SECTION 5.

1 LAVA FLOW
Volcanic Hazards • A lava flow or simply lava is a product
of the quiet effusion of molten rock or
magma from beneath a volcano. One
would probably not dare go near a red
hot lava flow or fountain. When a lava f
low comes out of a volcanic vent, its te
mperature ranges from 700 to 1,200°
C. The reason why a lava flow is not w
orrisome to many is its extremely low s
peed.
1 2

• It could be 100,000 times as a viscous • Also, what happens when lahars for
as water but lava flows, like those ofte m from the melting of the snow by lav
n seen in Hawaii, travel only very slow a is another story. Though not directl
ly. Because of this, lava flows seldom y lethal to people, lava flows are har
cause death directly. But when a dom mful to property and the environment
e that forms from the piling up of lava f in any other way. We study lava flow
lows near the vent collapses, pyroclas s not only for the dangers they bring
tic flows form and they are among the but also for the wealth of knowledge t
most lethal volcanic hazards. hey give us about the nature and acti
vity of volcanoes.

3 4
 Generation of Magma • Some of the heat comes from the sink
ing of the materials that make up the c
• Let us review what you have learned fro ore. The heat from the radioactive dec
m your basic earth science about where ay of elements also contributes to the
molten rocks and the heat that generate heat inside the earth. Partial melting o
s these come from. The heat that forms f some rocks at depths of about 50-10
molten rocks comes from the heat still tr 0 km due to this heat. Magma and the
apped inside the earth which is left over lava that comes out of the volcanoes i
from the earth's formation 4.6 billion yea n Hawaii are formed from this and are
rs ago. termed "hot spot" volcanoes.

5 6

• Most of the magma and the lava from • Volcanoes also form when a pla
volcanoes, however, are formed at pla te drives under another plate al
te boundaries. The heat in the mantle ong convergent boundaries call
forms convection cells that dive the m
ed subduction zones. Still, other
otion of tectonic plates. It is during this
motion that basaltic lava comes out of s are formed along transform fa
divergent plate margins of mid-oceani ult or the so called "leaky transf
c ridges. orm faults."

7 8
 Lava Effusion and Explosive E
ruptions • The volume of gas expands as pres
• Some molten materials come out to th sure is reduced. Too much gas give
e surface almost unnoticed while other s magmas their explosive character
s come out with a bang. Gas content o because of the sudden and tremend
f the magma has something to do with ous expansion of gas volume. While
this (Figure 5.1-2). As magma rises to t explosive eruptions that produce fra
he surface where the pressure is less, gments are called tephra, quite erup
gases dissolved in the magma expand tions create lavas.
.

9 10

• The amount of gas involved in eruption • The amount of gas involved is depende
s determines not only the type of mater nt on the viscosity of magmas, which in
ial that comes out but also the type of l turn depends on the composition and te
andform a volcano will be made of. Wh mperature of the magma. Magmas with
at happens during an eruption period is higher Silica (SiO2) content (andesitic t
dictated by fluctuations in the accumula o rhyolitic) have higher viscosity than m
tion and release of gas from the volcani agmas with lower silica (SiO2) content (
c system. It is not at all unusual for a v basaltic to andesitic).
olcano to display both effusive and viol
ent phases during an eruption cycle.

11 12
 Types of Lava Flow
• Viscosity increases with decrea
sing magma temperature. Table • Lava flows are probably the most easily
5.1-1 summarizes the depende identifiable volcanic deposits. Lava flow
s come in many forms but it takes just a
nce of gas content on viscosity,
little effort to recognize these. Once you
chemical composition, and tem see an old lying along the road or at the
perature of magma. slope of a volcano, it is unlikely to confu
se it with another volcanic deposit.

13 14

• Its identity and the volcanic hazard it r • Basaltic lava is the fastest flowing lava b
epresents is unmistakable. The comp ecause of its relatively low viscosity. It is
osition of lava affects the way it flows usually associated with the broad landfor
and the speed at which it flows as Fig ms of shield volcanoes such as those in
ure 5.1-3 would indicate. The behavio Hawaii. Lava flow styles are Pahoehoe a
r of a lava flow also depends on the sl nd A'a. Pahoehoe is composed of thin flo
ope of the ground over which it travels ws with smooth surface that sometimes f
and the rate of lava eruption. Would y eature ropy folds.
ou expect a lava flow that is normally
sluggish on gentle slopes to move fas
ter down on steep slopes?

15 16
 • Ropy surface is the result of folding of t • Andesitic lava are typically associated with
he surface as its inner parts flow contin strato volcanoes an d comnonly form lava d
ously. Instead of developing a smooth omes. The volume of andesitic lava is small
surface, A'a flows have sharp, spiny s , so they do not usually go beyond the foot
urfaces. This is the result when the lav of the volcano. Because of their viscous nat
a hardens more quickly than it flows. B ure, the surface of andesitic flows is compri
oth Pahoehoe and A'a flow types are a sed of smooth-sided fragments. These flow
ssociated with lava fountains. s are called block lava flows as the surface
fragments are loosely termed blocks.

17 18

• Rhyolitic lava flows have relatively highe • Other types of lava include sheet lava
r viscosity that is why these are a lot slo and pillow lava. Sheet flows are thicker
wer than andesitic and basaltic flows. R than Pahoehoe and have surface textu
hyolites are usually associated with viol res ranging from ropy to striated. Thes
ent eruptions involving pyroclastic flows e are associated with violent eruptions.
and with very steep landforms such as l Sheet flows usually collapse as a resul
ava domes and lava spines. Rhyolitic la t of the emptying of lava below the har
vas flow out of a volcano after the pyrocl dened surface.
astic flow event.

19 20
 • Pillow lavas are pillow-shaped rocks f Effects of Lava Flows: What Makes L
ormed by the sudden cooling of lava t ava Flows so Dangerous
hat is deposited underwater. Underse • For its very slow rate of movement, we t
a volcanoes including mid-oceanic rid hink of lava flows as non-life threatening
ges are the usual sources of lavas tha even if these are extremely hot (betwee
t form pillows. Volcanoes on land may n 550°c and 1400°c). Generally, lava
also directly deposit into water its lava flows travel no more than several kilome
to be quenched and form pillow lavas. ters per hour. In some places and in ver
y exceptional circumstances, lava flows
do travel very rapidly.

21 22

• This was the case when some 300 peo • Flows usually do not travel far
ple died in Zaire because of a thin lava from the vent. How far a lava
flow from Lake Niyergongo sped at rate flow travels depends partly on
s 30-100 km/hr. If you try to go very ne
ar a lava flow, you will probably have y viscosity. Viscous lava flow wi
our skin burnt, eyebrows charred, and ll not travel far.
soles of your boots melted. It can take •
days to years for a lava flow to complet
ely cool.

23 24
 Lava Flow Hazard Zoning: Factors Affecti
ng Volcanic Landforms and Lava Flow Ex
• Lava flows bring damage or tot tent
al destruction to land and prop • These are a few important things that g
erty by burying, crushing, or bu eologists bear in mind when drawing lav
a flow hazard zones. Aside from consid
rning everything in their paths. ering the viscosity diacussed in earlier s
Lava flows cannot only bury ho ections, the morphology (including how
mes and cars but also vegetati wide it is) and how far a lava flow travel
on. s depends also on extrusion rate and sl
ope of the land.

