C HAPT E R 3

Diodes
 Chapter 3 Diodes

Introduction 3.4 Operation in the Reverse

3.1 Ideal Diode Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction 3.5 Rectifier Circuits
3.3 Modeling the diode Forward 3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits
Characteristic 3.7 Special Diode Types
3.1 The ideal Diode
3.1.1 Current-Voltage characteristic

Figure 3.2 The two modes of operation of

Figure 3.1 The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol; (b) i-v characteristics; (c) ideal diodes and the use of an external
equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in the forward circuit to limit (a) the forward current and
direction (b) the reverse voltage.
3.1.2 A simple application:The Rectifier Example 3.1

Figure 3.4 Circuit and waveforms for Example 3.1.

(a) Find the fraction of each cycle during which

the diode conduct.
(b) Find the peak value of the diode current.
(c) Find the maximum reverse-bias voltage that
appears across the diode.

Sol) (a) 24 cos = 12

 = 60o , 60  2 / 360 = 1/ 3
(b) 24 − 12
Id = = 0.12 A
100
(c)
VDrp = 24 + 12 = 36 V
3.1.3 Another Application: Diode Logic Gate Example 3.2
Find I and V.
Sol) We don’t know whether none, one, or both diodes
Y=A∙B∙C are conducting.
Make a plausible assumption, proceed with the analysis,
and then check whether we end up with a consistent
solution !
Y=A+B+C (a) Assume that both diodes are conducting.

10 − 0
VB = 0, V = 0 I D2 = = 1 mA
10
V − ( −10)
Figure 3.5 Diode logic gates: (a) OR gate; (b) AND gate Writing a node equation at B, I + I D 2 = B
5
(in a positive-logic system). 0 − ( −10)
I +1= , I = 1 mA, V =0 V
5
(b) Assume that both diodes are conducting.
VB = 0, V = 0 10 − 0
I D2 = = 2 mA
5
Writing a node equation at B, I + I = VB − ( −10)
D2
0 − ( −10) 10
I+2= , I = −1 mA
10 Impossible !!
Assume that D1 is off, and D2 is on.
10 − ( −10)
I D2 = = 1.33 mA
15
VB = −10 + 10  1.33 = +3.3 V
Figure 3.6 Circuits for Example 3.2.
3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
The pn junction diode : conduct substantial current in the forward direction / no current in the reverse direction.
We study the characteristics of real diode - specifically, semiconductor junction diode made of silicon.

Figure 3.7 The i–v characteristic of a silicon Figure 3.8 The diode i–v relationship with some scales
junction diode. expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.

* The characteristic curve consists of three distinct regions:

1. The forward-bias region, determined by V> 0
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by V < 0
3. The breakdown region, determined by V < -VZR
3.2.1 The Forward-Bias Region
1. The forward-bias region, determined by υ > 0

i = Is(ev / nVT − 1) (3.1) : This equation can be derived from semiconductor theory.

Is = saturation current at a given temperature, scale current

-proportional to the cross-sectional area of the diode
-low-power small-signal diode : order of 10-15 A
-very strong function of temperature (doubles for every 5 oC rise)
 DP Dn 
IS = Aqni2  +  (1.65)
 LPND LnNA 
VT = kT q : thermal voltage (3.2)
k = Boltzmann’s constant =1.38 x 10-23 joules/kelvin
T = the absolute temperature in kelvins =273 + temperature in oC
q = the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60 x 10-19 coulomb
VT = 0.0862T mV (3.2a) 25.3 mV at 20 oC

n = 1~2 depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.
1 for diode made using the standard integrated-circuit fabrication process.
(obtained by connecting collector and base, Ch. 4). 2 for discrete diode.

