prove, by an example, that the conclusion of Problem 12 is false if

we assume instead:
(a") There exists an e e Gsuch that ae = a for all a e G.
(b') Given a e G, there exists y(a) e Gsuch that y(a) "a =e.
14. Suppose a finite set G is closed under an associative product and that
both cancellation laws hold in G. Prove that G must be a group.
15. (a) Using the result of Problem 14, prove that the nonzero integers
modulo p, þa prime number, form a group under multiplication
mod p.
(b) Do part (a) for the nonzero integers relatively prime ton under
multiplication mod n.
16. In Problem 14 show by an example that if one just assumed one of
the cancellation laws, then the conclusion need not follow.
17. Prove that in Problem 14 infinite examples exist, satisfying the
conditions, which are not groups.
18. For any n > 2 construct a non-abelian group of order 2n. (Hint:
imitate the relations in S,.)
19. If S is a set closed under an associative operation, prove that no
matter how you bracket a, a, as retaining the order of the
elements, you get the same element in S (e.g., (a, a,) (a a4) =
a, (a, (a, a)); use induction on n).
#20. Let G be the set of all real 2 x 2 matrices , where ad bc # 0
is a rational number. Prove that G forms a group under matrix
multiplication.
#21. Let G be the set of all real 2 x 2 matrices( where ad # 0.
Prove that G forms a group under matrix multiplication. Is G
abelian?
a 0
)
#22. Let Gbe the set of allreal 2 x 2 matriceswiere a # 0.
Prove that G is an abelian group under. matrix multiplication.
#23. Construct in the G of Problem 2La subgroup of order 4.
#24. Let G be the set of all 2 x 2 matriceswhere a, b, c, d are
integers modulo 2, such that ad - bc # 0. Using matrix multi
plication as the operation in G, prove that G is a group of order 6.
#25. (a) Let G be the group of all 2 × 2 matrices where

ad - bc #0 and a, b, c, d are integers modulo 3, relative to

matrix multiplication. Show that o(C) = 48.
 Sec. 2.4 Subgroups 37

(b) If we modify the example ofG in part (a) by insisting that

ad - bc = 1, then what is o(G)?

*26. (a) Let G be the group of all 2 x 2 matrices where a, b, c, d

are integers modulo p, p a prime number, such that ad - bc # 0.
Gforms a group relative to matrix multiplication. What is o(G)?
(b) Let H be the subgroup of the G of part (a) defned by

What is o(H)?

2.4 Subgroups
Before turning to the study of groups we should like to change our notation
slightly. It is cumbersome to keep using the for the group operation;
henceforth we shall drop it and instead of writing a "b for a, be Gwe shall
simply denote this product as ab.
In general we shall not be interested in arbitrary subsets of a group Gfor
they do not refect the fact that Ghas an algebraic structure imposed on it.
Whatever subsets we do consider will be those endowed with algebraic
properties derived from those of G. The most natural such subsets are
introduced in the

DEFINITION A nonempty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup

of G if, under the product in G, H itself forms a group.

The following remark is clear: if His a subgroup of Gand Kis a subgroup

of H, then K is a subgroup of G.
It would be useful to have some criterion for deciding whether a given
subset of a group is a subgroup. This is the purpose of the next two lemmas.
LEMMA 2.4.1 A nonempty subset H of the group G is a subgroup of Gif and
only if
1. a, be Himplies that ab e H.
2. ae Himplies that a-l e H.
Proof. If H is a subgroup of G, then it is obvious that (1) and (2) must
hold.
Suppose conversely that H is a subset of C for which (1) and (2) hold.
In order to establish that His a subgroup, all that is needed is to verify that
eeH and that the associative law holds for elements of H. Since the as
sociative law does hold for G, it holds all the more so for H, which is a
 Sec. 2.4 Subgroups 39

group.
of G. If for some choice of a, G = (), then G is said to be a cyclic
role in the
important
Such groups are very special but they play a very
theory of groups, especially in that part which deals with abelian groups.
is false.
Of course, cyclic groups are abelian, but the converse

Example 2.4.4 Let G be a group, Wa subset of G. Let (W) be the set

W raised to
of all elements of G representable as a product of elements of
G
positive, zero, or negative integer exponents. (W) is the subgroup of
generated by Wand is the smallest subgroup of Gcontaining W. In fact, (W)
intersec
is the intersection of all the subgroups of G which contain W (this
tion is not vacuous since G is a subgroup of G which contains W).
Example 2.4.5 Let G be the group of nonzero real numbers under
multiplication, and let H be the subset of positive rational numbers. Then
His a subgroup of G.
Example 2.4.6 Let G be the group of all real numbers under addition,
and let H be the set of all integers. Then H is a subgroup of G.

