MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS SMA 2100: Discrete Mathematics Lecturer: Level and Prog.: Dr. Job Bonyo First Year, +254 726 639 631 First Semester, [email protected] BSc ‘These lecture notes were lastly modified on: October 12, 2023Contents 1 Sets 2 Mathematical logic 2.1 Statement forms . . ae 2.1.1 Types of Statement Forms 2.2 Contrapositive and converse 3. Definitions, Theorems and Proofs 4 Writing mathematics 5 Proof Techniques u 15 16About the course Course Description We shalll cover the following topics: 1. Sets: Elements, specification, finite and infinite, universal, empty and disjoint sets; Subsets; Venn diagrams; Operations on sets: union, intersection, complement, dif- ference; number of elements and logical arguments; Set of sets, the power set, and Cartesian product. Mathematical Logic: Statement forms; Contrapositive and Converse; Quantifiers - For all and There exists; Examples and Counterexamples. . Definitions, Theorems and Proofs: Some common terms in mathematics; How to read a definition; How to read a theorem; Paradoxes. . Writing Mathematics: Writing well; Basic rules in writing mathematics; Problem solving. . Proof Techniques: Proof by Contrapositive; Direct proof; Proof by Contradiction; Proof in Cases; Principle of Mathematical induction: Induction applied to divisibil- y, Induction applied to sums, Induction applied to inequalities; Picture proofs. Mode of delivery Lectures, class demonstrations, oral presentations by the students, group discussions and Tutorials: practical exercises Instructional Material/Equipment: Include course notes, black and white board, chalk, white-board marker, duster, computer and projector.Contents Course assessment The course will be assessed in two parts: Coursework (continuous assessment tests) which will normally contribute 30% of the total mark. (Tests 20%, Assignments 10%) Written end of semester examination shall normally contribute 70% of the total mark. Pure mathematics This is a prelude to Kevin Houston’s excellent book, How fo think like a mathematician: A companion to undergraduate mathematics. Mathematics is the most powerful tool we have. It controls our world. We can use it to put men on the moon. We use it to calculate how much insulin a diabetic should take. It is hard to get right. And yet. And yet ... And yet people who use or like mathematics are considered geeks or nerds. And yet mathematics is considered useless by most people - throughout history chil- dren at school have whined ‘When am I ever going to use this?” Why would anyone want to become a mathematician? As mentioned earlier mathematics is a very powerful tool. Jobs that use mathematics are often well-paid and people do tend to be impressed. There are a number of responses from non- mathematicians when meeting a mathematician, the most common being ‘I hated maths at school. I wasn’t any good at it’, but another common response is You must be really clever.’ So cheer up and do mathematics. You are clever.Chapter 1 SetsChapter 2 Mathematical logic Whatis the answer to the following question. Question: How many months have 28 days? Mathematician’s answer: All of them. 2.1 Statement forms Suppose your friend tells you that Dr. Bonyo teaches Mathematics or Geography, and you happen to know that Dr. Bonyo does not teach Geography. Using your powers of reasoning, you decide that Dr. Bonyo teaches Maths. Note that this argument can be generalized because it doesn’t really depend on Dr. Bonyo teaching Maths or Geography. If your friend said that "A or B is true”, and you happened to know that "B is not true,” you would conclude that "A is true”. This is a valid argument. A statement is a sentence that is either true or false (but not both). Example 2.1. "Two is not a prime number” is a false statement. "Do you love me?” is not a statement, but, "John loves Mary” is a statement. Assignment 2.1.1. Which of the following sentences below are statements and which ones are not? (a) It is raining outside. (b) The vice chancellor of this university is a woman. (©) Two plus two is five. (d) x+6=0.2.1. Statement forms (e) Five is a prime number. (f) All odd numbers are prime. (g) This sentence is false. Because English usage and mathematical usage may differ slightly, we must be certain that we understand our statements before we construct arguments. Let the letters P and Q represent statements. Thus P will have two possible truth values; true, denoted T, or false, denoted F. We can negate P or combine it with Q by saying things like: Not P PandQ PorQ If P, then Q. P if and only if Q. Such symbolic sentences are called statement forms. “not”, “and”, “or”, “If..., then ...” and “if and only if”, are calleq 2.1.1 Types of Statement Forms r —N\ ‘7 1. Negation If you have a statement P, the negation of P is the statement form “not P”. We shall use the notation —P for “not P”. If P is true, then —P should be false. If P is false, then —P shoul be true. We summarise all the possibilities in a truth table as follows: | g. P| -P 1 A YH T| F Fl T We now distinguish between the mathematical usage of the word “or” and everyday speech. For example, if we say, “You can have cake or ice cream,” it could be that you can have both. If we say, ’The door is open or closed,” it cannot be that the door is both open and closed. English statements involving the word “or” are often ambiguous; in mathematics, ambiguity is generally removed completely. 