For appreciable current i in the forward direction

i
i  IS , i  Isev / VT (3.3) v = VT ln (3.4)
Is
i  IS , i  Isev / VT (3.3) Threshold voltage
v>0.7 V, fully conducting
I 1 = IseV 1 /VT I2
= e(V 2 − V 1 )/VT
I 2 = IseV 2 /VT I1 Cut-in Voltage

I2
V 2 − V 1 = VT ln
I1
I2
V 2 − V 1 = 2.3VT log (3.5)
I1
2.3VT = 60 mV [for a decade (factor of 10) change in current]
* Threshold Voltage = Voltage drop: 0.7 V @1 mA for small signal diode, 0.7 V@1 A for high power diode.

Example 3.3

-What scaling current for 1-A diode (1 A at 0.7 V)? (compare

with 1-mA diode.)
-For small signal diode, evaluate IS in the event that n is 1 or 2.

i = I S e / nVT I S = ie − / nVT
If n = 1: I S = 10−3 e −700 / 25 = 6.9  10−16 A, or about 10-5 A

If n = 2: I S = 10−3 e −700 / 50 = 8.3  10−16 A, or about 10-9 A

Sol) 1A-diode : IS=6.9  10-13 A (1000 times junction area) Figure 3.9 Temperature dependence of the diode forward
characteristic. At a constant current, the voltage drop decreases by
The value of n used can be quite important !!! approximately 2 mV for every 1°C increase in temperature.
3.2.2 The Reverse-Bias Region
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by v < 0

i = Is (ev / VT − 1) (3.1)
If v is negative and a few times greater than VT (25 mV),
i  −Is
Real Diode
Reverse current i >> Saturation current I
order of 1 nA order of 10-14~10-15.

increases with reverse voltage constant

mostly due to leakage diffusion
doubles for every 10 oC rise doubles for every 5 oC rise

3.2.3 The Breakdown Region

3. The breakdown region, determined by υ < -VZK
* VZK : The breakdown voltage, knee voltage, Z stands for zener.
* Diode breakdown is normally not destructive provided that the power dissipated in the diode is
limited by external circuitry to a safe value specified in data sheets.

* Voltage regulation is possible in this region. (Sect. 3.5)

3.3 Modeling the diode Forward Characteristic
3.3.1 The Exponential Model
ID=? VD=?

Exponential model
Ideal-Diode model
Piecewise–Linear model
Figure 3.10 A simple circuit used to Constant-Voltage-Drop model
illustrate the analysis of circuits in which
the diode is forward conducting.
Small-Signal model

i = Is (ev / VT − 1) (3.1)
When VDD  0.5 V , ID = IseVD/VT (3.6)
VDD − VD
From the circuit, ID = (3.7)
R
How to solve this simultaneous equations ?

3.3.2 Graphical Analysis

Use the i- υ curve given in the data sheet, ruler,
and your eyes.

Figure 3.11 Graphical analysis of the circuit in Fig. 3.10 using the
exponential diode model.
3.3.3 Iterative Analysis
Iterative analysis: using the exponential model

Example 3.4

Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Fig. 3.10. VDD=5 V and R=1 k.
(1mA diode)
VDD − VD
Assume VD = 0.7 V, ID = (3.7)
R
5 − 0.7
= = 4.3 mA
1
I2
V 2 − V 1 = 2.3VT log (3.5)
I1
Subsitutin g 2.3VT = 60mV ,
I2
V 2 = V 1 + 0.06 log
I1
First iteration : V1 = 0.7V, I1 = 1mA, and I2 = 4.3mA, results in V 2 = 0.738V
5 − 0.738
Second iteration : I D = = 4.262mA
1
 4.262 
V2 = 0.738 + 0.06 log   = 0.738V
 4 .3 
3.3.4 The need for Rapid Analysis
* In design process, rapid circuit analysis is necessary, not in the final conformation
process.
* In the final conformation process, SPICE is the best choice.
3.3.5 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model
VD = 0.7 V
VDD − 0.7
ID =
R
5 − 0.7
= = 4.3 mA
1
* The Piecewise-Linear Model

i D = 0,  D  VD 0
i D = ( D − VD 0 ) / rD ,  D  VD 0 (3.8)
 3.3.6 The Ideal –Diode Model
VDD = 5 V and R = 1 k, VD = 0 V
5−0
ID = = 5 mA
1
•This model can be used when input voltage is much greater than the diode voltage drop (0.6~0.8 V)
•Useful in determining which diodes are on or off.
Figure 3.13 (a) A simple diode circuit; (b) the situation when VDD changes by ΔVDD.