#Example 2.4.7 Let G be the group of all real 2 x 2 matrices

with ad - be # Ounder matrix multiplication. Let

Then, as is casily verified, H is a subgroup of G.

#Example 2.4.8 Let H be the group of Example 2.4.7, and let
K= Then K is a subgroup of H.

Example 2.4.9 Let G be the group of all nonzero complex numbers

a + bi (4, b real, not both 0) under multiplication, and let
H= {a + bi eG| a² + b² = 1}.
Verify that H is a subgroup of G.
DEFINITION Let G be a group, Ha subgroup of G; for a, beG we say
ais congruent to b mod H, written as a = b mod Hif ab -1 e H.
LEMMA 2.4.3 The relation a = b mod H is an equivalence relation.
40 Group Theory Ch. 2

Proof. If we look back in Chapter 1, we see that to prove Lemma 2.4.3

we must verify the following three conditions: For all a, b, ce G,
1. a= a mod H.
2. a = b mod Himplies b= amod H.
3. a = b mod H, b= cmod Himplies a c mod H.
Let's go through each of these in turn.
1. To show that a = a mod H we must prove, using the very definition
of congruence mod H, that aae H. Since His a subgroup of G, ee H,
and since aa , aae H, which is what we were required to demon
strate.
2. Suppose that a = b mod H, that is, suppose ab e H; we want to
get from this b = a mod H, or, equivalently, ba'e H. Since ab-1e H,
which is a subgroup of G, (ab- 1)- eH; but, by Lemma 2.3.1, (ab-1) -1 =
(6-1)-a-1 = ba-1, and so ba- e H and b = a mod H.
3. Finally we require that a = b mod H and b = c mod H forces
a = cmod H. The first congruence translates into abe H, the second
into bc 1e H; using that H is a subgroup of G, (ab ') (bc l)e H. How
ever, ac1= aec 1 = a(b'6)c = (ab')(bc); hence ac-1 e H, from
which it follows that a = c mod H.

This establishes that congruence mod H is a bona fide equivalence

relation as defined in Chapter 1, and all results about equivalence relations
have become available to us to be used in examining this particular relation.
A word about the notation we used. If Gwere the group of integers under
addition, and H H, were the subgroup consisting of all multiples of n,
then in G, the relation a = b mod H, that is, ab1 e H, under the additive
notation, reads a - bis a multiple of n." This is the usual number theoretic
congruence mod n. In other words, the relation we defined using an
arbitrary group and subgroup is the natural generalization of a familiar
relation in a familiar group.

DEFINITION If H is a subgroup of G, ae G, then Ha = fha | he H}.

Ha is called a righe coset of H in G.

LEMMA 2.4.4 For all a e G,

Ha = {xeG|a = * mod H}.
Proof. Let [a] = {xeG|a = * mod H}. We first show that Ha c [a].
For, if he H, then a(ha)1 = a(a'h) = leHsince His a subgroup
of G. By the definition of congruence mod H this implies that ha e [a]
for every he H, and so Ha c [a.
Suppose, now, that xe[a]. Thus axe H, so (ar)1 = xa1 is
 Sec. 2.4 Subgroups 41

also in H. That is, xa = h for some he H. Multiplying both sides by a

from the right we come up with * = ha, and so x e Ha. Thus [a] c Ha.
Having proved the two inclusions [a]c Ha and Ha c a], we can conclude
that [a] = Ha, which is the assertion of the lemma.
In the terminology of Chapter 1, [a], and thus Ha, is the equivalence class
of ain G. By Theorem 1.1.1 these equivalence classes yield a decomposition
of G into disjoint subsets. Thus any two right cosets of H in G either are identical
or have no element in common.
We now claim that between any two right cosets Ha and Hb of H in G
there exists a one-to-one correspondence, namely, with any element ha e H,
where he H, associate the element kb e Hb. Clearly this mapping is onto
Hb. We aver that it is a one-to-one correspondence, for if h,b = h,b, with
h,, h, e H, then by the cancellation law in G, h, = h, and so h,a = hya.
This proves

LEMMA 2.4.5 There is a one-to-one correspondence between any two right cosets
of H in G.

