BIKANER) : i! Examination .A. / B.Sc. Part I B. Mathematics 1 ( Advanced Algebra ) UNITS: ( Only Linear Algebra ) laa Spaces : Definiton and examples of. a vector Spaces , | subspaces, sum and direct Sum of subspaces, linear Span, linear Dependence, Independence and their basic properties, Basis, finite dimensional vector spaces, Existence theorem for basis, invariance of| the number of elements of a basis set, Dimension, existence of Complimentary subspace of a subspace of a finite dimensional vector space, dimension of sums of subspaces, quotient space and its dimension. . Linear transformations : Linear Transformations and their Tepresentation as matrices,the algebra of linear transformations, the igenva equivalent matrices, Similarity of Linear transformations, Reduction to triangular form, Minimal Polynomjal. Diagonalisation of Matrices. , Linear Algebra (English / Hindi Edn.) Navkar Publications, AJMER, Capen ie Seguenca XM List of Symbols / Notations / Abbreviations used Part -] Vector Spaces Linear CoList of Symbols / Notations / Abbreviations used | Usage Meaning re XY x belongs to ¥ or x is an element of X or x is a member of Y ¢ veY ¥ does not belong to Y or y is not an element of Y or vis not a member of Y BOR such that .. Vv avb a or b (conjunction) iN aanb a and b (disjunction) v VxesS for all x belonging to S (for each or for every) 3 Reiser ae vseethere exists ............ > oe = implies (sufficiency) > does not implies € is implied by (necessity) e implies and is implied by or if and only if (iff) c ScX Sis a subset of X or S is contained in. ¥ ¢ Sx Sis not a subset of X or Sis not contained in.Y > SOT Sis superset of T or S contains 7 U SUT Union of S and T in} SNT Intersection of S and 7 . AxB Cartesian product of A and B 12,3: 1, 2,3 and so on () (a, 6) Ordered pair of a and 6 or open interval U] [a, 5] Closed interval oe Equivalence | |x| Absolute value. of x or modulus of x or determinant . a aRb a is related to 4 (with the relation R) f S:X3Y function fon X to Y orfmaps X to Y ' fog composite, f following g 7 z=(x,-y) conjugate of z=x+iy i LL, Line L, perpendicular to line L, : hy IL, Line L, parallel to line L, ‘iso “equivalent to ee eee‘ar transformationt e bases B and B' jear trans formations Set ofall polynomials overa ringR Rix}. Di FO) / Integral Domain D / Field F i 1,:R°>R" linear transformation : 4 corresponding to matrix A Annihilator of the space IV Complement of a subspace If” A vector space I’ of dimension a over a field F. 4(1) or 1° we The sequence x, x2,.. Norm of the vector a Some useful Set notations The Universal set The Empty set or Null set ( The set of Natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ‘The set of first n natural numbers (1, 2, 3, The set of positive Even integer {2, 4, 6, The set of positive Odd integer (1, 3, 5 The set of Whole numbers {0, 1, 2, ‘The set of Integers The set of positive integers ‘The set of negative integers The sct of non-zero integers ‘The set of Rational numbers ‘The set of Real numbers ‘The set of Complex numbers {r+ iy; xER, yER The set of Gaussian integers {a+ ib: abe F o Det or || mn Llay sign or sgn Usage Meaning Dim V Dimension of the Vector space AdjA Adjoint of matrix 4 Kerf Kerel of a function f Power set of A {X:XcA} Complement set of B from A {x:x€ Anxe