3.3.7 The Small-signal Model

ID = IseVD / VT (3.8)
vD(t ) = VD + vd (t ) (3.9)
iD(t) = Ise
vD/VT
(3.10)
iD(t) = Ise(VD + vd)/VT (3.11)
iD(t) = IseVD/VTevd / VT
iD(t) = IDevd/VT (3.12)
vd
If  1 , using Tayler series and approximat ion (3.13)
VT
Figure 3.14 Development of the diode small-signal model.
  vd 
Small signal approximat ion : iD (t )  ID1 +  (3.14)
 VT 
Valid for vd < 10 mV n=2
vd < 5 mV n=1

ID
iD (t) = ID + vd (3.15) iD = ID + id (3.16)
VT
ID
id = vd (3.17)
VT
Diode small-signal conductance (Siemens)
diode small-signal resistance = incremental resistance
nVT
rd = (3.18) :inversely proportinal to the bias current I D
ID
 iD 
r d = 1/   (3.19)
 vD iD = ID
 Example 3.5
V+ = 10 Vdc on which is superimposed υs = 60 Hz sinusoid of 1 V peak (power supply ripple). R = 10 kΩ
Calculate both the dc voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the signal appearing on it.
Assume the diode to have 0.7 V drop at 1 mA and n = 2.

Figure 3.16 (a) Circuit for Example 3.5. (b) Circuit for calculating the dc operating point. (c) Small-signal equivalent circuit.

Sol) First, consider dc component only, VD  0.7 V

10 − 0.7
ID = = 0.93 mA
10

0.93 mA ≈1 mA, assumed 0.7 V is valid ! vd (peak) = Vs

^ rd
R + rd
VT 25 0.0269
rd = = = 26.9  =1 = 2.68 mA
ID 0.93 10 + 0.0269
3.3.8 Use of the Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulator: A circuit keeping its output voltage as constant as possible in spite of;
(a) changes in the load current drawn from the regulator output,
(b) changes in the dc power supply voltage that feed the regulator.

Example 3.6

(a) Find the % changes in υO caused by a ±10 % change in the dc

power supply voltage.
(b) Find the % changes in υO caused by connection of 1 kΩ load
resistance.

10 − 2.1 VT 25
(a) w/o load, I = = 7.9 mA for each diode, rd = = = 3.2 
1 I 7.9
r 0.0096 Figure 3.17 Circuit for Example 3.6.
r = 3rd = 9.6  vo = 2 =2 = 19 mV peak - to - peak
r+R 0.0096 + 1
 3.2 mV change per diode justifies the small signal model.
2.1
(b) load r = 1 k, IRL  = 2.1 mA Then, diode current decreases by 2.1 mA
1000
vo = −2.1 r = −2.1 9.6 = −20 mV
3.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
Voltage regulators are operating in this region.
Special diodes that are manufactured to operate in the
breakdown region are called breakdown diodes or zener
diodes.

3.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diodes

IZK : knee current (data sheet)

VZ : voltage across the diode at the test current IZT (data sheet)
a few volts ~ a few hundred volts.
ΔV = rzΔI
rZ : incremental (dynamic) resistance at Q (data sheet)
a few~ a few tens of ohms.
0.5 W (data sheet), 6.8 V can operates safely at 70 mA,
maximum.