25 26

• In contrast to the high discharge rates as • Fluid basalt flows will not go very far fro
sociated with low viscosity basalt lavas, m a volcano vent on gentle slopes. On st
viscous lavas such as dacite and rhyolite eep slopes, however, basaltic lava flows
flows are discharged very slowly becaus can travel as fast as 10 km/hr. That is w
e of high viscosity. These cover only few hy these can reach as far as tens of kilo
square kilometers and take the form of s meters from the vent. The combination o
hort, stubby lava flows, or steep sided la f steep slopes and flow along narrow, co
va domes. nfined channels makes lava flows rushin
g down at speed of greater than 30 km p
er hour.

27 28
 • Viscous lava flows on the other hand r Mitigating the Effects of Lava
arely go very far from the vent. Andesi Flows
te flows, for example, move very slowl
• The best way of course to avoid the
y (few kilometers per hour) and seldo
m go beyond 8 km from the eruption c effects of lava flows is to stay away
enter. The more viscous dacite and rh from lava flow danger zones. If not,
yolite flows are the slowest (less than the problem is in coming up with wa
3 km per hour) and would rather form ys to stop a lava flow from heading
very steep lava domes at or near the toward your property or the commu
vent rather than spread. nity.

29 30

SECTION 5.2 VOLCANIC GASES • In 1986,a sleepy settlement below lake

Nyos in Cameron (Central Africa), which
• SECTION OBJECTIVES: sits on top of an old one shot volcano (
• 1.Describe the formation and escape to the s mar),fell victim to a silent killer. One witn
urface of volcanic gases. ess recalled seeing nobody alive when
• 2.Differentiate the different kinds of Hazardou he went down to NGOs. Some of them
s volcanic gases. appeared to have fallen dead while slee
• 3.Analyzes the effects of volcanic gases. ping or cooking. They seem to Have suf
• 4.List the various volcanic gas mitigation mea focated along with all their animal.
sures.

31 32
 • All in all about 1700 people and 3,500 li • Another key witness narrated that the main cu
vestock died because of this strange ga lprit was "white like cloth" which did not go up
s. Some of those who survive smelled g in the air. From the trail that it had left, it was
un powder and had strange marks (burn soon realized that some kind of toxic gas from
the lake was to blame. What sort of gas could
s) all over their bodies. Word about the t
this be that one cannot see, taste, or smell?
ragedy went around quickly. With the nu What could have forced such a deadly gas to
mber of casualities, there was no way to come out of the lake? Could something that c
hide it from Everyday's attention. Scienti ould be that quiet be so violent and fatal? Wh
es and the survivors at first had no idea at was the smelly, scalding gas that came wit
what befelled the dead. h it?
• •

33 34

• The rapid expansion of the gases as magma

VOLCANIC GASES GENERATION OR FORM rises toward the surface can lead to explosive
ATION AND ESCAPE TO THE SURFACE eruption (figure 5.1-2). Volcanic gases expan
• Gas is what really makes volcanic eruption work. Ho d enormously when magma rises to the earth'
w violent an eruption would become depends on a nu
s surface and erupts. One cubic meter of mag
mber of factors discussed earlier in Section 5.1 Mag
ma is composed not only of melted minerals. It also h
ma under great pressure at depth can expand
as a volatile fraction-- substances that may become g 670 times as mixture of water vapor and mag
aseous or give off gases when heated. As magma ris ma at atmospheric pressure. This tremendou
es toward the surface, these come out of solution in s expansion of volcanic gases,mainly water, d
much the same way as a bubbles of carbon dioxide g rives explosive eruption. Gas bubbles that sur
as come out of carbonated drinks. vive eruption form as vesicles in solidified lav
a. Example of this bubbles expect volcanic ro
cks are scoria and pumice.
•
35 36
 • During eruptions, gases are forced out t • Not only during eruptions are gases rele
hrough the vent along with ash and aero ased from magma. Gases are also relea
sol droplets. The gases spread from an sed from magma that remains below gr
erupting vent primarily as acid rain, sulf ound as an intrusion or from magma lur
uric acid aerosols, compounds attached king just beneath an active volcano duri
to tephra particles, and microscopic salt ng periods of quiescence (Figure 5.2-3).
particles (figure 5.2-2). The prevailing wi Gases may escape continuously into th
nds may blow the eruption cloud as far e atmosphere from the soil, volcanic ve
ad thousands of kilometers away. nts, fumaroles,and hydrothermal system
• s.

37 38

• No eruption accompanied the released • Other sources of volcanic gas are those
of gas from Nyos, but a magma body lyi assimilated by the magma from the eart
ng beneath lake Nyos leaked CO² slowl hs crust on its way up. Crustal materials
y into the water to form volcanic acid. T may include older volcanic rocks with ga
he released of a large cloud of CO² on ses trapped in cavities. Could you also i
August 21,1986 is believe to be the resu magine how groundwater or water from
lt of a landslide that agitated the lake. T the atmosphere interacs with magmatic
o prevent a represent of the disaster, tu body at depth or near the surface to for
bes were installed to allow slow release m Part of volcanic gas?
of safer quantities of CO². •
•

39 40
 • Figure 5.2.3. The movement of gas from • But where do all the gases that volcano
within the earth's to the surface through es or volcanic areas give off come from
faults in volcanic regions. Source;http:// ? Volcanoes related to trenches are sup
www.indiana.edu/siera/papers/2007//ma llied with gas from the water and the car
rks.htmt;Original source: Sorry,Michael bon and sulfur compounds from organic
L., Christopher D. Farrar, et.al.invisible matter in the sediments that goes with t
CO2 Gas killing Tress at Mammoth Mou he subducting oceanic plate. Melting of t
ntain, California United states Geologica he subducting plates generates the mag
l Survey fact sheet 172-96. version 2.0 ma that brings the gases back to the sur
Revised June 2000. face.
•

41 42

• . A smaller portion of volcanic gas that c DANGEROUS VOLCANIC GAS CO

omes out of spreading mid-oceanic ridg MPONENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS
es and intraplate volcanoes like those H • The most abundant volcanic gas released int
awaii, is believe to come from the deepe o the atmosphere is water (H²O). Other volca
r portions of the mantle. The volatiles in nic gases include CO², SO², and trace amoun
the mantle formed as part of the ingredi t of N, H, CO, S, Ar, Cl, and F. These gases c
ents that made up the earth when it for ombine with hydrogen and water to produce t
oxic compounds, such as HCI, HF, H², SO², H
med about 4.5 billion years ago. Do you ²S. These gases leave the emission sites as a
recall what volatiles, other than hydroge cid aerosols as compounds adsorbed on teph
n, carbon, and sulfur were part of this or ra, and as microscopic salt particles.
iginal material? •
•
43 44
 • The abundance of volcanic gases varies acco • Water vapor is harmless,as it is abunda
rding to the tectonic setting of volcanoes. Tabl nt in the atmosphere. Health hazards ca
e 5.2-1 indicates that convergent-plate volcan used by other volcanic gases can range
oes or those associated with subduction zone
from minor to life threatening. Exposure
s tend to emit higher H²O and HCl and lower
CO² and SO² compared with divergent-plate v to acid gases such as sulfur dioxide,hyd
olcanoes and hot-spot volcanoes. Why do yo rogen sulfide, and hydrogen chloride ca
u think volcanoes located at convergent plate n damage eyes and mucous membrane
boundaries emit more water vapor and chlori s along with the respiratory system and
ne than volcanoes at hot spot or divergent pla under extreme condition,can lead to dea
te boundaries? Where do the extra water and th.
chlorine come from?
•
•
45 46