B} Complement of the set A Transpose conjugate of matrix A Transpose of matrix A Inverse matrin a divides b or a is a factor of b x does not divide or x is not a factor of v. sub matrix deleting ith row and jth column from the matrix 4. Minor of a, Cofactor of a, ith row of matrix 4 4 column of matrix A pA) Rank of the matrix 4 - (4) Nullity of the matrix -! Det 4 or |} dee FI Jmxn SignoSSS ees Some useful Group Notations The Symmetric group of degree n. i.e. Premutation ar Sa A, The Alternating group of degree ”. Re Real part of (......+++ ) Im Imaginary part of ( ) Amp or Arg Amplitude or Argument of ( iff if and only if (<>) st such that nbd Neighbourhood wrt with respect to Le Linear Combination LD Linearly Dependence LI Linearly Independence ID Integral Domain FDVS Finite Dimensional Vector Space IPS Inner Product Space ~ QF Quadratic Form Characteristic,1 Vector Spaces Vector Spaces, Definition, Examples and simple properties, Subspaces § 1.1. Introduction : By now, you must have studied the algebraic structures consisting of one set and one or two binary compositions only. For example (i) one set and one binary composition in a Group and (ii) one set and two binary compositions in a Ring, Integral Domain, Field etc. Now here we shall study the structure consisting of two sets, (a field and an abelian group ) and.a composition combining an element of the field to an element of the abelian group. In fact, this is the most fundamental and basic structure in which the concept of distance and hence the concept of limits etc can be introduced, leading to the study of Analysis in a much wider prospect. Thus this serves as a link between algebraic and topologicalyer™ structures. : § 1.2. Some Definitions : (1) Vectors :. Let V be a non-empty Set whose elements O.B,Y,.... OF V1 ,V2,V3,--.- etc. will be called vectors. ° (2) Scalars:Let(F,+,.)bea Field whoseelements a, 5, ¢,.... willbe called Scalars. (3) Internal Binary Composition (Vector addition) : A map * : V x V->V is called an internal composition in I” and denoted by'+'. i. ¢., for every wel’, Pel’, a*per. Example. In the set Z of integers, the addition and multiplication are internal binary compositions.2) Linear Algebra (4) External Binary Composition (Scalar Multiplication) : Amap 0: Fx V> V is called an external composition in and denoted by'o'or' : ie, v aeF and ¥o eV, aoael, Example. In the set of matrices, scalar multiplication of matrices ig an external binary operation on the set R of real numbers. § 1.3. Vector Space : Definition : [Raj. B.Sc., 02 Hons. 2000,03) Let (F, +, ©) bea field. A non-empty set Vis called a vector space over the field F, if for the two binary compositions Vector addition +:V x VV and Scalar multiplication ' «' : F x V - Vsatisfies the following (axioms) : [Vi] (V. +) is an additive abelian group. i.e. 4 [Vin] «+(B+y)=(@+B) +7, V oy EY Viz] 30eV st. 0+a=a+0=«, 0 being additive identity [Mis] ¥ (#0) ev 3 atest. a +(a-1) . (a-!)