Model for Zener Diode : VZ = VZ 0 + rzIz (3.20)

 3.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator
Example 3.7 VZ = 6.8 V @ Iz = 5 mA, rz=20Ω, IZK = 0.2 mA
(a) VO =? w/no load and w/ V+ at its nominal value.
VZ 0 = 6.7 V VZ = VZ 0 + rz I Z (3.20)
V + − VZ 0
IZ = I = VO = VZ 0 + I Z rz
R + rz
10 - 6.7 = 6.7 + 6.35  0.02 = 6.83 V
= = 6.35 mA
0.5 + 0.02
(b) ∆VO =? w/ ±1 V change in V+. ∆VO/ ∆V+( mV/V) is known as line
regulation. r 20
VO = V + z = 1  = 38.5 mA
R + rz 500 + 20
Line regulation  38.5 mV/V (e) VO =? w/ RL = 0.5 kΩ
(c) ∆ VO =? w/ RL (IL = 1mA). Find load regulation ∆VO/ 6.8 V/ 0.5 kΩ = 13.6 mA. Is this possible ?
∆IL ( mV/mA).
Maximum I through R = 6.4 mA!!
When a load resistance RL is connected that draws a The zener diode operates in reverse-bias region !!
current IL = 1mA, the zener current will decrease by 1 mA. The zener diode is off (open circuit).
VO = rz I Z = 20  −1 = −20 mV VZ 0 = V +
RL
= 10
0.5
=5V
VO R + RL 0.5 + 0.5
Load regulation  = −20 mV/mA (e) Minimum RL for break down region = ?
I L
(d) ∆ VO =? w/ RL = 2 kΩ Iz = IZK = 0.2 mA at the edge of the breakdown region,

IL ≈ 6.8 V/2 kΩ=3.4 mA VO = rz I Z = 20  −3.4 = −68 mV The lowest (worst-case) current through R = (9-6.7)/0.5 =
4.6 mA), then the load current = 4.6 - 0.2 = 4.4 mA
For more rigorous calculation, you have to analyze
RL = 6.7 / 4.4 1.5 k
the circuit in Fig. (b). 70 mA
3.5 Rectifier Circuit – one of the most important applications of diodes- dc power supplies
Power
transformer

The dc voltage VO is required to be as constant as possible in spite of variations in the ac line

voltage and in the current drawn by the load.

Power transformer : 1. V2=(N2/N1)V1

2. Electrical isolation between the electronic devices and the power-line circuit.
This isolation minimizes the risk of electric shock to the equipment user.
Diode rectifier : convert the input sinusoid vS to a unipolar output.
Filter : reducing the variations in the magnitude of the rectifier output.
Voltage regulator :
1.reducing ripple
2. Stabilizing the magnitude of the dc output voltage of the supply against variations caused by
changes in load current.
3. Circuit using zener diode or IC regulator (7805, 7915)
3.5.1 The Half-Wave Rectifier.

vO = 0 , vs  VD (3.21a)
vO = vs − VD, vs  Vt (3.21b)

vO = 0, vs  VD 0 (3.21a)

vO = (vs − VD 0 )
R
, vs  VD 0 (3.21b)
R + rD

Peak inverse voltage

PIV = Vs
3.5.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier.

PIV = 2Vs − VD
3.5.3 The Bridge Rectifier.

vD 3 (reverse) = vo + vD 2 (forward)

PIV = Vs − 2VD + VD = Vs − VD
3.5.4 The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor - The Peak Rectifier
iL = vo / R (3.23) iD = iC + iL (3.24)
dvI
=C + iL (3.25)
dt
VP 1
IL = (3.26) VO = VP − Vr (3.27)
R 2
discharge : vO = VPe − t/CR at the end of discharge : VP − Vr  VPe − /CR
T

T
Vr  VP (3.28) e − T / CR  1 − T CR
CR
VP IL
Vr = = (3.29) : ripple voltage
fCR fC
∆t =? VpCOS (t) = VP − Vr
(t )2
when t<<1, cos(t ) = 1 -
2
ωΔt  2Vr/VP (3.30)
iDav =? during conduction time
For C, Qsupplied during on time=Qlost during off time