•
• Sulfur dioxide (SO²) is a colorless gas with a strong o
• Carbon dioxide is abundant in the atmospher dor. It is the gas smells from lighting a kitchen match.
e and is a natural product of respiration Volca At 6-12 ppm, it can cause immediate imitation of the
nic CO² emissions over the entire globe amou nose and throat and at 20 ppm. It will irritate the eyes
nt to less than 1 percent of human emissions. . Because it forms an acid with water, moist skin will
Locally, CO² can be hazardous when the con be irritated within minutes at 10,000 ppm of SO². Its i
centration I'd high, in the next activity, we shal nhalation at very high concentrations should be avoid
ed as it is harmful to the upper respiratory tract and b
l explore how Co² reached Nyos at high con ronchi. Like SO² and H²S, hydrochloric acid [HCI] irrit
centrations. This inquiry-based activity, also s ates the mucous irritation of the throat. At >100 ppm,
hows how CO² gas from the reaction of vineg HCI cause pulmonary edema and laryngeal spasm.
ar and baking soda displaces oxygen and exti
nguished candles at different heights.
•

47 48
 • The release of SO² gas during an eruption ca • Hydrogen sulfide (H²S) is a colorless, fla
n produce volcanic smog called VOC. Haze a mmable gas which smells like a rotten e
nd smog result when SO² oxygen, water, and gg. Like SO² it cause irritation of the eye
sunlight interact. The reaction produces tiny d s at low concentration. A 30-minute exp
roplets of acidic water and sulphate mineral p
articles, which interfere with light rsys from th
osure to 500 ppm of H²S will cause dizzi
e sun. Vog causes headaches and irritation of ness, headache, and diarrhea. Sometim
the eyes and lungs.it causes shortness of bre es, these symptoms are followed by bro
ath for people suffering from asthma and othe nchitis or bronchopneumonia.
r respiratory diseases. •
•

49 50

• Since it is known to have caused massi

• Florine is a pale yellow gas that occurs i ve death among livestock, it can also aff
n volcanic gas as hydrogen fluoride (HF ect humans in the same way. Aside fro
). Fluorine attaches to fine ash Particles m FIuorosis, it can also caused conjunct
which diary grass that can be ingested b ivitis and skin irritation. Once in contact
y animals. Fluorine that exceeds 250 pp with moisture in tissues, hydrogen fluori
m In dried grass causes flourosis, an af de converts right away to a very toxic ac
fliction taht destroys the bones. id. Table 5.2-2 is a summary of the effec
ts of volcanic gases at a given threshold
limit.
•

51 52
 • Apart from its effects on human and ani • Sulfur dioxide (SO²) hydrogen fluoride (
mal health safety, volcanic gases have HF), and HCI dissolve in water droplets
huge impact on agriculture, property, an in the eruption cloud and fall as acid rai
d the environment. Volcanic gases can n. Volcanic gases and acid rain can cau
severely damage vegetation. Direct exp se corrosion of metal objects such as ai
osure to concentrated volcanic gas or lo rcraft body parts and engines, utility line
ng-term exposure to diluted volcanic ga s, communications equipment farm mac
s is lethal to most types of foliage. hinery, and Vehicles. Persistent acid rai
n causes lead-bearing metals to deterior
ate and release toxic metals into drinkin
g eatere.
•
53 54

• In addition to the warming effect of carb • Aerosol are formed when SO² reacts wi
on dioxide released during eruptions, th th water to form sulfuric acid H²SO) vap
e aerosols that form from SO² and ash p or which in turn condenses onto ash par
articles help in this warming processes ticles (figure 5.3-5).the Earth's lower at
of stratosphere by absorbing heat radiat mosphere, on the other hand, cools whe
ed up from the earth. n the aerosols reflect radiation from sun
back into space rather than going straig
ht to the earth's surface. This leads to th
e ground being cooler than usual.
•

55 56
 • The June 15,1991 eruption of Pinatubo i • The particles themselves do not contribute to
ozone destruction, but they interact with chlori
njected about 2 million metric tons of S ne- and bromine-bearing compounds from hu
O² into the stratosphere which caused t man-made chemicals, allowing increased ozo
he 20th centuryse largest aerosols dist ne destruction. Fortunately, volcanic particles
urbance of the stratosphere. As a result remain in the stratosphere for only two or thre
the Earth's surface cooled by out 0. C in e years. The direct contribution of some gase
the three years following the eruption. T s from volcanic eruptions to the destruction of
the ozone layer is not significant.
he sulfate aerosols also accelerated che
mical reactions that lead to the accelera
tion of the ozone layer's depletion.

57 58

• Hydrogen chlorine, for instances, is an efficie Table 5.2. Toxicology of volcanic gases
nt ozone destroyer but is readily dissolve in W (Source:Sax,1993,1974; Wilcox,1959)
ater. Before it ever reaches the ozone layer, h
Vol. G Descripti Thres hol Effect of overdose
ydrogen chlorine is dissolved by rainwater. Th on
as d limit
rough bromine oxide is ten times more effecti Carbon Usually regarded as a simple asphyxiant; s
Colorle 5000 pp
ve in depleting the ozone layer, its concentrati dioxide
ss gas, m ymptoms appearing only when such high
(CO²) concentration are reached that there is in
on is 100. Times less than that of chlorine. Co odorles
sufficient oxygen to support life. Symptom
mpared with the 75-85% contribution of Hum s gas s are those which precede asphyxia, name
an activity, volcanoes contribute for less to oz ly, headache, dizziness,shortness of breat
one damage (1-5%). h, muscular weakness, drowsiness, and rin
ging in the ears. Rapid recovery on remov
• al from exposure. For persons with pre exi
sting cardiopulmonary diseases, much low
er levels of exposure may be acutely dang
erous as well as over years at low levels.