+a =0 (additive identity of V)¢,-! is called the additive inverse of a. - [Vig] +B =f +a (commutativity for +) [v2] ae(a+B)=aea+aeB, vaeF andy a,pev i.e., scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition. [Vs] (a+b)ea = aeatbea, ¥ abeF and ¥ @eV *» i.e., scalar addition is distributive over scalar multiplication. [Vs] (ab)ea = albea), ¥ a,beF and ~¥ aeV i.e., scalar multiplication is associative. [Vs] lea = a, » aeV, where 1 is the unit element of the field F. Notation : Generally, the vector spa “ove is expres 58 ly, space I over the field Fis exp by J’(F). When the field F itself is clear, then it is expressed simply by Vonly. Throughout in the text, I’(F) will meana vector space V of vectors Ove a field F of scalars, s ii += R thc field of real numbers), then | (R) is called a Real Veet ’ pace. Similarly 1’ (C) is called the Complex Vector Space and 1° (Q) is called the Rational Vector Space. The set of three dimensional vectors of geometry is called moat Dimensional Vector Space and is written as 1, (P) or V3(F) OF simply !'" 2ese Vector Spaces | 3 Important Remarks : - Here by vector wedo not mean the vector quantity which we have defined in Vector algebra as a directed line segment. Here the word vectors and scalars will used in more general sense: 2. Four operations have been used in the vector space V (F). Two different internal operations (+), (¢) in the field F, Third internal operation(+) in the set I” and the fourth external operation (¢) in V over F. Though in these four operations, two are expressed by the symbol (+) and remaining two by the symbol (¢), but it should be clear that under the reference which symbol (+) or (e) is being used for which operation. For example, if a, b ¢ F,then a +b € F expressthe addition inthe field F which is often called the scalar addition in the field F and if x, B eV then a +f €V express the addition in the set ’whichis generally called the vector addition. Simitarly a e b € F express the multiplication in the field Fand a e a €V expressthe external operation scalar multiplication of the vector space . 3. Two type of zero elements have been used in every vector space. Zero element i.e. additive identity of V will be indicated by bold face hipe ' 0‘ and is called zero vector and zéro element of the field F is generally indicated by ' 0 ' which is called zero scalar.In future text we shall indicate both of these by the same symbol ' 0 ' and the context will make it clear, which zero we intend. 4. The vector space which contains opty zero element is called Null space or Trivial space and is written as{O}. § 1.4. Examples of Vector spaces = Ex. 1. Every field is a vector space over its subfield. Sol. Let F be a field and H be its subfield, Then Fis an abelian group for the usual addition. Also a€H,xeF => aeF,xeF => ax €F Hence usual multiplication in /'can be taken as external composition. Now we verify the various postulates of a vector space in FQN): V,. (F,+) is an abelian group. V,. Forevery aeH anda,peF a(a +f) = aa tap TB, ‘ributivity in F) V,. Forevery a,b €H anda eF (a+ b)a = aa + ba (wy distributivity in /']4] Linear Algebra V,. For every 4, beH andaeF (ab) = a(bo) (By multiplicative associativity jn A V,. If 1 is the unity element of F, then la=a, vaeF [* 1 is multiplicative identity in F Therefore F(H) is a vector space. Special Case : Since every field is also a subfield of itself, therefore F(F) is a vector space. , Consequently, C(C), R(R), Q(Q) are also vector spaces for the ordinary and multiplication. Remark : C(R) and R(Q) are vector spaces, but R (C) and Q(R) are not vector spaces, because they are not closed for