RESEARCH

 the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.

Why study Research?

 To improve and develop new methods.

 To contribute knowledge and progress.
 To develop better understanding of published works.
 To develop independent critical thinking skills along with oral and written communication skills.

Qualities of a Good Inquirer or Researcher

Care - distinct characteristics of a researcher

Utility Competency - ability to troubleshoot during unexpected scenario
Technical Competency - ability to use available technologies
Effort - time and skill
Service - willingness of the researcher to serve others, to do good
Patience - intra (within) and extra (outside) group
Guts and Risk - considering options

Philosophical Worldviews in Research

Postpositivist – researchers subscribes to the idea that everything should be quantified to produce meaningful
concrete results.
Constructivist – researchers believe that experience expressed through words can paint a better picture of a
certain phenomenon.
Transformative – researchers supports the idea that research should be conducted to increase quality of life
and produce better societies.
Pragmatic – researchers promotes the use of both qualitative and quantitative data in expressing research
findings.

Research Process

Conceptualization Phase – concept making

Design Phase – planning
Empirical Phase – data collection
Analytical Phase – data analysis/interpretation
Dissemination Phase – utilization

Research Approach

Qualitative Research – approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to
a social or human problem.
Quantitative Research – approach for testing objective theories by examining relationship among variables.
Mixed Approach – inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data and integrating the two
forms of data.
Research Format

Traditional – Manuscripts are written in by-chapter.

International – manuscripts are written in Introduction-Method-Results-Discussion (IMRAD) format and content
based on American Psychological Association (APA, 6th Ed. Standards).
Our Lady of Fatima University Research Development and Innovation Center (OLFU-RDIC) – promotes the
use of APA style and content, use of 6,000-9,000 word range for the whole manuscript and the following
sections/outline of the manuscript.

OLFU-RDIC Section/Outline of the Manuscript:

1.0 Introduction – Contextual

2.0 Literature Review – Contextual
3.0 Methods – Procedural
4.0 Results – Substantial
5.0 Discussion – Substantial
6.0 Recommendation

Qualitative Versus Quantitative

Aim is complete detailed description. Aim is to classify features, count them and
construct statistical models.
Researcher may only know roughly in Researcher already knows what he/she is
advance what he/she is looking for. searching for.
The design emerges as the study unfolds. All aspects of the study are carefully designed
before data is collected.
Researcher is the data-gathering instrument. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires
or laboratory equipment to collect numerical
data.
Data is in form of words, picture or object. Data is in form of number and statistics.
Subjective – individual’s interpretation of Objective – seeks precise measurement and
event is important. analysis of target concepts.
Data is more rich, time consuming and less Data is more efficient, able to test hypothesis
able to be generalized. but may miss contextual detail.
Researchers tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively
immersed in the subject matter. separated from the subject matter.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 It is the systematic empirical investigation of an observed phenomena through the use of statistical,
mathematical or computational methods (given, 2008).
 The aim is to find the relationship between one variable to another

Designs of Quantitative Research

Non-Experimental Research – Only establishes the association or connection between variables.

Experimental Research – Establishes causality and often used when an intervention is being studied.

Advantage and Disadvantage

 Large quantities of data to be collected

Experimental Research

 A type of quantitative research design that is used to determine the outcome of a specific intervention.

Classification of Experimental Research

True Experimental

 Involves random assignment of subjects.

 Researcher has the control over the experiment.
 Experimental group – manipulated with intervention
 Control group – unmanipulated
 Mr. C – manipulation, randomization, control

Quasi Experimental

 Non-randomized assignment.
 Depends on how the participants were recruited for the study.

Non-Experimental Research

 Seeks to discover the answers to problem by describing the data quantitatively or numerically.
 Determines the relationship of variables but is incapable of establishing the cause and effect.
 Lacks manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment of participants to conditions.
 Data is collected through surveys or structured interviews, observations, review of documents and so
on.
 Non-experimental research is most often used in the field of social science.
Classification of Non-Experimental Research

Survey Research

 This type of study provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitude or behavior from a
sample drawn in a specific population.
 The survey is the most common method used for quantitative study and be in a form of questionnaire.