59 60
 Carbon m Colorle 100 Has affinity for hemoglobin 210 tim
onoxide ss gas, ppm es that of oxygen with CO hemoglo
(CO) odorles bin in the blood<10%, it rarely has Causes inflammation and irrit
Sulfur dioxi Colorless ga 5 ppm ation of conjunctiva. Forms s
s gas any symptoms;20-30% causes short ulfurous acid and oxidises to f
de(SO) s or liquid w orm sulfuric acid. Concentrati

ness of breath on moderate exertio on of 6-12 ppm causes imme

ith pungent diate irritation of nose and th

roat;20 ppm or more imitatin
n and slight hardachet:30-50% caus g to eyes;1000 ppm irritant t
odor o moist skin within a few min

e severe headache, mental exhaust utes. Chiefly affects upper res

piratory tract and bronchi. Fo

ion and dizziness impartment of vis r persons with pre-existing ca

rdiopulmonary diseases, muc
h lower levels of exposure m
ion and bearing, and collapse and f ay be acutely dangerous, as
well as over years at low level

ainting on exertion:50-56% uncons s.

ciousness result

61 62

Has affinity for hemoglobi

Carbon mon Colorless ga 100 ppm n 210 times that of oxygen
with CO hemoglobin in the
oxide (CO) s, odorless g blood<10%, it rarely has a Causes inflammation and irrit
ny symptoms;20-30% caus Sulfur dioxi Colorless ga 5 ppm ation of conjunctiva. Forms s
as es shortness of breath on ulfurous acid and oxidises to f
moderate exertion and slig
ht hardachet:30-50% caus
de(SO) s or liquid w orm sulfuric acid. Concentrati
on of 6-12 ppm causes imme
e severe headache,metal e
xhaustion and dizziness im
ith pungent diate irritation of nose and th
roat;20 ppm or more imitatin
g to eyes;1000 ppm irritant t
partment of vision and bea
ring, and collapse and faint odor o moist skin within a few min
utes. Chiefly affects upper res
ing on exertion:50-56% un piratory tract and bronchi. Fo
consciousness result r persons with pre-existing ca
rdiopulmonary diseases, muc
h lower levels of exposure m
ay be acutely dangerous, as
well as over years at low level
s.

63 64
 Imitates and asphyxiates. Co
Hydrogen s Colorless,fla 20 ppm ncentration of 20-150 ppm c
ause eye irritation;slightly hig
ulfide (H²SI) mmable gas her concentration cause irrita
tion of upper respiratory trac

with offensi t and, on long exposure to 50

0 ppm results in headache, di Sulfuric acid Colorless, o 1 mg m³ Causes severe
zziness, excitement, staggeri
(H²SO⁴) nly liquid burns with rap
ve odor ng gait, diarrhea, and dysuria
followed sometimes by bronc
hitis or bonchopneumonia. In
id destruction
small amounts it scyse as dep
resent, in larger amounts as s
of tissu, inflam
timulant, and with very large
amounts respiratory center is
mation of upp
paralyzed.
er respiratory
tract, and der
matitis.

65 66

Causes irritation of eyes, Flourine, F² Pale yellow 0.1 ppm A very powerful
Ammonia, Extremely p 100 ppm conjunctivitis,swelling of Caustic irritant;
NH ungent colo eyelids, irritation of muc
ous membranes of nose
gas causes conjuncti
rless gas and throat, coughing, dy vitis, skin irritati
sphea, vomiting, Irratati
on of the skin may occur on, bone degen
, Particularly if it is most. eration, mottlin
g of teeth.

67 68
 Identify Volcanic Gas Danger Spots and A
reas Prone to Gas Accumulation
Extremely irritating and cor
Hydrofluoric a Clear, colorles ppm
cid, HF s, turning corr
rosive to the skin and musc • Hazard zones for volcanic gases escapi
ous membranes, inhalation
osive,liquid or of the vapor may cause ulc ng through craters,vents, fissures, or hy
er of the appear respirator
gas y tract; concentration at 50 drothermal features are typically close t
-250 ppm are u dangerous
even for brief exposures. Pr o these emission sites. Gas emission sit
oduce severe skin bums wh
ich are slow in healing. Sub
taneous tissue may be affe
es location, low-lying areas in which den
cted becoming blanched an se gases can acumulate, and wind direc
d bloodless. Gangrene of th
e affected areas may follow
.
tions that favor gas accumulations are a
ll reflected in defining hazard zones.
•
69 70

• therefore, Areas subject to the greatest hazard from "

poisonous" gases will be downslope from emission si
tes and along the direction of the wind. The identificat
• As what you have learned in the pr ion and mapping of sites that emit volcanic gases in a
n important step in identifying danger zones. Figure 5
evious activity, gases like carbon di .2-7 is an example of a volcanic gas hazard map from
oxide and carbon monoxide are he the Dieng Mountais java, Indonesia that takes into ac
count gas emission sites and topography. It was don
avier than air and thus flow near th e by the vulcanological survey of Indonesia following
e ground and closed depressions li the death of 149 people from gas emission in 1979.
ke stream valleys In topographically •

low areas (figure 5.2-).

•
71 72
 • Are seldom affected from carbon di
oxide asphyxiation. For gases that
attact to ejected fine particles, their • Fluorine and other potentially toxic substance
distributios are dependent on the di s on smaller tephra grains may reach distanc
stribution of ash deposits. Thus, mo e quite remote from an erupting volcano. Acid
rains are known to reached hundreds of kilom
re distal gas hazard are associated eters from the emission sites. Acid rains caus
with tephra falls but the hazard will ed by raindrops mixing with aerosols and gas
also decrease downwind. es adhering to airfull tephra are known to rea
ch distances of more than 2,000 km.
•

73 74

• Winds influence the distribution Pattern • Figure 5.2.2 hazard-zonation map of vol
of toxic volcanic emissions. Sulphur co canic gases for an area in the Dieng Mo
mpounds emitted at Masaya volcano in untains of lava. The hazard area is topo
Nicaragua were carried westward by wi graphically the highest at its northern en
nds and caused extensive damage to c d and extends downslope along two bro
offee plantations and other crops as far ad shallow valleys.
as 40 km in that direction. •
•

75 76
 Mitigation Measures for Volca
nic Gases • To be able respond when critical concentrati
on of gas such as CO² and CO are reached,
• Some volcanoes continually emit toxic gases automated gas alarms had been used. Anoth
that may be associated with the deposition of er example gas monitoring is that for SO² in
fluorine and other trace elements. In such cas Miyakejima volcano, south of Tokyo (Japan).
es, the effects of volcanic gases can be mitig Alerts are issued when SO² concentration exc
ated only by the evacuation and resettlement eeds critical limits. Loudspeakers, warning lig
of the affected population. In other situations, hts, and other communication equipment are
volcanic gases are emitted only occasionally used to relay information to people sensitive t
on both active and dormant volcanoes. o SO².

77 78

• An education program can go hand I ha • Personal protection measures that can

nd with monitoring and warning systems be taken against gases and acid rains a
to Make public more prepared through b re similar to those discussed for tephra f
etter understanding of gas hazards and all(section 5.4). It may be necessary to
their mitigation. Residents will be more r evacuate populations where there is per
eceptive when they are advised on the sistent potential for toxic levels of gases
use of gas mask, to evacuate into a facil . Among the most important protective g
ity with a desulfurization equipment, and adgets that people should have for prot
when they are barred from high-risk Are ection from toxic gases and dust are fac
as which are displayed in notice boards. e mask.
• •

79 80
 To prevent worsening of pre-existing noncommunicable
respiratory diseases, interstitial lung diseases, and pulm
onary vascular diseases by acid rains, gases, and ash, t
he following actions are recommend:
• • During periods of volcanic pollution, av
• Drink flueds to encourage loosening of oid contact with people who have colds.
secretion and coughing. Staying hydrate • • Avoid smoking and inhaling second-ha
d will help clear the particles and inhale nd as smoke will only add to breathing p
d sulfur compounds from the lungs. roblems.
• • • Avoid overexertion. If one have to go o
utdoors, limit physical activities.