scalar multiplication Ex. 2. The set F" of all ordered n-tuples of a field F is a vector space over the field F. Sol. Let F” = {(q.aq.es¢,) | Gy, Ay, +, eF} and @ = (4,,4),...,4,), B= (b,,b,,-+-56,) and a éF. We define the addition of n-tuples as a+B = (a, +b,a,+b,,...,4, +b.) @) and scalar multiplication of n-tuples as an = a(4,,a),...,a,)=(aa,,aa,,...,aa,) . Q) Clearly, a, B ¢ F” and a €F: a+BeF" v a,peF" and aeF, aeF" > caer" Therefore F"(F)is closed for the above defined addition and scalar ;, multiplication operations. : Verification of Space axioms : V,. It can also be easily verified that F" is an abelian group for the ‘addition defined above and 0 = (0; 0,..., 0) € F" being the additive identity and -a= (-a,, Ayes ~a,) eF"being the additive inverse of a=(4,,4),...,4,) EF"; Vy Scalar Multiplication is distributive over vector addition : Let aeF and a,BeF"; then a (a+) =a{(a,, 4).---,4,)+(b,, by o,)} (4, +, dy +b,,...,4, +b, ) “poy (1) ={1(a, +0). a(a, +b,),...a(a, +8,)} [by (2) 7 = (aa, +ah,, aa, +ab,,..., aa, +ab,) Coy distributivitY ink —Vector Spaces [5 = (aa, aa,,...,4a,) + (ab, ab,,..., ab,) = a(a,, @,,...,4,)+a(b,,b,,-..,5,) =aat+ap Therefore scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition in F* Scalar addition is distributivitive over scalar Multiplication: Let a,b €F and q@eF", then (a+b) a=(a+b)(a,,a,,...,4,) ={(a+b) a, (a+b) a),...,(a+b) a, } [by.(2)] = (aa, +ba,,aa,+ba,,...,44,, +ba, )[by distributivity in F] =(aa,,aa,,...a4,) +(Bq, a,b) = a(4,,),...,4,) +b (a, 4,,---4,) Coy (2)] =aa+ba Therefore addition is distributive over scalar multiplication in F” V,, Associativity for Scalar Multiplication : Let a,b eF,then geF"; (ab) a =(ab)(a,,4,,- a,) " : =(aba,, aba,, , aba, ) Uby (2)] - a(ba,, ba,,...,ba,) [by (2)] =a{b(a,,4,..4,)} (by (2)] sa(ba) *~ : Therefore scalar multiplication is associative in F” V,,. Let’ be the unity element of the field F, then for a « F™ 1a =1(a,, a5, -+-, 4,) = (1a), 14), +10, ) [by (2)] = (6) =a From the above discussion, it is clear that F” satisfies all the axioms for the vector space, therefore F” (F) is a vector space. Remarks : 4. The above vector space is also expressed byV,, (F) . 2. If F = R (Field of real numbers), then the corresponding vector space R" is called the Real Euclidean m space. Similarly, C” is called the Com, ex Euclidean space.- 6] Linear Algebra > 2 pyal | 3. The set of all ordered pairs on Fie. F°( F)=\(a, 4) |a,a, € F is the vector space. Similarly the set of all ordered triads on F ice. F(F)={(a.@. a3) | ay, 42.43 € F} is the vector space. These vector spaces are denoted by J’, (F) and 1’, (F) respectivety~ Ex. 3. The set M of all mxn real matrices (having their elements as real numbers) isa vector space over the field R of real numbers with respect to addition of matrices and scalar multiplication of matrices. [Raj. B.Sc., 03 (Hons.), 02; Ajmer B.Sc. 02; (Hons.) 04] Sol. Let u={[ai].,, a, eR}. If A,BeM where A= lod. B =[], and qeR, then matrix addition and scalar multiplication in M are defined as follows : A+B=[a;]+[bj]=[a; +2)] (@ aA = aja..