CONTROL SYSTEMS

The use of computers to make machines to do what we want them to do is called control.

In a control system, one or more computers are used to control the operation of some non-computer
equipment.
It involves:
 Monitoring and logging of physical data
 Analyzing the performance
 Allowing user interaction
 Giving feedback

Feedback is an essential element in most control systems.

Timing considerations are critical in real-time control systems.

Examples of devices used in control systems:

1. Sensors
2. Analog-to-digital Converter (ADC)
3. Microprocessors

Examples where control systems are used:

Oil refinery, chemical processing, and traffic-control systems.
Domestic equipments like a washing machine, a fully automatic camera.

A washing machine: The user selects a sequence which a microprocessor in the machine carries out in order.
It sends signals to switch the heater, pumps and motors on and off at the right time intervals.

A fully automatic camera: A processor receives light readings from light sensors. When the shutter release
button is partly pressed, the processor sends control signals to adjust the aperture and shutter speed. Then
when the shutter release button is completely depressed the film will be correctly exposed.

Output signals from the processor:

The signals sent by a computer to a device are called control signals. \they may be in the form of:
 Short electrical pulses sent down a cable OR
 A simple voltage in a cable, OR
 Radio, microwave, laser or infra-red pulses.

An output port is a connecting point on a computer through which it can send control signals. A PC usually
has a choice of ports on the back of it allowing:
 Different types of signal;
 Different types of cable connection

A relay is a switch which can be switched on and off by an electrical signal. It can be used in the device
being controlled to switch lights and motors on and off.

An actuator is a device which can produce a movement when given an electrical signal. It receives the
control signals and converts them into movement.

A transistor is a device which can be used to switch current on and off without any mechanical movement.

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Motors:
Large movements are achieved using motors.

A motor converts electrical energy into movement.

A stepper motor is a type of motor which only moves a small amount for each control pulse it receives.
Whereas most motors run continuously once switched on, stepper motors have to be sent repeated pulses to
keep them going.

Advantage of a stepper motor: A stepper motor can be controlled precisely. For a given number of pulses
received, it will always move exactly the same distance.

Interfaces:
An interface is some hardware, and possibly also some software, that is used to connect two devices or
systems to enable them to communicate.

An interface may have to:

 Control and check the data being transmitted
 Convert data from one form or one code to another
 Allow for a difference in speed between two devices.

Control interfaces:
Control systems often need interfaces between the computer and the controlled device. This happens if the
type of signal sent or received by the computer is not the same type as that of the device. In particular the
interface may need to include analogue-to-digital or digital-to-analogue converters.

A computer which is provided with suitable input and output devices can be used to control a machine
directly. The task of input devices is to move gears, valves, switches and levers which affect the performance
of the machine.

The input devices can be selected from a vast range of sensors which quantities such as temperature, sound,
pressure, liquid flow and magnetic fields. The sensors usually measure the quantity with an analogue value.

In a computer control system, sensors monitor a machine’s performance and input this information to the
computer. The computer uses a control program to analyze the information and to decide on the correct
control signals to maintain or to improve the machine’s performance. These control signals are then sent to
the activators, which physically control the machine. The sensors monitor the effects of the control signals,
and the whole control sequence starts again.

A complete record of the input information and output control signals is normally built up on backing store
for analysis of the machine’s performance.

[Sensor: A sensor is an input device which responds to some physical property such as pressure, rate of flow,
humidity, the proximity of metal. The electrical output from the sensor may be either analog or digital.]
Sensors produce electrical signals based on their input values. Many types of sensors produce analogue
signals. Analogue signals cannot be processed directly by digital computers. Before the analogue signals
from a sensor are input they must be converted to digital signals with analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
This digital signal can be now input into computers for further processing.
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Examples of sensors:
1. A thermocouple for measuring temperature: This is a device which produces a voltage proportional to
its temperature. It is an analogue sensor because it produces a continuous range of voltages.
2. A pressure pad at a traffic light: This produces a signal if a car goes over it. It is a digital sensor
because it is either on or off
3. An infra-red sensor on a camera: An infra-red beam is produced by the camera and reflected back
from an object. The reflection is detected by a sensor on the camera and the processor in the camera
can work out whether or not the object is in focus.
4. An analogue light sensor: This responds to the amount of light falling on it. The voltage produced is
greater as more light falls on it.