Correlational Research

 Is a type of non-experimental research that is used to determine the relationship between two variables
among a single group of people.
 Only describe the relationship, they do not prove cause and effect.

Comparative Research

 A type of non-experimental research that examines the difference between variables.

 Comparisons are based on descriptive data, showing that a difference exists but does not imply
causation.

Types of Survey Research

Cross-Sectional Study

 A type of survey research that collects data from a population or subset population through observation,
survey or interview at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal Study

 A type of survey research that collects data through observation, survey or interview of the same
subjects over a period of time up and can last up to several years.

VARIABLES

 Defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. Anything that takes on different values,
typically numerical values.

Two Major Types of Variables

Independent Variable

 This is the presumed cause.

 The independent variable is the variable that is being manipulated by the researcher.
 It is stable and unaffected by the other variable that you are trying to measure.
 It is commonly known as the X variable.

Dependent Variable

 This is the presumed effect.

 This variable assumes the change brought about by the other variable (independent variable).
 This is the variable that is being measured by the researcher.
 It is commonly known as the Y variable.
Extraneous or Erroneous Variables

 Defined as unwanted variables.

 They are also called confounding variables because their presence influences the outcome of the
experiment in an undesirable way, they add error to an experiment.
 A major goal in a quantitative research design is to limit or control the influence of extraneous variables
as much as possible.

RESEARCH TITLE

3 Things to Consider in Making A Research Title

1. Should embody the main idea of the research paper.

2. Can stand alone on its own, with any further explanation needed.
3. Concise.

Characteristics of A Good Title

 Contain as few words as possible: many journals limit titles to 12 words

 Be easy to understand
 Describe the contents of the paper accurately and specifically
 Avoid abbreviations, formulas, and jargon
 NOT include any verb
 NOT contain low-impact words such as ‘‘Investigations on ...,’’ ‘‘Study of...,’’ and ‘‘Effect of ...’’
 Not be flashy as in newspapers (e.g.,avoid statements like ‘‘Agroforestry can stop deforestation’’)
 Report the subject of the research rather than the results

Sources of Research Topic

Own Experience and Interest – Identify your own interests and formulate a problem that reflects them;
familiarity in your territory and terminology.
Colleagues – Brainstorming with friends about problems they have encountered may help clarify research
ideas.
Critical Friends – Experts are good sources of research problems
Literature – Previous studies and research findings in which gaps were identified

Remember the 3 T’s In choosing your research title

 Timely (napapanahon)
 Trending (nauuso)
 Trailblazing (nangingibabaw)

Research Title Format

Interrogative Form – nagsisimula sa question

Combinational: Question and Title
Combinational: Powerful Phrase and Title
Use of Novel Method – use of uncommon words
Result of the Paper

RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Research problem is a clear statement of an inquiry or gap that needs to be addressed through a
systematic approach.

Importance of the research problem:

1. This gives an overview on the relevance of the topic being studied.

2. Places the topic into a specific context that discuss the variables and characteristics being studied.
3. Indicates a possible framework for reporting of findings and how these will be presented and
interpreted.

Guidelines in Making A Research Problem

 Create a research problem that is:

S-pecific
M-easureable
A-ttainable
R-ealistic
T-ime-bound

 Formulate a research problem that reflects the significance of seeking solutions and answers.
 Do not state your research problem/questions that is answerable by yes or no.
 Research can be stated in a declarative or interrogative manner.
 Make sure that the quantitative research problem is answerable by an appropriate statistical method.
 Formulate a research problem that is aligned with your research topic.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Summary of the state of existing knowledge on a research problem or topic.

 It is an analysis and synthesis of articles related to the research topic being studied.