81 82

• In heavy pollution, stay indoors, close window

• Use gas mask. If one have to work outdoors, one can
s and doors, turn on air conditioners or purifie
greatly reduce exposure to the sulfur compounds and
r. An air conditioner will condense water out a vog by using a gas mask ( figure 5.2-9). The use of c
nd will remove the particulate sulfur compoun ommercial mask made of vinyl or rubber gas mask fitt
ds and acid gases. Exposure while indoors ca ed with cartridges rated for acid gases and particulate
n also be reduced by using a fan with moist cl s is highly recommended. Wet handkerchiefs may pr
oth saturated with a thin paste of baking soda ovide partial respiratory protection. For greater effecti
veness, soak in a baking soda oastey and then allow
and draped over the face of the fan at low or
to dry before using as a gas mask. Use of mask shou
medium speed. The baking soda will neutraliz ld be done in consultation with your doctor as such d
e the sulfur compounds while the moisture wil evises may cause added stress by increasing the"wor
l help filter air particles. k", of breathing.
• •

83 84
 Apart from the above measures, more specific actions had been re
commended for people in Areas affected by SO² and vog. People w • If any respiratory symptoms should dev
ho are most vulnerable to these hazard, especially children and oth
er sensitive individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions such
elop, contact a doctor as soon as possib
as asthma, emphasema, bronchitis, and chronic lung or heart disea le.
se, should:
• •Acid rain landing on roofs causes incre
• keep medication on hand and reality available. It is sti ased acidity of water in catchment tanks
ll wiser to avoid or leave areas that are reasonably lik
ely to be impacted by vog in the near future. Just in c
. A simple trick is to add baking soda to
ase, asthmatic individuals should have both SO² prot the water in the tank to neutralize acidity
ective devises and medication readily available at all t .
imes. Even when evacuating, it is possible that vog w
ill be encountered along the way so current medicatio •
ns as well as a gas or particulate mask should be car
ried.
•
85 86

SECTION 5.3 PYROCLASTIC FLO

• Finally, advisories from WS
Civil Defense authoritie • Pyroclastic flows are among the most harmf
ul volcanic hazards, if you find a slow-moving,
s should be heeded by glowing hot lava flow dangerous, consider it's
fragmented version that is not only as hot but
the people living in Are also moves tremendously fast. By its heat, sp
eed and volume, none has ever been close to
as affected SO² and Vo describing how dangerous pyroclastic flows a
re. Only a few has come out alive to tell the st
g. ory of his contact with a pyroclastic flow.

87 88
 How do pyroclastic flow occur
• One question often asked is why people a
re so foolhardy to live so close to the volca ?
noes, when there is obvious danger from e • Pyroclastic flows are hot mixtures of fresh
ruption processes such as pyroclastic flow lava, gas, rock, pumice, and ash that move
s. The common answer is related to the fer down the sides of a volcanic crater at high
tility of the soil which weathers down from speed during an eruption. The materials m
volcanic rocks. But the same volcano that ay come from the collapse of lava dome at
nurtures the lives of nearby inhabitants is t or close to the summit or from the material
he same volcano taken this away, sometim s going back down from eruption column t
es without warning. hat cannot go farther into the air (Figure 5.
3-1).

89 90

•
The mobility and speed of pyroclastic flo Types of Pyroclastic Flow
ws are derived from its gas content from t
he heat of its component that further gen • Recognizing the different types of pyro
erates more gases. Additional gas comes clastic flows is as essential differentiatin
from the air, from burnt vegetation, heate g volcano types. Different volcanoes be
d surface water, and from the melting of i have differently; there are violent types
ce and snow. The finer particles are kept and there are the quite types. All pyrocl
in suspension by the gas. Large fragment astic flows are dangerous that victims wi
s are then supported by this mixture of fin ll not be able to tell the difference betwe
e solid gas. en the types of pyroclastic flow that hit t
• Pyroclastic flows are common in volcan hem.

91 oes composed of andesite and the more 92

viscuous dacitic and rhyolitic rock types.
 • However, recognizing the the different ty • You have learned from the section of lava
pes of pyroclastic flows help us to distin flows (section 5.1) that viscous lavas do not
guish these from the eruption products. I go very far from the vent. Sometimes, thes
n this way, people are aware of the varyi e just keep piling near the vent until a dome
ng degrees of danger that volcanoes pre is formed. Soon, gravity causes it's collaps
sent. People would know how to react pr e and hot glowing broken pieces of lava call
operly when warned of an imminent pyro ed glowing avalanche or nuèe ardente goe
s rolling down the slope. Figure 5.3-2 show
clastic flow, lava flow, airfall, lahar, or de
s how this mechanism creates pyroclastic fl
bris avalanche.
ow.

93 94

• Above and in front of the more dense pyr • Thus, the mechanism that produces nuèe
oclastic flow proper are clouds of finer frag ardente from the collapse of a dome is calle
ments. When deposited, the ash cloud sur d a Merapi type of pyroclastic flow. Nuèe ar
ge is composed of very fine layers of ash fr dente deposits of blocks and ash are also g
agments. The pyroclastic flow proper depo enerated by dome collapse caused by gas-
sit, on the other hand, is composed of den driven explosion. This pyroclastic flow-gene
se, solid blocky fragments derived from the rating is called a Pelean type of eruption (Fi
collapsed lava dome. This deposit which c gure 5.3-2b). Because of the high density, b
ontains blocks surrounded by fine-grained lock and ash pyroclastic flow deposits are li
ash is also called block-and-ash deposit. mited to a few tens of kilometers distance fr
om the vent.

95 96
 • The product is pumice-rich pyroclastic flo
• A third pyroclastic flow-generating mech w deposits called pumice flow which is mu
anism does not involve the collapse of a ch like the pumice that is abundant in the
dome. The soufrière type of pyroclastic fl Pinatubo eruption deposits. Like the block
ow-generating mechanism involves the c s in a nuèe ardente deposits, the pumice f
ollapse of an eruption column. The collap ragments are embedded in ash. Because
se occurs as the fragment-laden eruption of the relatively lower density, pumice flow
column can no longer be supported by th s extend much farther and wider than bloc
e upward thrust of the eruption. k and ash flows (i.e., up to 200 km away a
nd up to tens of thousands of sq. km of ar
ea covered)