\=|aa.. and a{a;;] [aa, 1... <= @) Verification of space axioms : V,. (M, +) is additive abelian group : In Group theory, we have already seen that (M4, +) isacommutative group where null matrix O,, ,,, isthe zero element and —A = [-a;] eM is Im xr. the additive inverse of any matrix A= [a | eM From the theory of matrices, following can be easily verified : V,. Scalar Multiplication is distributive over vector addition . V,- Vector addition is distributive over Scalar Multiplication . V,. Scalar Multiplication is associative. V,, 1 is the unity clement in R, therefore for every A ¢M 1A =1[a;]= ta, ]=[a;]= 4 From the above discussion, it is clear that \/ (R) satisfies all the axioms for the vector space, therefore Mf (R) is a vector space. Ex. 4. The set V of all real valued continuous (differential oF integrable) functions defined in a closed interval [0, 1 |] is a vector space over the field R of real numbers with addition and scalar multiplication of functions defined by :Vector Spaces | 7 (fF +a) (x)=F(x) +9(x) ¥f,geVs xe[0,1] (af) (x) =af(x) « feV,aeR; xe[0,1] . Q) Sol. Let Jo= {f \f : [o, 1] — R is a continuous function} From Calculus, we know that the sum of two continuous functions is also a continuous function ie. f eV, geV => (f+g)eV => V is closed for addition of functions defined above. Also we know that ae R,f eV => af eV => Vis closed for scalar multiplication of functions. Verification of space axioms V(R): 1 In Group theory, we have already seen that (V, +) is an additive abelian group. V,. Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition : Let f,g eV andaeR, then r fa(s+s)Kx) =a[(F+s)(9)] [by (2) ] =alf(x) +()] [by (1) ] =a f(x)+ag(x) (by distributivity in R ] = (af)(x) +(ag)(x) [by (2)] = (af + ag)(x) vxe[0,1] [by(1) ] => a(f+g) =aftag f,geV and vaeR. Scalar addition is distributive over scalar multiplication : i Letf eV and a,b eR, then [(a+4)F]e) =(@+2) £0) (by (2)1 = af (x) + bf(x) (by distributivity in R ] =(af)(x) + (f)(2) (by (2)] =(af+bf\(x) x [0,1] [by (1)] => (a+b)f =af+bf vw feV andvabeR Vy. Scalar multiplication is associative : Let a,b eR and f eV, then [(ab) FJ) = (ad) f(x) by (2)] = afbf (x)] [by associativity in R ] =al (of) (x)] [by (2)] [a(ory}) vxe[0,1] [by (2)] => (ab)f sa(bf) vv feV and v abeR Therefore scalar multiplication is associative in 1”“ >, 8] Linear Algebra V.. Ifunity 1 is real number and f €V , then (if) (x) =1F () [by (2)} = f(x) [--1 is multiplicative identity in R] if =f vw fev From the above discussion, itis clear that /(R) satisfies all the axioms for the vector space, therefore V(R) is a vector space. Ex. 5. The set P(x) of all polynomials in one indeterminate x over 4 field F is a vector space over F wih respect to addition of polynomials and multiplication of polynomials by an element of F. Sol, Let P(x) ={p(x)| ag + a,x +ax? +...4a,x"4...} © = Ya,x", va, eF n=0 The addition of polynomials and scalar multiplication in P() is defined as follows : If p(x) = a,x" € P(x), q(x) =¥ b,x” © P(x) and a €F, then P(x)+9(x) =Lax" +O bx" => (a, +b,)x" and ap(x) =ay x= > (aa,)x” - Q) We also know that if P(x) == a,x" © P(x) and 4(x) = b,x" P(x) then p(x)+9(x) =¥ (a, +b, x" eP(x) [-4, €F,b, eF = (a, +,) ef] Againif a€F, then ap(x) => (aa, )x" eP(x : (x) fl [-. aceF,a,eF > aa, € Therefore P(x) is closed for the above defined addition and multiplication operations. Verification of Space axioms in P (x): x Inthe Ring theory, it has already been shown that (P (x), +) is an additiy, 2 Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition : bet plx)=Zayx" © P(x), g(x) = Eb, x" P(x) and ache a[ p(x) 4 g(x)} = af a, x" +564") 42 (4, +,)x") toy (1) } Z{a(a, +b, )} x" toy (2)? y Vv Vv ¢ abelian &roup.wit Vector Spaces | 9 = Z(aa, +ab, - [by distributivity in F ] = (aa, )x" +2(+ab, x" [by (1) ] =aQa,x" +ayb,x" [by (2) ] = ap(x) + aq(x) V3. Scalar addition is distributive over scalar multiplication : Let a,b €F and p(x) € P(x), then (a+b)p(x) =(at+b)¥a,x" =Z{(a+b)a,} x” [by (2) ] =Zf{aa,+ba,}x" — [by distributivity in F } =Z(aa,)x" + (ba, )x" [by (1)] =ada,x" +b¥a,x” [by (2) ] = ap(x)+bp(x) V4... Associativity for scalar multiplication : . Let a,b €F and p(x) € P(x), then (ab) p(x) = (ab) Za,x" = Z(ab)a,x” [by (2) ] = Za(ba,) x” [by associativity in F ] = az (ba, ) x =a {bza,x" } = a(bp(x)) V,. If 1 is the unity element of the field F and p(x) € P(x) ,then 1 p(x) =12a,x" - = X(1a,)x" [by (2)] = Za,x” [-- lis unity element in F] = P(x) From the above discussion, it is clear that P (x) satisfies all the axioms for the vector space, therefore P (x) is a vector space. Ex. 6. The set R* of positive real numbers is a vector space over the field R of real numbers for the operations ‘vector addition’ ® and 'scalar multiplication’ @ defined as. follows : x@y=xy wx, y ERT a) aQx=x% waeR, ¥xeER* .. Q) Sol. Since the product of two positive real numbers is definitely a positive number i.e,Vorle Lodstikiov (tt >» Gunbor mut Westen © : 10] Linear Algebra . rer’, yeR’ > rOy=ER Also every real power of a positive number is always Positive rea, acR, x€R* > @Ox=x7ER™ Therefo re R* is closed for the above defined vector addition (1) a scalar multiplication (2). Verification of space axioms in R*(R) : V,. It can be easily seen that (R*, ®) is an additive abelian group, for 1@x=x@l=xl =x" iB x1=x,¥x eR] and for every x ¢R*, there exist 1/x ¢R* such that (Z)ex-se4-x(2)-1 V,. Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition : Let x,y eR* and aeR, then a0(x®y) =(x@y)" Cy (2)} =(9)" ee =xtya [by index law for numbers) =2@y" =(a9x)®(aoy) V;- Distributivity on scalar addition : Let a,b eR andx €R* then (a+b) ox= x04 : (by (2) } = xaxb [by index law for numbes) =x7@xb [by (1) } = (20x) @ (box) “Loy @2)} V,. Scalar multiplication is associative: Let a,b ER and x €R* then Dein ae by (2) } =(x!)* pw! - ” [by index law for numbers = yal =(ab)o V.. Forevery x eR* noe : sxloy From the above disc 'SCussion , it is c} = on , car that R® satisfies all the aX the vector space, therefore Rt (2) is a vecto: aes clor space. §1 of Veetor Space: iol Nei the field Mand 9 @ V be ins 2109 General properties Le the ceint space uUe ee oe Ca @b)eda o( 64 ) vector Spaces | AL then the following properties are obvious because of I “being an abelian group: () Forany @ eV ,a+f= a= B= 0 [Uniquenessof the zero element ] (aeV, BEV, a+B=0>B=-a [Uniqueness of inverse ] (ii) Forany a, 8, yeV,a+B=a+y>B=y [cancellation law] Now we shall establish few more propertics of V’: Theorem 1.1, Let Vbe a vector space over a field F. If 0 be the zero vector in Vand 0 be the additive identity in F, then : @ a0=0, vacF [Raj. B.Sc., (Hons.), 1998] (ii) 00 =0, vaev [Ajmer B.Sc., (Hons.), 01] | (iii) a (-a) = -(aa), ¥aeF,aeV [Udaipur B.Sc., 03] @®) (-a)a@=-(aa),vaeF,aeV — [Raj. B.Sc., (Hons.), 2000] (@) a(a-$)=aa-af,vaeF,a,BeV (i) For any ae