Application of sensors:
A burglar alarm system:
The following types of sensor set up in a house to help the alarm system detect burglars:
1. A small switch in the hinge of the outside door and opening window which sends a signal when it is
opened.
2. An infra-red sensor in the kitchen doorway which sends a signal when the beam is interrupted.
3. A heat sensitive sensor in a corner of the lounge which reacts to the presence of a person in the room.

Feedback generally means using output from a system to influence the input.
Data from sensors is received by the processor and these data help it to decide what control signals to send.
The processor uses feedback to keep the control system stable.
Feedback which is used to keep a system stable is called negative feedback.

Examples of feedback in everyday life:

1. A cyclist: A cyclist starts to overbalance to the right. This is sensed and a message goes to the brain.
The cyclist unconsciously shifts his weight towards the left and steers slightly to the right.
2. A loudspeaker system: Sound from a microphone is amplified and fed through the loudspeakers.
The person holding the microphone moves in front of one of the speakers without thinking. Sound
output from the speaker is input by the microphone. This sound is amplified and output again –
louder. The sound very quickly becomes too loud for the speakers to cope with and a loud whistle
results.

In the second example the feedback actually makes the system unstable. This is called positive
feedback.

[Signal converter: is a device which converts signals from one form to another. Signals may be digital,
consisting of discrete bit pattern, or analogue consisting of a continually varying voltage. Both analogue and
digital signals are used to represent data. Some devices generate analogue signals while others generate
digital signals.]

An Analogue-to-digital Converter: converts analogue signals into digital signals for processing.
Example of the analogue output from microphone has to be digitized before it can be stored or processes by a
computer.

A Digital-to-Analogue converter converts digital signals into analogue signals.

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The signals from the output port may be used to control another machine directly or they may be used to
control activators. These activators in turn move the gears, valves, switches and levers which affect the
performance of the other machine.

Activities:
Newtown is concerned about the increase in the amount of traffic at the town center cross roads. It is claimed
that the increase in air pollution is reaching a dangerous level. It has been decided that data logging should be
used to monitor the level of pollution.
a) (i) Complete the diagram of the cross roads showing where the data logging sensors should be placed.

ii) Explain your choice of positions for the sensors

b) Describe how data logging could be used to test the claim that the rise in air pollution is reaching a
dangerous level.

2) An online computer system is being used to control the traffic lights at a busy crossroads in a large town.
Data about the flow of traffic is collected by sensors.
(a) (i) Name two types of sensors used
(ii) Explain how the collected data would be converted for computer storage.
(b) Describe the computer processing which should take place in order to keep the traffic flowing smoothly.
(c) Give two reasons why this on-line control system could fail to work.

3. A tank is to hold water for use by customers in a hotel. The temperature and level of the water in the tank
are controlled by a microprocessor.

Input valve

High water level

Low water level

Heater

Outlet pipe to room

(a) Give two devices needed inside the tank to provide input data for the microprocessor.
(b) Give two devices which are controlled by the microprocessor
(c) Describe the processing that takes place in this system.
(d)
4. plants grow in boxes containing soil which must always be damp. How could a computer system help
to keep the soil damp? Explain the purpose of each item of hardware you mention.

5. Describe the operation of a microprocessor-controlled burglar-alarm system for a house.

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 PROCESS CONTROL
Process control is the automatic control of an industrial activity by a computer that is programmed to
respond to the feedback signals from sensors. The operation controlled may be as small as a single machine
packing boxes or as extensive as the control of an automated bakery, where the mixing, cooking and
packaging are controlled within a single integrated manufacturing process.
A computer is used to control an operation by monitoring readings from sensors and sending control signals
when necessary.
Characteristics of process control:
1. It is a real time operation – input from sensors is processed and control signals are sent back almost
immediately.
2. it is an example of the use of feedback – the sensor input is used to adjust the process if it is out of
balance
3. the computer usually controls the supply of materials and the timing of each part of the process.
4. Some more sophisticated systems allow for ‘learning’ to take place. The computer ‘remembers’ how
the best results were obtained and attempts to reproduce those results.
Requirements for process control:
In a computerized process control application the following items are generally required:
1. a controller – usually a dedicated computer or a microprocessor-based circuit;
2. Sensors to provide information on the process under control. If a sensor is analogue an analogue-to-
digital converter is needed;
3. Actuators to carry out control actions in response to signals from the processor. If the actuator is
analogue a digital-to-analogue is required;
4. display devices (e.g. monitor screens, LED or LCD displays) so that a human operator can check the
system;
5. a printer to provide hard copy when required.