Lemma 2.4.5 is of most interest when H is a finite group, for then it merely
states that any two right cosets of H have the same number of clements.
How many elements does a right coset of H have? Well, note that H = He
is itself a right coset of H, so any right coset of H in G has o(H) elements.
Suppose now that G is a finite group, and let k be the number of distinct
right cosets of H in G. By Lemmas 2.4.4 and 2.4.5 any two distinct right
cosets of Hin Ghave no element in common, and each has o(H) elements.
Since any a e Gis in the unique right coset Ha, the right cosets fill out G.
Thus ifk represents the number of distinct right cosets of H in G we must
have that ko(H) = o(G). We have proved the famous theorem due to
Lagrange, namely,
THEOREM 2.4.1 f G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then o(H)
is a dwisor of o(G).

DEFINITION IfH is a subgroup of G, the index of Hin G is the number of

distinct right cosets of H in G.

We shall denote it by ic(H). In case G is a finite group, ic(H) =

o(G)/o(H), as became clear in the proof of Lagrange's theorem. It isquite
possible for an infinite group Gto have a subgroup H Gwhich is of finite
index in G.
It might be difficult, at this point, for the student to see the extreme
importance of this result. As the subject is penetrated more deeply one will
 Sec. 2.4 Subgroups 43

DEFINITION If G is a group and a e G, the order (or period) of a is the

least positive integer msuch that a" =e.

If no such integer exists we say that a is of infinite order. We use the

notation o(a) for the order of a. Recall our other notation: for two integers
u, U, uD reads u is a divisor of u."

COROLLARY 1 IfG is afinite group and ae G, then o(a) | o(G).

Proof. With Lagrange's theorem already in hand, it seems most natural
to prove the corollary by exhibiting a subgroup of G whose order is o(a).
The element a itself furnishes us with this subgroup by considering the
cyclic subgroup, (a), of Ggenerated by a; (a) consists of e, a, a',.... How
many elements are there in (a)? We assert that this number is the order of a.
Clearly, since a°) =4, this subgroup has at most o(a) elements. If it
should actually have fewer than this number of elements, then a' = a'
for some integers 0si<j< o(a). Then a'-i e, yet 0<j-i< o(a)
which would contradict the very meaning of o(a). Thus the cyclic sub
group generated by ahas o(a) elements, whence, by Lagrange's theorem,
o(a) |o(G).
COROLLARY 2 IfG is afinite group and ae G, then aG) = .
Proof. By Corollary 1, o(a) | o(G); thus o(C) = mola). Therefore,
aoG) = amola) = (aa))m =e= e.

A particular case of Corollary 2 is of great interest in number theory.

The Euler -function, (n), is defined for all integers n by the following:
(1) = 1; for n > 1, o() = number of positive integers less than n and
relatively prime to n. Thus, for instance, (8) = 4 since only 1, 3, 5, 7
are the numbers less than 8 which are relatively prime to 8. In Problem 15(b)
at the end of Section 2.3 the reader was asked to prove that the numnbers
less than n and relatively prime to n formed a group under multiplication
mod n. This group has order (n). If we apply Corollary 2 to this group
we obtain

COROLLARY 3 (EULER) If n is apositive integer and a is relatively prime

to n, then a) = Imod n.

In order to apply Corollary 2 one should replace a by its remainder on

division byn. Ifn should be a prime number p, then (p) - I. If a
is an integer relatively prime to p, then by Corollary 3, aP- = l mod p,
whence aP=a mod p. If, on the other hand, a is not relatively prime to p,
44 Group Theory Ch. 2

since p is a prime number, we must have thatp| a, so that a = 0 mod p;

hence 0 = aP = a mod p here also. Thus

COROLLARY 4 (FERMAT) fp is a prime number and a is any integer, then

aP = amod p.

cOROLLARY 5 f G is afnite group whose order is a prime number p, then

Gis a cyclic group.
Proof. First we claim that G has no nontrivial subgroups H; for o(H)
must divide o(C) =þ leaving only two possibilities, namely, o(H) = lor
o(H) = p. The first of these implics H = (e), whereas the second implies
that H= G. Suppose now that a # ee G, and let H = (a). H is a sub
group of G, H # e) since a # ee H. Thus H= G. This says that G is
cyclic and that every element in C is a power of a.
This section is of great importance in all that comes later, not only for its
results but also because the spirit of the proofs occurring here are genuinely
group-theoretic. The student can expect to encounter other arguments
having a similar flavor. It would be wise to assimilate the material and
it will
approach thoroughly, now, rather than a few theorems later when
be too late.

