NATURAL RESOURCES (WATER)

Resources are defined as a means of meeting a need, particularly an economic or social

need, of the people. The term usually refers to natural resources like land, water, air.
Natural resources are largely unchanged materials of the land that are valuable to people
and used in a variety of ways.
Natural resources can be described as renewable or non-renewable.
Types of Resources
(i) Renewable resources (ii) Non-Renewable resources

Renewable Resources
Are those resources which can be used again and again and do not finish e.g. water, solar
power and wind power.
Q.1. Give three advantages of renewable energy.
Ans. Will not run out. Clean / do not pollute (environment).
Free at source.

Non-Renewable Resources
Are those resources which cannot be used again and again and finished e.g. coal, oil and
gas.
Q.1. State what is meant by ‘renewable energy’ and give an example.
Ans. Does not run out e.g. wind, solar, HEP, wave, etc.

Fossil Fuel
Remains of animals and plants are called fossils fuel. e.g. coal, oil and gas.
Q.1. Name a fossil fuel, and explain why it is non-renewable.
Ans. Name: Coal, Oil, Natural gas
Formed millions of years ago, taken out of ground. They will run out in a day.
They are not environment friendly.
Q.2. Explain how fossil fuels cause air and land pollution.
Ans. A Air pollution
Create CO2, smoke, smell
B Land pollution
Mining, quarrying, oil spills.

Hydrological Cycle
Water is a natural resource. The water that reaches the ground from the atmosphere falls
in various ways, such as rain, snow or hail. All these are included in the term
“Precipitation” some of the water runs directly on the earth surface such as rivers and
streams, draining into lakes and sea. The rest of it is either utilized by plants or soak into
the ground. Water is returned to the atmosphere as water vapor through evaporation from
surface water and by transpiration from plants. Rising into the atmosphere the water
vapor cools to form water droplets and this system is called condensation. So the cycle is
called hydrological cycle.
River System in Pakistan
There are two river system in Pakistan
1. The Indus system
2. Rivers of Balochistan

The Indus System

The Indus is the largest river of Pakistan, originated from lake Mansarowar Tibet China.
Its length is about 2900 km. It is watered by the glaciers of the Karakoram and Hindu
Kush. Crossing the Himalayas through a very deep gorge, it turns to the south west and
enters Pakistan. The Indus system irrigates about 60% of Pakistan’s 20 million hectares
of cultivable land. The Indus system consist of following tributaries.
The Eastern Tributaries
The Western Tributaries

Tributary: A river or stream flowing into a larger river or lake.

The river Indus is joined by a number of tributaries from the right and left. In general the
right-hand / western tributaries are small and carry a lower volume of water e.g. River
Kabul, River Gilgit, River Kurram and River Gomal.
A number of left-hand / Eastern tributaries are major rivers which carry large volumes of
water and sediments. These rivers are the Jhelum, River Chenab, River Ravi, River
Beas and River Sutlej. Eventually, all of them join at Mithankot. From there, they flow
as one stream under the name of Panjnad before they join the Indus. From there onwards,
the Indus makes its way to the Arabian Sea without being joined by any further
tributaries
Map shows the location of River Indus and its Tributaries (Eastern and Western).

Fig.1 shows the seasonal discharge of rivers.

The discharge of a river is the volume of water which flows through it in a given time. It
is usually measured in cubic meters per second.
Similarities in Fig.1
Low discharge of water during winter
High discharge of water during summer
Flow increases after March
Differences in Fig.1
River Indus and River Jhelum have highest monthly discharge in July
River Chenab and River Ravi have highest monthly discharge in August.

Rivers of Balochistan
● Rivers like the Zhob, Khandar and the Kalachi drain into River Indus because they
flow eastward.
● The rivers Loralai, Chakar, Bolan and Mula are absorbed into the Kachhi Sibi plain.
● The rivers Hab, Porali, Hingol and Dasht drain into Arabian Sea.
● There are many small rivers (Helmand) that flow westward and drain into shallow
depressions called hamuns.

Importance of Rivers to Pakistan

● Scenic beauty; for tourism / picnic
● Provides water; especially to areas where rainfall is low
● Helps to generate hydel power / electricity; which reduces power shortages
● Adds alluvium to soil; so, improves the fertility of the soil
● For fishing industry
● Provides water for domestic use / cleaning
● Provides water for industries; named examples, e.g. cement, brick making, cotton
● Provides water for irrigation / agriculture / farming; used to irrigate / feed livestock

Types of water
1. Ground water 2. Surface water
Major uses of water
1. Domestic 2. Industrial 3. Agricultural
Domestic uses of water
1. Drinking 2. Bathing 3. Preparing food
4. Washing and cleaning 5. Watering the yards and gardens

Industrial uses of water

Water is required in almost all the industries. In some industries it is the raw material but
in other industries it is used for cooling or washing purposes. Fig.2 shows the use of
water in different industries.
Uses of water in Agriculture
Irrigation
It is the artificial supply of water to land in order to encourage the plant growth. It is very
important in Arid, Semi Arid and Humid areas just to improve yield. In our country 75%
of cultivated area is under irrigation. This system has developed from traditional lift
irrigation to complex canal system. But in our country agriculture totally depends on
irrigation.

Why We Need Irrigation

1. Most of the areas in our country experience aridity or semi-aridity which increases
from north to south.
2. Long dry spell (April to June and October to November) in Pakistan.
3. High variability in the timings of rainfall.
4. Small no. of rainy days which are 20 in south, 20 to 50 days in northern areas and 93
at Murree per annum.
5. High rate of evapo-transpiration especially in arid and semi arid areas.
6. In 1948 India has stopped the water of canals, irrigated the areas of newly founded
Pakistan.
7. Recently India has constructed the dams on River Indus and River Chenab.