97 98

Some Notable Pyroclastic Flo

w • Hibok-Hibok, Philippines, 1951. On Decem
ber 4, 1951, 500 people were killed by pyroc
• Vesuvius, Italy, 79 A.D. One of the most lastic flows that cascaded down the volcano'
catastrophic and famous eruption of all tim s northeastern flank. The explosion of fresh
e. A series of pyroclastic flows consisting o magma rather than dome collapse caused t
f pumice and ash came diem from eruption he deposition of large quantities of pumice a
column as high as 33 km. Herculaneum an nd ash. (Source: Gordon A. MacDonald and
d Pompeii were buried by pyroclastic flow t Arturo Alcaraz (1956) "nuèes ardentes of th
ephra fall and about 16,000 were killed, so e 1948-1953 eruption of Hibok-Hibok", Bull.
me probably by gas asphyxiation. Volcano, v. 18(1).pp 169-178)

99 100
 • Tambora, Indonesia, 1815. The largest • Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991. 2nd lar
eruption ever in recorded history; prior t gest eruption of the 20th century; it h
o1815 eruption, other eruption were in 3
910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and in 7
ad 6 eruption periods since 33,000 B.
40 AD ± 150 years. Pyroclastic flows re C. During it's climatic eruption on Jun
ached more than 20 km from the summi e 15~500 years since it's last, pyrocl
t and caused 4 m high tsunami waves in astic flows reached as far as 16 km fr
Indonesia. Pyroclastic flows wiped out T om the summit; early warning preven
ambora village killing 10,000; tens of tho ted deaths from the pyroclastic flow
usands more died due to famine and dis
ease.

101 102

What are the Effects of Pyrocl

• Burn. The extreme temperatures of rocks an
astic Flows? d gas inside pyroclastic flow can burn people,
• A pyroclastic flow is so dangerous bec houses, and vegetation. Though hot gasesma
ause of its speed (up to ~710 km/hr) an y have killed them first, Pompeii residents wer
e petrified by the ash and pumice of pyroclas
d temperature (up to ~1,000°C). It is s
tic flow from Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Some re
o hot and moves so quickly that it gives sidents suffered the same fate from Hibok-Hib
anyone little opportunity to escape and ok's pyroclastic flow in 1951 (Figure 5.3-8). O
very slim chance to survive. n the margins of Pyroclastic flows, death and
serious injury to people and animals may res
ult from burns.

103 104
 • Impact and burial. By its speed, mass, and volume
• Inhalation of hot ash and gases. Hot as
, a pyroclastic flow will knock down, shatter, bury,
or carry away nearly all objects and structures in it h and gas not only burn but also impair
s path. Rock fragments range in size from ash to b breathing. Aside from water, volcanoes
oulders and travel at speed usually greater than 8 also emit toxic gases such as H³S, SO²,
0 km/hour. Pyroclastic flows from the 1991 eruptio
and F². These also combine with water t
n of Pinatubo left bare of vegetation a large part of
its western slope and a smaller portion of the east o form harmful compounds. The compo
ern slope. Ash and lahars (derived largely from the unds that come with pyroclastic flows ar
pyroclastic flows) also left many towns in Zambale e toxic and will cause immediate asphyx
s, Pampanga Tarlac buried and bare like a desert. iation of people and animals.

105 106

Pyroclastic Flow Hazard Zonin

• Lahars and flooding. Valleys and other low-lying
areas along the slopes of volcanoes act as chann g
el ways and receptors of pyroclastic flow deposits. • For a hazard like pyroclastic flow, the best and perh
The thick accumulation of loose pyroclastic flow d
aps the only protection measure that anyone can do i
eposits (as much as 200 m thick) is easily mobiliz s avoidance of areas to prone to it.
ed by steam flow to become part of lahar. The da
• The definition of pyroclastic hazard zones largely de
mming of rivers upstream may lead to the rush of pends on the extent of pyroclastic flows from previou
enormous amount of water and debris downslope. s eruptions. That is why after an eruption, volcanologi
Pyroclastic flows can melt ice and snow too and s st always make an effort to map the distribution of the
end a sudden torrent of water that can carry new se before. Mapping is more difficult by succeeding er
pyroclastic flow deposits as well as older debris on osion and transformation into lahar.
the way down.

107 108
 • Prehistoric eruptions may be a few tim • Possible shifts in vent location and slo
e bigger than a volcano's string of histor pe topography should also be considere
ical eruptions(e.g., Pinatubo). The possi d in determining the potential extent of p
bility that a volcano may release more yroclastic flows. It is as important to det
pent-up energy in its future eruptions sh ermine the location of dome build-up an
ould always by borne in mind. It would t d low notches that may dictate where th
hen be wise to consider another hazard- e direction of collapse may be.
zone category using the outer limits of b
igger pre-historic pyroclastic flow.

109 110

Mitigating the Effects of Pyrocl

• Can you recall what these are? Howeve
astic Flows r, the chances of these working for pyro
• Many deaths had been already attributed to p clastic flow are slim. For one, pyroclasti
rovost flows running over dwelling centers. Th
c flow pathway such as valleys upslope
e same are now more developed and more d
ensely populated and yet the danger from Pyr
are usually too for diversion measure to
oclastic flows remains. Can you name one or work. The speed of pyroclastic flows ma
two of these places which had been hit badly ke it unlikely for barriers of reasonable h
in the past? Because of this, engineering mea eight to work.
sures similar to what had been suggested for
the lava flows had been floating to escape it's
impact.

111 112
 • Any barrier or diversion design will also
contend with the overlying ash cloud wh SECTION 5.4
ich can surmount greater heights. Witho
ut giving any false hope, any engineerin
g measures might work for the smaller a
nd slower tried of pyroclastic flows. Tephra Falls and Ballistic P
• rojectiles

113 114

• In 1815, Mount Tambora, a volcano in Indonesia • So much material was spread far enough by
, erupted. That year was called “ the year without atmospheric circulation that the sunlight was
a summer”. Can something be that big to block th actually blocked. This also caused temporary
e sunlight over a big part of the earth's surface? cooling that global temperatures drooped an
• Tambora ejected so much volcanic material in w average of about 0.5°C and cause incidence
hat is known as the biggest eruption in recorded i s of extreme weather. A similar phenomenon
n history. happened when Pinatubo Volcano erupted in
• Not all the materials that went up from the volcan 1991(Figure 5.4-1). Do you know someone wi
o's vent went back down right away. The finest of th first-hand experience of this? If not, what d
the materials, ash, went up so high and never sett o the news accounts tell about how the day s
led down near the volcano. uddenly turn into night.

115 116
 What are Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles
• Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the
• Tephra refers to volcanic rock and lava materials tha ground on or close to the volcano and progre
t are ejected into the air by explosions or carried upw ssively smaller fragments are carried away fro
ard by eruption column's hot gases(Figure 5.4-2 and m the vent by wind. Ash can travel hundreds t
5.4-3) or lava fountains. o thousands of kilometers downwind from a v
• While pyroclastic flows follow the slope on the way olcano. If often leaves a mantle of ash layer o
down, tephra falls skip hugging the slope and go dire
ver the landscape that diminishes in thickness
ctly to the ground. Tephra falls range in size from les
s than 2 mm(ash) to more than 1m in diameter. In m the farther it goes from the volcanic center. A
ost cases, however, airfall tephra consists of ash (<2 sh can circle the globe if the eruption column i
mm) and of the coarser lapili 2-64 mm in diameter). s high enough.