2.5 A
Counting Principle
As we have defined earlier, if H is a subgroup of G and a e G, then Ha
consists of all elements in G of the form ha where h e H. Let us generalize
this notion. If H, K are two subgroups of G, let
HK = (xe G|x = hk, he H, ke K}.
{e, d}.
Let's pause and look at an example; in S, let H = {e }, K =
Since d = ( ) = e, both H and K are subgroups. What can we say
consists of
about HK? Just using the definition of HK we can see that HK elements and
the elements e, , y, y= y. Since HK consists of four
4 is not a divisor of 6, the order of S, by Lagrange's theorem
HK could not
this directly but it does
be a subgroup of S,. (Of course, we could verify might try to find out
not hurt to keep recalling Lagrange's theorem.) We
why HK is not a subgroup. Note that KH = {e, , we y, y = y} HK.
in the next lemma.
This is precisely why HK fails to be a subgroup, as see
LEMMA 2.5.1 HK is a subgroup of Gif and only if HK = KH.
is, if he H and ke K,
Proof. Suppose, first, that HK = KH; that
not be that k, = k or
then hk = k,h, for some k, e K, hË e H (it nced

Colste
Group Theory Ch. 2

where hh, e H, since he H, h, e HoKeH and h,'ke K since

h,- e HoKeK and keK. Thus hk is duplicated in the product at
least o(H n K) times. However, if ik = NK, then = k(*)- = 4,
and u e Ho K, and so = hu, k = u'k; thus all duplications were
accounted for in (1). Consequently hk appears in the list of HK exactly
o(H o K) times. Thus the number of distinct elements in HK is the total
number in the listing of HK, that is, o(H)o(K) divided by the number of
times a given element appears, namely, o(H n K). This proves the theorem.
Suppose H, K are subgroups of the finite group G and o(H) > Vo(G),
o(K) > vo(G). Since HK e G, o(HK) < o(G). However,
o(G) 2 o(HK) = o(H)o(K) Vo(G)NatG) o(G)
o(Hn K) o(Ho K) o(Ho K)

thus o(H n K) > 1. Therefore, HoK# (e). We have proved the

cOROLLARY Hand Kare subgroups of Gand o(H) > o(G), o(K) >
Vo(G), then HnK# ().
We apply this corollary to a very special group. Suppose G is a finite
group of order pq where p and q are prime numbers with þ > q. We claim
that G can have at most one subgroup of order p. For supposc H, K are
subgroups of order p. By the corollary, H K# (e), and being a sub
group of H, which having prime order has no nontrivial subgroups, we
must conclude that H oK=H, and so Hc HoKc K. Similarly
Ke H, whence H = K, proving that there is at mnost one subgroup of
order p. Later on we shall see that there is at least one subgroup of order ,
which,combined with the above, will tell us there is exactly one subgroup
of orderp in G. From this we shall be able to determine completely the
structure of G.

Problems
1. IfH and K are subgroups of G, show that H o Kis a subgroup of G.
(Can you see that the samne proof shows that the intersection of any
number of subgroups of G, finite or infinite, is again a subgroup of G?)
2. Let G be a group such that the intersection of all its subgroups which
are different fromn (e) is a subgroup different from (e). Prove that
every element in G has finite order.
3. If G has no nontrivial subgroups, show that G must be finite of
prime order.
eory Ch. 2

His a subgroup of Glet

N=)xH:1.
xeG

ove that N is a subgroup of Gsuch that aNa = N for all ae G.

H is a subgroup of finite index in G, prove that there is only a
ite number of distinct subgroups in G of the form aHa1
H is of finite index in G prove that there is a subgroup N of G,
ntained in H, and of finite index in G such that aNa 1 = N for
IaeG. Can you give an upper bound for the index of this
in G?
et the mapping ab for a, b real numbers, map the reals into the
als by the rule TabiX ’ ax + b. Let G = {taba # 0}. Prove
at G is a group under the composition of mappings. Find the
rmula for Tobtcd
Problem 21, let H= {tab ¬G|a is rational}. Show that H is
subgroup of G. List all the right cosets of H in G, and all the left
-sets of H in G. From this show that every left coset of H in G is a
ghtcoset of H in G.
the group G of Problem 21, let N = {tb e G}. Prove
) Nis a subgroup of G.
) Ifa eG, ne N, then anae N.
et G be a finite group whose order is not divisible by 3.
at (ab) = a'b for all a, b e G. Prove that G must be Suppose
abelian.
et G be an abelian group and suppose that G has elements of
orders
and n, respectively. Prove that G has an element whose order is
e least common multiple of m and n.
an abelian group has subgroups of orders m and n,
en show it has a subgroup whose order is the least respectively,
common multiple
m and n. (Don't be discouraged if you don't get this
hat you know about group theory up to this stage. problem with
I don't know
nybody, including myself, who has done it subject to the restriction
using material developed so far in the text. But it is fun to
ve had more correspondence about this try.
her point in the whole book.)
problem than about any
Group Theory Ch. 2

18. If H is a subgroup of G let

xeG

Prove that N is a subgroup of Gsuch that aNa = N for all a e G.