The processes involve are

1. searching relevant articles;

2. reading and analyzing research reports; and
3. writing the description of the existing information on a topic in a manner that is ethical and based on
standards

What are the purposes of literature review?

◦ A literature review allows researcher to identify a research problem of interest. Through research report
reading and review, a beginning researcher who is still unsure of what to study might be triggered by topics
that he or she has read. Literature review may also aid the research her to improve his research questions or
hypothesis.
◦ Another importance of literature review is the fact that it enables the researcher to discover what are known
and unknown about a certain topic. One can not discover whether a certain question has already been
answered or whether issues have already been solved if he will not embark on literature review. The presence
of gaps in literature also gives opportunities for future researches.

◦ There are also high-impact studies that warrant replication in a different setting or different group of
population. There is also a fount of information with regard to methodology, both established and innovative
ones, in the literature.

Types of Literature

Research Literature – these are literature based on research findings. These are data supported by evidences.
Example: journal articles, literature reviews, abstracts of research studies
Non-Research References – these are literature which are not based on research findings. These literatures
can provide insights and may broaden understanding regarding a topic. However, since they are not based on
research findings, they have limited use and they do not serve the purpose of review of related literature
Example: literary or artistic works, opinion articles, brochures, magazines, anecdotes.

Sources of Research Literature

Primary source – these refer to description of studies written by the researchers themselves.
Example: researches published in a journal, abstract prepared by the researcher(s), dissertations, thesis,
undergraduate researches, presentation done by the researcher.
Secondary source – these are description of studies written by someone else, other than the researchers who
conducted them. These description or interpretation of studies by other researchers should not become
substitute for primary sources because they are less detailed and may be subjective in nature.
Example: literature review, abstract prepared by a reviewer, presentation of research done by someone else
other than the researcher

The Process of Literature Review

Literature review is not simply reading available resources. it is composed of several structured steps:

1. searching relevant articles

2. reading and analyzing research reports
3. writing the description of the existing information on a topic in a manner that is ethical and based on
standards.

What is a citation?

 A citation is both a signpost and an acknowledgement.

 As a signpost, it signals the location of a source.
 As an acknowledgement, it reveals that you are indebted to that source.
 It also provides evidence that scholarly writing is done and your position is well researched.
 A citation can appear in different formats: within the text (in-text citation) at the bottom of the page
(footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes).
How to paraphrase effectively?

When one borrows other people’s ideas for his assignment or research project, he must put these ideas into
his own words. How can one possibly achieve this? Here are the guidelines:

1. Read the text several times until you understand it.

2. Set the work aside to avoid copying.
3. Re-write the passage in your own words.
4. Record the bibliographic information with your paraphrased version of the original.

Properly Citing Sources

Implicit – Statement_ (Authors, Year).

Example: An e-learning system with higher educational compatibility is believed to effectively facilitate the
learning processes of students (Xu & Wang, 2006).
Explicit – Author_(Year)_Verb_Statement.
Example: Taylor and Todd (1995) suggested that Social Influence (SI) affects other people’s opinion, superior
influence, and peer influence.
Introductory – Phrase with Verb_Author_(Year)_Statement.
Example: As suggested by Taylor and Todd (1995) Social Influence (SI) affects other people’s opinion,
superior influence, and peer influence.

PLAGIARISM

 The wrongful use of idea or language of another author and representing them as if they are your
original work.
 Using their exact words or ideas without citing the rightful owner of the source is a form of academic
dishonesty.
 Plagiarism is stealing. It is offensive whether it is done intentionally or by accident.