2. Disjunction The statement form ”P or Q” is called a disjunction and is denoted PvQ. In mathematics, a disjunction is true when P alone is true, Q is true, or both P and Q are true. Its truth table is2. Mathematical logic 3. Conjunction The statement form ”P and Q” is called a conjunction and is denoted PAQ. This will be true when P and Q are true, and false otherwise. Its truth table is 4. Implication Now, consider the statement form “If P, then Q”. This statement form is called an implication and is often stated as ”P implies Q” and written P == Q. The English usage of the word “implies” may suggest a relationship between P and Q, our analysis of truth tables has assumed no connection at all between P and Q. Here, the statement P is called the antecedent or premise, and Q is called the conclusion. Suppose we say to our son, “Tf you clean your room, then you can go to Rita’s house.” Under what conditions wofgl he feel that we have lied ? > The antecedent, P, is ‘P clean your room”. The conclusion, Q, is “you can go to Rita’s house”. If your son cleans his room, and we let him go to Rita’s house, everyone is happy. That implication should be true. So if P is true and Q is true, the whole statement is true. If he cleans his room and we do not let him to Rita’s house, we lied. So if P is true and Q is false, the implication should be false. Now if he doesn’t clean his room? We never discussed this possibility. So no matter what we decide here, we have not lied. In this situation, the statement is not false; hence we consider it to be true. So if P is false, no matter the truth value is of the conclusion, we will consider the implication to be true. The truth table is thus2.1. Statement forms 5. Equivalence The statement form ”P if and only if Q” is called an equivalence, and we will write this as P <= Q. This is the same as ”(P only if Q) and (P if Q)”. Therefore (P == Q) = (P = Q)A(Q = P). The truth table for equivalence is P|Q|P+Q|Q—P | PQ (PiffQ) T|T T T T T|F F T F F/T T F F FIFE T T T The equivalence is true precisely when P and Q are both true or both false. Assignment 2.1.2, Write out the truth tables for -=(P a Q),-P v =Q, and (=(P 4 Q)) == (—P v =Q). What can you conclude? A statement form for which the final column in the truth table consists of all T’s is called a tautology. A statement form for which the final column in the truth table consists of all F’s is called a contradiction. Two statement forms, P and Q, are said to be (logically) equivalent if P —> Qisa tautology, and two statements are equivalent if they can be obtained from two equivalent statement forms by consistently replacing the letters by English statements. —(P a Q) and =P v —Qare equivalent statement forms. Assignment 2.1.3. Negate the following: (a) If I go to the party, then he is there. (b) If x is even, then x is divisible by 2. (c) If a function is differentiable, then it is continuous. (d) If x is a natural number, then x is even or x is odd. Assignment 2.1.4. Which of the following are equivalent to each other. P= Q, —(PvQ), —(PAQ), Pa-Q, —(P = Q), Py ‘Q, ‘Pv Q, PA QO, —PvQ -—Q = —-P2. Mathematical logic Assignment 2.1.5. Negate the sentences below: (a) I will do my homework and I will pass this class. (b) Seven is an integer and seven is even. (c) If Tis continuous, then T is bounded. (d) I can eat dinner or go to Fresher’s bash. (e) If x is odd, then x is prime. (f) If 1am not home, then Sam will answer the phone and he will tell you how to reach me. (g) If the stars are green or the white horse is shining, then the world is eleven feet wide. 2.2 Contrapositive and converse Let P, Q and R denote statement forms. Then the following are tautologies: De Morgan’s Laws =(Pv Q) = (=P. =Q) A(P.\Q) <= (=P v =Q) Distribute property (Pa (Qv R)) == ((PAQ) v (PAR)) (Pv (QA R)) == (Pv Q)a (Pv R)) Double negation —=(—P) => P Associative property (Pa (QAR)) = ((PAQ)AR) (Pv (Qv R)) == ((Pv Q) vR) Commutative property (PA Q) == (QAP) 102.2. Contrapositive and converse (Pv Q) == (Qv P) You can verify that they are tautologies by constructing truth tables. Assignment 2.2.1. Negate the following: (a) (PQ) v (PAR) (b) P => (QAR) Tautologies allow us to replace one statement by another. Let us compare truth tables of the implications P =» Qand-Q ==> —P. P| Q|-Q|-P|-Q = -P. T|T| FF T T|F| TF F FI|T| F/T T F/F| T/T T So the fact that the last columns of the truth tables are the same tells us that the statement forms are logically equivalent. What this means to us is that if we are tying to prove that an implication (P => Q) is true and we don’t see how to do it, we should consider -Q = > —P. This is called contrapositive. You should not confuse contrapositive and converse. The converse of an implication (P => Q) is the statement form (Q => P). Looking at the truth tables for each of these given below, we see that they are different. Students often confuse them. The inverse of an implication (P => Q) is the statement form (~P => —Q). The converse of “If x is seven then x is prime.” is “If x is prime, then x is seven.” The original sentence is true, but the second sentence is not, since there are some numbers which are prime and are not equal to seven. The contrapositive of the original sentence is: "If x is not prime then x is not seven.” which is true. The inverse of the original sentence is: “If x is not seven then x is not prime.” 112. Mathematical logic Assignment 2.2.2. Consider the sentence “If n is odd, then 1? is even.” (a) State the contrapositive. (b) State the converse. (©) State the inverse. Assignment 2.2.3. Consider the statement, "It snows or it not sunny.” (a) Find a different statement that is equivalent to the given one. (b) Find a different statement that is equivalent to the negation of the given one. 12Chapter 3 Definitions, Theorems and ProofsChapter 4 Writing mathematicsChapter 5 Proof Techniques