*19. If H is a subgroup of finite index in G, prove that there is only a
finite number of distinct subgroups in Gof the form aHa-!.
*20. If H is of finite index in G prove that there is a subgroup N of G,
contained in H, and of finite index in Gsuch that aNa-i = N for
all ae G. Can you give an upper bound for the index of this
N in G?

21. Let the mapping tas for a, b real numbers, map the reals into the
reals by the rule tabix’ ax + b. Let G= {tabla + 0}. Prove
that G is a group under the composition of mappings. Find the
formula for Tabtcd
22. In Problem 21, let H = (tas E G| a is rational}. Show that H is
a subgroup of G. List all the right cosets of H in G, and all the left
cosets ofH in G. From this show that every left coset of H in G is a
right coset of H in G.
23. In the group G of Problem 21, let N= (t, e G}. Prove
(a) Nis a subgroup of G.
(b) If ae G, ne N, then ana e N.
*24. Let G be a finite group whose order is not divisible by 3. Suppose
that (ab) = ' for all a, be G. Prove that G must be abelian.
*25. Let G be an abelian group and suppose that G has elements of orders
m and n, respectively. Prove that G has an element whose order is
the least common multiple of m and n.
**26. If an abelian group has subgroups of orders m and n, respectively,
then show it has a subgroup whose order is the least common multiple
of mand n. (Don't be discouraged if you don't get this problem with
what you know about group theory up to this stage. I don't know
anybody, including myself, who has done it subject to the restriction
of using material developed so far in the text. But it is fun to try.
I've had more correspondence about this problem than about any
other point in the whole book.)
27. Prove that any subgroup of a cyclic group is itself a cyclic group.
28. How many generators does a cyclic group of order n have? (6eG
is a generator if (b) = G.)

Let U, denote the integers relatively prime to n under multiplication

mod n. In Problem 15(b), Section 2.3, it is indicated that U, is a group.
50 Group Theory Ch. 2

A quick inspection yields the interesting fact that the right coset Hå is not
a left coset. Thus, at least for this subgroup, the notions of left and right
coset need not coincide.
In G = S, let us consider the subgroup N= (e, y, }. Since the
index of N in G is 2 there are two left cosets and two right cosets of N in G.
We list these:

Right Cosets Left Cosets

N = {e, , y} N= {e, , y'}

NÙ = {4, v¢, y} ¢N = {, y, dy²)
= {,y, v¢}
A quick inspection here reveals that every left coset of N in G is a right
coset in G and conversely. Thus we see that for some subgroups the notion
of left coset coincides with that of right coset, whereas for some subgroups
these concepts differ.
sub
It is a tribute to the genius of Galois that he recognized that those ones.
groups for which the left and right cosets coincide are distinguished
Very often in mathematics the crucial problem is to recognize and to discover
be
what are the relevant concepts; once this is accomplished the job may
more than half done.
We shall define this special class of subgroups in a slightly different way,
in the above
which we shall then show to be equivalent to the remarks
paragraph.

DEFINITION A subgroup N of Gis said to be a normal subgroup ofGif

for every ge Gand ne N, gnge N.
ne N, then N
Equivalently, if by gNgwe mean the set of all gng, every ge G.
is a normal subgroup of G if and only if gNg c N for

LEMMA 2.6.1 Nis a normal subgroup of G if and ony if gNg= Nfor

every g e G.
N, so N is
Proof. If gNgl = N for every ge G, certainly gNgc
normal in G.
Suppose that Nis normal in G. Thus ifg e G, g NgcNand g 1Ng =
g'Ng)-!c N. Now, since g'Ng c N, N = gle'Ng)g c
gNg c N, whence N = gNg '.
let us stress that Lemma 2.6.1
In order to avoid a point of confusion here
does not say that for every ne N and
every ge G, gng = n. No! This
be S, and N to be the sub
can be false. Take, for instance, the group G to