117 118

Types of Tephra Falls and Ball

• Ballistic projectiles are special kind of tephra.
These follow a projectile path as these are forc istic Projectiles
ed out of the vent at steep angles like canon b • There are many kinds of tephra that differ in size, sh
all (Figure 5.4-2). Ballistic projectiles consists o ape, density, and chemical composition. To simplify t
f bombs, blocks, and lapili. Bombs and blocks hings, volcanologist first classify tephra deposits acco
are >64 mm in diameter but differ in the nature rding to size. Do you know why this kind of classificati
on makes perfect sense? Tephra falls and ballistic pr
of source material. Bombs are derived from fre ojectiles undergo some kind of winnowing process th
sh magma while blocks are chips of the wall of at sort fragments from the largest (bombs and blocks)
the volcanic vent. While bombs attain smoothn , near the volcano, to finest (ash), farther away from t
ess and peculiar shapes before they fall to the he source, Figure 5.4-4 shows classification scheme.
ground, blocks are rough with sharp edges.

119 120
 • Pumice fall deposits are derived from plinian eruptions lik
• A) Ash - < 2 mm diam. fragments, mix of bro e the type which occurred in the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo
ken glass and pulverized rock. . Scoria fall deposits are products of strombolian eruption
of basaltic to andesitic volcanoes like Taal. Quarrying of p
• B) Lapili - 2 — 64 mm diam. fragments; bigg
umice and scoria has been going on for a long time in Pina
er pumice fragments are lapili mixed with fine tubo and Taal, respectively, long after the ejection of these
r ash. deposits.
• C) Blocks and bombs— > 64 mm fragments; • Another classification scheme describes differently-sized
tephra according to appearance. Rapid cooling of basaltic l
bombs molten when ejected and assume vari ava while still in the air produce teardrop-shaped lapili-size
ous shapes upon cooling; blocks are large br fragments called Pele's tears (Figure 5.4-5). Strong winds
oken pieces of solid vent material or surround may shape lava into hair-like fragments called Pele's hair (Figur
e 5.4-5).
ings rocks.

121 122

Danger from Tephra Falls and

• Airborne fine particles can harm the eye
Ballistic Projectiles s with conjunctivitis and corneal abrasio
• Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles may not b ns. It can also cause human asphyxiatio
e directly threatening unless a person is dose n and damage to lungs of survivors. Pro
enough to an eruption to be struck by larger fr
agments. Though only directly fatal, thick ash
longed (months of year) exposure and i
falls farther away from the eruption column m
nhalation by survivors of more than 50
ay be as dangerous. Even a thin veneer of vo micrograms of silica crystals per 1 m ² o
lcanic ash is highly disruptive because it mant f ash can cause silicosis (scarring of lun
les considerable part of the landscape gs)

123 124
 • Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles also endanger life, • Ash dogs filters and vents of motors, industrial mac
property, and the environment in the following keys:
hines, and nuclear power plants; may clog air filters of
• Small scoria pieces can be embedded in wood and c vehicles including those of jet engines; and abrasion
an even dent metals. Could you imagine what a falling of moving parts (bearing ,brakes,a and transmissions)
object the size of a house can do? Through ballistic pr and bodies of automobiles.
ojectiles usually occur only close to the volcano, the hi
• Airborne ash can reduce visibility to zero and turn da
gh impact is the source of hazard from a large volcani
y to night by blocking sunlight.
c projectiles. Do you know how much force the impact
of falling fragments exert? The kinetic energy of impa • Volcanic projectiles have temperatures above ignitio
ct of a volcanic projectile is dependent on both mass n points. Initial temperatures of projectiles generated f
and terminal velocity, both being a function of projectil rom new magma may reach up to 1100°C. Upon im
e diameter and projectile density. pact, temperatures may well be above the ignition poi
nt for vegetation and a variety of man-made objects

125 126

How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

• Some pyroclastic falls contain toxic gases, a
cids,salts, and chemicals that can be absorbe
are dispersed or Hazard Zoning
d by plants and water bodies, which can be d • Ballistic projectiles are ejected with trajectory
angerous to people and other living things. angles >45 deg, although there are cases wh
• Tephra can change rainfall or runoff relation ere it is lower than this (e.g., ~30 deg). Ejectio
ships. Low permeability of hardened ash dep n velocities are in the range of 75 m/s to 320
osits leads to increased runoff, accelerated er m/s. How far the projectiles go from the vent
osion, and floods; thick coarse-grained depos party depends on the size of the ejected frag
its retain water and eliminate surface runoff. ments. Ballistic projectiles had been found to
rarely go beyond 5 km from the vent.

127 128
 • Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic ha • Wind above the stratosphere has a nonconvenctiv
zards but it is quite troublesome to a larger number o e circulation pattern that could be quite different from
f people because of its tremendous reach. that in the troposphere. At low levels the wind pattern
• Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic ha is turbulent. Volcanologist this tend to draw a circular
zards but it is quite troublesome to a larger number o zone covering just about any direction for a certain di
f people because of its tremendous reach.However, p stance. At higher levels, where the prevailing winds ta
redicting where the fragments will land, how big will t ke over, atmospheric flow is more uniform in direction
hese be, and how thick the accumulation will be is a v . That means, tephra is expected to fall preferentially i
ery difficult task. One source of difficulty in predicting n a certain direction depending on the prevailing wind
the thickness and size of tephra that might fall in one direction at the time of the eruption of high columns of
place is the size of eruption itself and the volume of tephra. In general, greater amounts of tephra fall out
materials it carries. of the ash cloud near the vent so that airfall deposits t
ypically thin away from the vent

129 130

Mitigating the Effects • During a tephra fall, the first priority is to seek refuge
beyond the reach of its effects. Mobility issues during
an emergency, however, might prevent most people
• With the tremendous impact and heat that ballistic projectil
from doing so. As long as where you are is not also
es bring, the best thing to do is to stay away from the area
affected by the other volcanic hazards, there may be
close to the crater. The safe distance varies with each volc
ano but is usually several kilometers around the volcanic c no need to go farther. This would then entail adoptin
enter. The design of any shelter from ballistic projectiles w g precautionary measures to keep safe from the har
ould need to recognize that the size of potential bombs wit mful effects of tephra fall. These include personal me
hin this zone prevents the construction of any bomb- proof asures that can be taken before, during and after, a t
shelter. Beyond this zone, a precaution that can be taken f ephra fall some of the measures need to be address
rom smaller hot fragments is covering windows facing the ed at the community and local government level.
crater with corrugated iron sheets. Thick steel roof sheets
as roofing materials can provide protection

131 132
 Precaution of Tephra Fall • During
• Wear protective clothing and high- efficiency dust mask.
• If no approved mask is available. A fabric mask improvise
• Before d from handkerchiefs, cloth, or clothing filter out the larger a
• Protective clothing and high -efficiency dust ma sh particles which may contribute to throat and eye irritation
sks should be made available and placed in easil . Dampening the fabric with water will improve its effectiven
ess.
y accessible points before volcano- related emer
• Patients with chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma
gencies which are likely to experience tephra fall. are advised to a stay inside and void unnecessary exposure
• Design roof orientation and pitch to discourage t to ash.
ick tephra buildups. • Keep a proper distance between vehicles when driving. Ve
hicular accidents are more likely to occur because of reduc
• Strengthen roofs and walls to withstand loading
ed visibility.
and projectile impacts.