Signals from computer computer

Flow of raw materials
And /or process
Signal from sensors printer

Process Log of
events
Sensors
Measure End product
Raw materials Output

Control of gas pipelines and pumping stations:

The situation:
As consumers use gas, the pressure has to be maintained at a fixed level throughout the grid. This is done by
pumping gas to those areas where the pressure is dropping.
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Data capture: Each pumping station has a microprocessor and pressure sensors. Signals are sent from these
by microwaves.
The role of the computer
The whole grid is controlled by a computer at the board’s headquarters. It sends a microwave signal to a
pumping station asking for pressure readings. The microprocessor there sends results back. These are
analyzed and the main computer sends signals to the microprocessor to adjust the pumps.
Advantages of introducing computer to control processes:
1. Lower labour costs:
 Fewer operators and maintenance staff are required
 Maintenance work can be out to contract
2. A more flexible system
 The product can be changed to suit the customer
3. More reliable
 Microprocessors rarely fail and are easily replaced
4. Better quality
 Quality of raw materials can more easily be monitored
 Tests can be out at various stages of the process
5. Improved safety
 Control is improved at all stages
 ‘fail safes’ can be included in the programs to avoid dangerous conditions
 Sensors can be put in places where it would be unpleasant or dangerous for a person to go
6. better conditions for workers
 more interesting work
 possibly higher pay
 cleaner, less hostile conditions

Disadvantages of introducing computers to control processes:

1. Less staff required – meaning redundancy for some
2. remaining staff will need retraining
3. Other skilled staff will be required and may be difficult to find
4. High cost of initial investment in the new control equipment and software.

ROBOTS
A Robot is a computer-controlled mechanical device which is sufficiently flexible to be able to do a variety
of tasks. Robots are frequently used to do jobs where consistent performance is required or where there is
some danger to humans performing the task.

An android is a robot which looks like a human being.

Example: of a robot with wheels: A robot for moving parts around a factory.
Caterpillar tracks (continuous belts, as on a tank):
 For slow movement, possibly over difficult terrain
 Allow accurate control of movement.
Example of a robot with caterpillar tracks
A robot used by the army to detonate bombs.
 A robot cannot walk on 2 legs because every time it raises one leg it has to balance on the other
one;
 Robots with several legs are used for slow movement over rough ground
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Example of a robot with legs:
A spider-like robot used to investigate the craters of volcanoes.

Stationary robots:
Many industrial robots are fixed in position. Often the parts and movements are similar to those of a
human arm. They have:
 A waist
 A shoulder
 A wrist
 A hand

Examples of stationary robots:

1. A robot to test cash-issuing terminals:

The situation:
Before it is installed in the wall of a bank, a cash-issuing terminal has to be thoroughly tested. This is
done by getting a robot to operate it for several hours.
The role of the robot:
The robot inserts cards and presses the appropriate buttons on the terminal, taking the money and
stacking it. It selects a card from ten different cards and carries out different types of transactions so
that the test simulates the real customers. The terminal does not have to be positioned very carefully
as the robot can find the terminal and memorize where it is.
Safety:
The robot will only work when no one is near it. To avoid hurting anyone the robot moves to a safe
point and stops when anyone approaches.

2. A robot used in car manufacture

A car factory may contain a number of robots. Often many of them are of the same type, but they may have
different hands and each one is separately programmed for its own task (such as welding).

Use of sensors in robots:

Sensors can be installed in a robot:
1. To improve safety
Many robots are programmed to stop working if an unknown object is sensed within their field of operation
2. To allow feedback and adaptability
The computer controlling a robot which is fitted with sensors can react to a changed situation.