F,aeV aa=0>a=0 or a=0 [Raj. B.Sc., (Hons.), 2000] Proof. (i) ~ 0 is zero element in V’, therefore 0+0=0 : => a(0+0)=a0 “aeF => a0+a0=a0 [by V;) => a0+a0=a0+0 [-- 0 is zero element in V ] => ad=0 [cancellation law in V] (ii) ~* 0 €F is additive identity in F, therefore 0+0=0 => (0+0)a=0a vaeVv => 0a+0a=0a [by V,] => 0a+0a=0a+0 [-- 0 is zero element in V] > 0a=0 [cancellation law in V] (iii) For any ac F and aeV ; a[a+(-a)]=aa+a(-a) [by V,] > a0 =aa+a(-a@) > 0=aat+a(-a) [by (1)] > a(—q) is additive inverse of aa => a(-a)=-(aa) (iv) For any ae F and g@eV [a+(-a)]a=aa+(-a)a [by V,] => 0a=aa+(-a)a > 0=aa+(-a)a [by (ii) ] > (a) @ is additive inverse of aca => (-a)a=-(aa)= 12] Linear Algebra : Vv (v) For any aeF and a, fe a(a-f)=a[a+(-A)] =aa+a(-f) by y. Al =aa+{-(af)] Loy (iti) =aa-ap (vi) Let ae F,a@eV such that a 0 and aa=0 Now since multiplicative inverse of every non zero element e Xist in F therefore aeFjaz0 => a@leF aa=0 =>a\(aa)=a"! 0 => (atala=0 [by V,and (i)} > la=0 > a=0 [by V,] Again let aq = and a@ #0, then to prove that a = 0. If posssible, let a #0, then g-! e F aa=0 > a” '(aa) = a710 : > (a1) a=0 j =>, la=0 > a=0 5 which is contrary to the assumption g 4 0, therefore a = 0. : Hence aa=0 > a=Oora=0 . Theorem 1.2. Let V (F) be a vector space, then : i) For any a,b ¢F and aeV, a#0, aa=ba => az=b “ [Raj. B.Sc., Hons., o1] (i) For any a, BeV andacF, a#Q, aa=aB > a= [Raj. B.Sc., Hons., 01] Proof. () aa=ba => aa-ba=0 > (a-b)a=0 by ¥51 > [a+b] a=0 => a+(-b)=0 [ a+0] ' [by theorem1.1 (vi) ] > ¢=-(-b) [by additive inverse] i > a=b : @) aa=ap ix aa-ap=0 Sa(a-p)=0 tby V2) eee (vi)] (+ @ #0, therefore by’ theorem?! > asp4 > Vector Spaces { 13 ‘ % emg Ex. 1. If V (F) is a vector space, then prove that : (i) (Das-a ~aeVv (ii) B+(a-f)=a ¥ a,peVv (iii) (a, +a,)+(a,+a,)=[a, +(a, +a,)|+a, @1,Q7,Q3,a,EV Sol.(i) By theorem1.1 (iv), we have (-a)a=-(aa), ¥ aeF, aeV Taking a=1eF ,(-1)@=-(la) =-a [- la=a] (ii) B+(a-)=B+{a+(-p)} = f+{(-A)+a} [by commutativity in /] ={B+(-A)}+a [by associativity in 7] =0+a=a (iii) (a, +a,)+(a,+a,) =(a,+a,)+(a@,+a,) [bycommutativity in V] =a, +(a,+a,) +a, [by associativity in V] =a,+(a,+a,)+a, {by commutativity in V] =[e, +(a,+4,)]+a, " [by associativity in 7] as Ex. 2. Let V be the set of alt ordered pairs of real numbers and F be the field of real numbers. Examine whether V (F) is a vector space or not for the. et defined operations : ) (a, b)+(c,d)=(0,b+4); — p(a,b)=(pa, pb) ) (a,b) +(c,d)=(a+e,b+d); p(a,b)=(0, pb) (c) (a,b)+(c,d)=(a+e,b+d); p(a,b)=(p?a, p75) . (4) (a,b) +(c,d)=(a, 5); a (pa, pb) (e) (a,6)+(c,d)=(a+e,b+d); p(a,b)=(| pla, | p |b) va,b,c,d,peR Sol. (a) It can be easily seen that the additive identity for the defined vector addition does not exist. If suppose any element (c, d) € V is taken as additive identity for vector addition, then ~ (a, b)+(c d) =(0, b+d)#(a,b) Therefore (V, +) is not an abelian group. Consequently V (F) is not a vector space. ae>. 14] Linear Algebra fmt) Yn this case, (I, +) is an abelian group but space axiom V, is not satisfied, because 1(a, b) =(0, 1b) =(0, b) # (a,b) Therefore (F) is not a vector space. (ce) In this case, (I +) is an abelian group but space axiom V, is not satisfied, because (p+4)(a,b)={(p+a)°a,(p+a)B}; P.qeR +(p%a, pb) +(q?a, 7b) > (p+q) (a,b) # p(a,b)+q (a,b) Therefore V (F) is not a vector space. (d) In this case the defined vector addition is not commutative, because for (a, b); (c,d) eV (a,b) +(c¢, d) =(a, b) and (c,d) +(a,b) =(c, d) (a, b) +(¢, d) # (c,d) +(a, 5) Therefore (V, +) is not an abelian group. Consequently, V(F) is not a vector space. 