Types of Plagiarism:

Plagiarism of words – the use of another author's exact words without citing him/her.
Plagiarism of structure – in this type of plagiarism, the author cited the source but he just paraphrased
another’s words by changing sentence construction or word choice.
Plagiarism of ideas – presenting another’s ideas as if they are your own without giving the owner credit.
Incorrect citation of the original owner of the idea is also considered 'plagiarism of ideas'.
Plagiarism of authorship – turning in a replication of another’s work. Submitting a paper that you got off the
internet or from a friend and presenting it as your own. This is the worst type of plagiarism.
Plagiarism of self – this type refers to the use of one's previous work for a separate assignment or requirement.
Although the ideas and words are owned by the author, receiving two credits for a single output is considered
cheating. This is not allowed unless permission is obtained from both teachers of the courses where the
project/written work is to be submitted.
What are the penalties for plagiarism?

One must understand that plagiarism is a serious offense in the academe. Whether it is done intentionally or
out of sloppiness on the part of the author, it is not without penalty. Possible penalties are

 failing the course, receiving zero in an assignment or project, suspension, expulsion, or even
 losing one's earned degree

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

 A conceptual framework is a graphical presentation of concepts under study and the existing
relationships that exist between or among these concepts.
 Provide a perspective regarding interrelated phenomena, but are more loosely structured than theories.
 Conceptual models can serve as springboards for generating research hypotheses (Polit and Beck,
2007).

Theoretical Framework

 A research study is based on an existing established theory.

written in the SEC format:

S – tate the theory

E – xplain the theory
C – ontextualize the theory

Developing A Framework in A Quantitative Study

 Relies on one's ability to make observations, understand a problem, and recognize prior research
knowledge. With this, you will be able to place your issues of the study into a broader perspective.
 One must be able to create generalizations by the process of reasoning from specific observation, this
process is known as induction. You may follow the following steps in developing a framework.

1. Select a topic and clarify your objectives.

2. Review the literature and discuss problem with colleagues.
3. Develop ideas based on the reviewed literature and based on one's own experiences.
4. Create a conceptual scheme based on the developed ideas.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher’s prediction about relationships between or among the
variables under investigation.
 Hypotheses, in other words, are predictions of expected outcomes; they state the relationships
researchers expect to find as a result of the study.

Types of Hypothesis

1. Types of hypothesis according to number of variables: simple versus complex

a. Simple Hypothesis – a hypothesis which expresses prediction between one independent variable
and one dependent variable. A simple hypothesis states a relationship between a single
independent variable

example: Unemployment leads to higher incidence of crime.

b. Complex Hypothesis – a prediction of a relationship between more than one independent variables
and/or more than one dependent variables (also known as multivariate hypothesis because of the
presence of several variables.

example of complex hypothesis with multiple independent variables: Illiteracy and unemployment leads to
higher incidence of crime.
example of complex hypothesis with multiple dependent variables: Unemployment leads to higher incidence of
crime and poverty.

2. Types of hypothesis according to predicted result: null versus research

Null hypothesis – this hypothesis explicates that no relationship exists between the dependent and the
independent variable. A null hypothesis is symbolized by Ho.
example: The number of books owned by a student does not affect his academic performance.
Research Hypothesis – also known as alternative or affirmative hypothesis.

 this hypothesis explicates that a relationship exists between the dependent and the independent
variable.
 A research hypothesis is symbolized by Ha.

example: Exposure to music affects the level of anxiety

3. Directional versus non-directional hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis – this is a type of research (alternative) hypothesis which state that a relationship or
differences exists between the variables but the direction of that relationship or difference is not explicated.
example: Health affects the level of stress among senior high school students.
Directional hypothesis – this is a type of research (alternative) hypothesis which state that a relationship exists
between the variables and it also explicates the direction of that relationship, hence, directional.

 This is a prediction made by a researcher regarding a positive or negative change, relationship, or

difference between two variables of a population.
 Key words that distinguish a directional hypothesis are: higher, lower, more, less, increase, decrease,
positive, and negative.

example: The health of the students decreases as their level of stress increases
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Two types of definitions

Conceptual definition - what a concept means in abstract or theoretical terms; may be taken from the dictionary
Operational definition - links a concept to the concrete world by telling you how to observe and/or measure the
concept; this is a definition made by the researcher based on how the term(s) will be used in a particular field
of study.