133 134

• After
• Clear tephra from roofs as it accumulat
• Remove or stabilize tephra on the ground after
es. a fall prohibit reworking.
• Wear respirators or wet cloths over the • Handle the ash ipen, well-ventilated areas, and
mouth and and nose to reduce inhalation wet the dust whenever possible to prevent its mo
of tephra and gases. Tephra can contain vement.
harmful gases absorbed on particles as • Wear goggles or corrective eyeglasses instead
of contact lenses to protect eyes from irritation ca
acid aerosols and salt particles. used by fine ash.
• Personnel not essential to the emergency shoul
d be kept inside and made to strictly observe all s
afety precautions during clean up.

135 136
 SECTION 5.5 LAHARS
• •Whenever a topic shifts to lahars, the na • The Armero tragedy is colombla's wors
me of a lahar victim, Omayra Sanchez, Al t disasters( with 23,000 fatalities) and
ways comes to mind. Omayra was a 13 y one of the 20th century's worst disast
ear old schoolgirl in. Armero, a town that ers. The deadliest Philippine lahar eve
r was from Mayon, which in daraga,alb
was bodly stricker by the by the 1985 lah
ars cascading dowm the slopes of Nevad ay in 1814.
o del Ruic in Colombia. These are the de •
adliest lahars in volcanic history.

137 138

• What is lahar? Is the process whe

• Despite the fact that lahars are debris-la
rein wet cement-like mixture of Volcanic
den, like wet concrete, these are quite
material and water flows down and slop
mobite. The deposits that lahar leave be
es of a Volcano. Lahar usually carries fr
hind are like a dry concrete sometimes
esh eruption material like pyroclastic flo
with boulders as big as a house scattere
ws and tephra fall.
d everywhere.

139 140
 • •Lahars werw deposited at different time • The lahars took advantage 9f he major
s following Pintubo volcanoes 1991 eru and more minor ruvers around pintubo i
ption pyclastic flows an tephea falbs on n Zambales,Pampangga, and tarlac 1).
thw upper slopes of pintubo were th sou 1991 pyroclastic flows 2). Lahars 3). Is
rces of volcanic materials of the lahars. ophachs ( or lines of equal thickness) of
airfull deposit in aim; 4). Active lahar ch
annels; 5). Provincial bundaries ; 6). To
wns.

141 142

• Lahar Deposits
How are Lahars generated?
• Many lahars are formed by intense rainf • Poar sorting (mix of different sizes of fr
all during an eruption. Rainwater can e agments): fragments are from clay. Size
asily erode loose volcanic material depo d to bouldersleed (depends on sources
sit on the upper slopes of volcano along materials boulders are more common in
the Mayon Lahars than in Pinatubo lahars)

143 144
 • May containa wide variety of clasts (heterolith
• Lahar-Runout Flow Deposit
ic)
• Matrix-supported means pebbles, rocks, and • Displays better bedding than lahar shaw
boulders are not touching each other majority s better sorting than lahar
of the outcrop is silt, sand, or clay
• Normal grading lobove a possible rever
• May have reverse-graded base (sinaller frag
ments are at the lower part) se graded basel
• May show some clast imbrication or prefene • Better clast imbrication that lahar
d onentatoin of the larger fragments • Boulders not as common
• Clasts typically angular to sub-angular

145 146

• Lahars deposits are formed similarly as

those formed by stream in non-volcanic
• Fegure 5.5-3 Each type of lahars deposi areas. Large badsides may deposit loos
t is formed by a process with corresfond e materials along the course of a river w
ing mix of water and sediment Modified
hich can be carried as non-volcanic deb
from smith and Low.1991. ris flow. Sometimes too little of it.

147 148
 • In some instance,the supply of along a • normal streamflow may become en
river's course becomes the determining riched with more sediment and bec
factor in the type of flow and the overtio
ome lahars. Lahars become diluted
n of sediment involved. In the same way
, flow transformations occur between n by inbolving more water or by deoyi
ormal stream flow and lahars. Sediment ng supply of sediment to be transfo
-poor rmed to hyperconcentrated streamfl
ow.

149 150

• Hyperconcentrated streamflows form la

hars deposits called lahar-runout flows. • These are usually 1-10 meters in thickness. D
Fegure 5.5-3 shoes the difference betw eposits may extend up to 10 km. from their so
een the two end members of lahars bas urce and they travel at speeds up to 100 km/h
ed on the type of deposit formed. . Despite the distance and speed by which its
components travel, how was angularity or sha
rpness of adges of the fragments maintained
? How does the transport process deffer from
those of water-land deposits

151 152
 • 2. This deposit is from Mount St. Helens • Compare these fragments with those in no.1.
in the state of washington, USA. At form How do you distinguish the edge of these frag
ed about 2,500 years ago when a dam ment? What can be inferred about the distanc
made of debris avalanche deposits was e traveled by the fragments based on roundn
breaded by water that accumulated behi ess (smoothness of comers). Is this an indicat
ion that water was involved as agent of transp
nd it. Biggen pink and gray dacite fragm
osting the volcanic materials? The fragments
ents are endosed by finer sediment parti may have been smoothened even before bei
cles. ng transported by water from the dam. How d
o you suppose rounding of the rock fragment
s is accomplished during river transport?

153 154

• Figure 5.5-5. Source Scout • Effects of Lahars

• Like non-volcanic debris flows, lahars
• 1988. Origin behavior, and sedimentol move as fluid masses with the general c
ogy of prehistoric catastrophic lahars at onsistency of wet concrete. Lahars are
Mounts St. Helens Washington Geologi dangerous because of the large volume
cal Society of America Special Paper 22 of materials involved and the speed by
9, P.23.35 which they deliver these materials.

155 156
 • Lahars can travel as far as 300 km and
at speeds of about 70 km/hr. Lahars are
able to transport large amounts of debri • Boulders as big as 1.5m had been repor
s eroded from valleys and slapes on the ted from Pinatubos lahar deposits. At N
upper parts of the volcano. Extremely la evado del Ruiz a boulde about 208 m w
rge boulders and logs may be carreid wi as carried by its 1985 lahars. Lahars ca
th the sediments. n vary from hot to cold, depending on th
eir mode of genesis or the origin ofthe d
ebris and water.

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• A hot lahars can be as hot as 100 °C, • Anything along the path of a lahar is cr
which is the boiling point of water. Beca ushed, blown away or bureid. Large trac
use of these properties, lahars can caus ts of agricultural lands and residential ar
e serious economic and environmental eas may be buried by one or more pule
damage to large floodplain areas and to s of lahar deposition. The buried Cagsa
those affected by the severed lifeness. wa church in Daraga, Albay is aliving wit
Lahars can devartate by direct and tree ness to what lahars from Mayon can do
trunks (commonly coconut) had also be
en documented in Mayon lahars.

159 160