Qsupplied = iCavt iCav = iDav-IL

Qlost = CVr
iDav = IL( 1 + π 2VP/Vr ) (3.31)
iDmax = IL( 1 + 2π 2VP/Vr ) (3.32)
 Example 3.8
T VP IL
Design specification Vr  VP = = Vr = 2 V
CR fCR fC
Input: 60 Hz, sinusoid
Vp 100
Output: Vp=100 V, peak-to-peak ripple 2 V C= = = 83.3  F
Load: 10 kΩ Vr fR 2  60  10  103
C=?

Diode on-time/cycle =? ωΔt  2Vr/VP (3.30) t = 2  2 / 100 = 0.2 rad 0.2/(2*3.14)=3.18%
Average diode current =?
iDav = IL( 1 + π 2VP/Vr ) (3.31) i Dav = 10(1 +  2  100 / 2) = 324 mA
Peak diode current =?
iDmax = IL( 1 + 2π 2VP/Vr ) (3.32) i D max = 10(1 + 2 2  100 / 2) = 638 mA

Vp
Vr = (3.33)
2 fCR
i Dav = I L (1 +  Vp / 2Vr ) (3.34)

i D max = I L (1 + 2 Vp / 2Vr ) (3.35)

Figure 3.26 Waveforms in the full-wave peak rectifier.
PIV = 2Vs − VD : for full wave rectifier
* Comparing with the half-wave case, we need half
size capacitor, half diode currents. PIV = Vs − VD : for bridge rectifier
The most important design parameters !!

This peak-rectifier can be applied to the design of a peak detector and a demodulator
for a amplitude–modulated (AM) signals.
3.5.5 Precision Half-wave Rectifier-the Super Diode
We need a very high-performance rectifier circuit that has no voltage drop (0.7 V) in some applications !!

1. Initially, vI= vO =0 5. When vI ≈ 0<0, vA≈A vI << 0 V

2. When vI≈ 0>0, vA≈A vI>>0.7 V 6. Diode is off.
3. Diode conducts

4. Voltage follower ! Unity gain 7. Open loop ! vA will saturate.

amplifier ! Buffer amplifier ! 8. vO = 0 V

O =  I I  0
3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits
3.6.1 Limiter Circuits

Double limiter

Clippers
3.6.2 The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer

Peak rectifier The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with a square-wave input and no load.
vO = vI + vC
* The output waveform will have its lowest peak clamped to 0 V.
* Reversing diode polarity will provide an output waveform whose highest peak is clamped to 0 V.

RC LPF demodulator

Pulse width modulation (PWM) DC Restorer !

 Figure 3.33 The clamped capacitor with a load resistance R.

3.6.3 The Voltage Doubler or Multiplier

This technique can be extended to provide dc output voltage that are higher multiples of Vp.
3.7 Special Diode Types
3.7.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode(SBD)
Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)
실리콘과 금속 접합 다이오드

- 순방향 전압강하가 적다.

- 고속 정류가 가능하다.
- 역 누설 전류가 비교적 많다.
- 내압(역전압)이 낮다.

3.7.2 Varactors
Varactors(전압가변 커패시턴스)
전압에 따라 커패시턴스를 가변할 수 있는 가변용량 다이오드

- PN 접합 다이오드에 역방향 바이어스를 걸어 공핍층의 두께에 따라 커패시턴스를 제어

- 주파스 선택을 위한 가변소자로서 공진회로, 발전기 등에 연결하여 사용
3.7.3 Photodiodes

LED(Light-Emitting Diodes : 발광 Diode)

전기에너지를 흡수하여 빛을 발생하는 다이오드

3.7.4 Light-Emitting Diodes(LEDs)

Photo Diode
빛을 흡수하여 전기에너지를 발생하는 다이오드