Example of the use of sensors to give feedback:

A mobile robot carrying parts in a car factory:
The situation:
The factory has a large warehouse containing parts at one end. Parts have to be transported from here to the
various work areas.
The role of the robot:
The robot has a light sensor and uses it to follow a white line on the factory floor. If the sensor shows a low
light reading the robot is not properly following the line. The processor adjusts the direction until the light
level rises again, showing that the line is being followed.

Methods of operating robots:

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1. The processor controlling a robot may be contained in the robot or it may be separate. If separate, the
processor may:
 Connected by a cable, OR
 Send signals to the robot, e.g. by radio waves or microwaves.
2. A robot may be programmed:
 By switching the robot into ‘learn’ mode. An operator leads it through the necessary sequence of
movements by hand or using a joystick. The computer memorizes the movements and carries them
out repeatedly to perform the required task;
 By inputting the sequence of operations required as a program.

Examples of programming a robot:

1. a simple robot designed to paint metal panels
This robot will only paint the shape it has learnt to paint. When a new shape of panel is required, it has be led
through the sequence of movements. This robot has no feedback system. If a panel is incorrectly placed on
the conveyer it may paint thin air

2. A more complex robot to paint metal panels

This robot is fitted with a video camera to record the shape of a panel. The processor controlling it decodes
the video picture and memorizes the shape. It can paint panels of different shapes and at different angles. Its
sprayer is automatically switched off if no panel is present.

Advantages of robots:
1. They can carry out a task repeatedly for hours without stopping
2. They can operate where humans cannot go easily, e.g.
 On other planets
 Deep in the ocean
 Probing explosives
3. They do not make errors due to tiredness or lack of concentration.

Disadvantages:
1. High cost of purchase.
2. Not as versatile as people – they can only cope with the particular situation they are built
and programmed for.

DATA LOGGING
Data logging is the automatic capture and storage (recording) of data for future use as it is produced.
Characteristics of a data logging system:
1. A process is monitored by instruments or sensors.
2. Often the sensors are connected to an interface board which in turn connected to the computer.
3. The computer controlling the system samples the readings at regular time intervals.
4. The readings are recorded, usually by storing them on backing store.
5. The data is analyzed. This may happen continuously or after the data has been collected.
6. Results may be displayed continuously:
 As a set of numbers on a printer, OR
 As a constantly changing screen display, OR
 As a graph produced on a drum plotter or a chart recorder.
The time interval for a data logging system is the time between one reading and the next.
The period of logging is the total length of time over which readings are taken.

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The time interval and period of logging have to be carefully thought out when designing a data logging
system. The period may be determined by the subject being studied. The time interval is more likely to be
decided by the equipment being used to record and analyze the data.

Example of time interval and a period of logging:

Temperature of a liquid:
A computer is being used to produce a graph of the rate of a liquid from its boiling point. The computer is
connected, via a suitable interface, to a digital thermometer placed in the liquid. It has been observed that the
liquid cools to room temperature at least within 20 minutes. The software package used to produce the graph
has a maximum of 50 plot positions across the screen.
It is decided that:
Period of logging = 20 minutes
Time interval = 20 minutes / 50
= 24 seconds

fig on pg. 177

Application involving data logging:

Monitoring conditions inside a petrochemical plant:
Data acquisition
Sensors monitor the temperature in the boiler, the flow at two critical points and the output produced by the
plant.
The role of the computer
The computer takes a sample of each of the four readings at one minute intervals. These values are stored in
a disc file. Graphs of each of the readings are displayed all the time on the computer’s screen. The four
graphs are adjusted each minute to take account of the new reading.
Each hour the values stored are used to produce statistics of the performance of the plant.
Note:
In this case the time interval is 1 minute and the period of logging for each session is 1 hour.

Exercise questions:
1. Select two of the following which are control applications
(a) Stock control (b) the exit barrier in a car park
(c) A CD-Rom disc (d) A burglar alarm system
(e) A supermarket checkout
2. Give 2 inputs which might be received by a computer controlling a pedestrian crossing with traffic lights
3. A computer has inputs from a thermo Cole measuring temperature and a light sensor detecting the
presence or absence of light. It drives a continuous motor at various speeds and a stepper motor. Where in
this system might there be
(a) A processor (b) an A-D converter
4. Give 2 different methods of getting a robot to perform a fixed sequence of tasks.