7 (e) In this case, (V+) is an abelian group but: space axiom V, is not satisfied, because: ' 3 ' (p +4) (a,b)=(|p+q|a,|p+q|b) { *(tpla|plb)+(qla,|q|b) te Iptalelpl+lahpg eel = (p+q)(a,b)# p(a,b)+q (a,b) Therefore V (F) is not a vector space. pqeR 1. If Fisa field, then show that F (F) is a vector space. Hence deduce the following : (a) C (©) isa vector space. (b) R (R) isa vector space. (c) C(R) isa vector space. (d)_R(C) is not a vector space. where C is the field of complex numbers and R is the field of real numbers : y 2. Prove that the set V of all geometrical vectors ina plane represented ws directed line segments is a vector space over the field R of real numbers ys with rgspect to addition and scalar multiplication of vectors. ~ ee —Vector Spaces | 15 . If R? = {(a1. a) |q,a, eR} where R is the field of real numbers, then prove that R?(R) is a vector space with vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as follows : (a1, a2) + (1, b2) = (a +, ag +p), (a a2), (by bn) EV a (a, a2) = (aaj, aay), va ER, (aq, a) eV . State with reasons which of the following set of matrices is a vector space over the field R of real numbers with respect to matrix addition and matrix scalar multiplication :” a,beR } @ {(6 ) ao R| © {(¢ i] © {(o%0°s°) a,b a+few and in that case restriction of + to W is a binary operation in W. Similarly we say that a subset W of vector space V(F) is closed for the external composition if for any acF, aeW => aaeW. In such a case the restriction of the mapping of F x V to F x Wisa ypapping from F * I’to Wand is therefore an external composition for IV. We Shall therefore say that 7 is closed for the external composition in /, then eXternal composition in V induces an external composition in WV. If W itself be a vector space for these induced compositions, then we say that W isa subspace of V. : Definition: Let V(F) be a vector space. A non void subset WofVisa subspace of V, if W itself is a vector space over F for the restrictions to Wof the addition and multiplication by scalar defined for V. § 1.7. Improper or Trivial subspaces : : Every vector space V(F) has atleast two subspaces viz, ~ ( V itself (ii) {0} zero vector space These spaces are called Improper subspaces. Proper subspaces : The subspaces other than the improper subspaces are called proper subspaces. Ex. 1. The set of real numbers Ris a subspace of the vector space C(R) Ex. 2. The set_ W={(a,b, 0)| a,b, eR}is a subspace ofthe oo space R3(R). § 1.8. Criteria for a Subspace : void Theorem 1.3. The necessary an iti va : ssary and sufficient conditions for 4” subset W of a vector space V(F) tobe a Pie of VER) is that Wis” under vector addition and scalar multiplication : he, aew, Bew > a+pew Ger acw sc *, > aaew 03] , [Aimer B.Sc. 02; Raj. B.Sc. 01,03; Jodhpur BS™ roof : The condition is necessary(=>) : Let W bea ni : itsclfis aloo aves PY subspace of V (F). By definition of ec : 7 cat V ont mn oe wrt vector addition and scalar multipli® Not Wie clced wrt tage twa binary compositions ff yv