Methods of Irrigation
There are two methods of irrigation.

1. Traditional / Conventional Methods of irrigation.

i. Lift Irrigation
ii. Shaduf
iii. Charsa
iv. Persian Wheel
v. Karez

2. Modern Methods of irrigation

i. Tube well
ii. Canals.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
Lift Irrigation
One of the oldest methods of irrigation in Pakistan is lift irrigation. In early times, water
was lifted by hand in a bucket attached to a rope from shallow wells and ditches. Because
it involved a considerable amount of labor, only a small area of land could be irrigated.

Shaduf
The shaduf consists of a bucket suspended by a rope from one end of the pole. A weight
(like a rock) is placed at the other end of the pole. The pole is suspended on a Y shaped
post at a well or a river bank. The bucket is dipped into the water by hand and the weight
at the other end of the pole helps to lift it up. With a lot of efforts, only one-tenth of a
hectare can be irrigated and this method is now outdated.

Photograph of Lift Irrigation.

Photograph of Lift Irrigation

Photograph of Shaduf.

Photograph of Shaduf

Charsa
In this method the use of animal power to pull the bucket, which was suspended by a
rope on a pulley erected near a well. It then became possible to draw water from wells up
to a depth of 5 to 7 metres, meaning that a larger area could be irrigated.

Photograph of Charsa.

Photograph of Charsa
Persian Wheel
In the Persian wheel, a number of buckets are lowered into a well on a chain. As a result,
there is a continuous supply of water as the empty buckets descend into the well and
come out full of water. With this method, water up to a depth of 23 to 26 metres can be
accessed and powered by a pair of Bullocks or Camel. The Persian wheel, along with the
charsa, are the most common methods of lift irrigation in Pakistan and have used for
several centuries.
Study Fig.1, Photograph A of Persian Wheel.

Photograph of Persian wheel

Photograph of Persian wheel

Photograph of Persian wheel

Q.1. With reference to the photograph A, explain how this machine is used for
water supply.
Ans. Worked by animal (bullock or camel) or man power.
Using wooden shaft / pole.
Turns horizontal wheel / a wheel rotated.
Which is attached to vertical wheel.
With buckets / cups to raise water.
Water goes into trough / pipe / channel.
Karez
The karez is a water-tunnel or a narrow underground canal. It starts from the base of a hill
or mountain where ground water is present. It runs for 1 or 2 km under ground (or
sometimes up to 10 km). The karez irrigates orchards and agricultural fields. Throughout
its length, the karez is dotted with vertical shafts which are used to clean and repair it and
in certain areas they are used to extract water for domestic purposes. If the karez is
cleaned and repaired regularly, it can remain productive for a century or more. The
selection of a site for digging the karez is done by experienced village elders, while the
digging and repair is done by a group of laborers trained in this tradition.
The karez is usually privately owned by a group of people rather than a single person.
The owners share the water according to their percentage share in the karez. The main
problem of karez is that its water cannot be stopped from flowing. Further more their
maintenance is difficult and expensive. Karez irrigation is practiced only in Baluchistan.
Within this broad region, most of the karez are located in Zhob, Loralai, the Quetta-
Pishin and Mastung valleys and in favorable areas in Makran. However, karez irrigation
is gradually losing its importance.
Photograph of Karez

Photograph of Karez

Main Points (Karez)

Underground canals / tunnel
Uses ground water
Vertical shafts for cleaning
Irrigates oases
Example – Quetta – Pishun valley, Mastung valley.

Advantages
Continuous supply
Water from mountains put to good use
Does not evaporate
Only water in the desert.

Disadvantages
Difficult to control the flow of water
Expensive maintenance
Less rain in Balochistan. Only water in desert (oasis)
Study Fig.1, which shows an irrigation system.

Fig.1
Q.1. Name the irrigation system shown in Fig.1.
Ans. Karez.
Q.2. Name an area of Pakistan where it is used.
Ans. Balochisan
Kech valley / Turbat / Miri / Sharak
Q.3. Explain how karez irrigation helps date palms to grow in the oases.
Ans. Provides water for irrigation
Underground canals
Reduces evaporation
More rain on mountains / higher slopes
Q.4. Explain how this system provides water for agriculture in this area.
Ans. Rain falls in mountains
Drains to the foothills / sinks into ground / groundwater
Travels in tunnels / underground canals
Reaches surface / oases
Tunnels need maintenance
Owned by groups of farmers.
Q.5. Name a fruit crop grown in this area.
Ans. Dates / Grapes.

Effects / Problems of conventional methods of irrigation

1. Limited areas are irrigated due to less amount of water.
2. Require manual labour or animal power.
3. More time consuming.
4. Difficult to maintain, built and use.(karez)
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Tube well
The tube well is a fairly new addition to Pakistan’s irrigation system. It can tap water up
to depths of several hundred meters and is operated by diesel or electric motors. Tube
well also help to lower the water-table thereby protecting the land from water logging and
salinity.
Photograph of Tube well

Photograph of Tube well

Advantages of Tube well
1. More efficient / faster / does not need to rest.
2. Larger area can be irrigated.
3. Regular supply / can be used at any time of year / continuous.
4. Cleaner water.
5. Reduces water logging and salinity.
6. Less labor required.

Disadvantages of Tube well

1. Expensive / cannot be used by poor farmers.
2. Maintenance is difficult / expensive.
3. Diesel is expensive.
4. Spare parts are expensive.
5. Reduces groundwater / lower water table.
Study the Photograph.
Q.1. Name the irrigation system shown in the photograph and explain briefly it
works.
Ans. Tube well
Tube to groundwater
Water pumped up
By tractor (diesel), Water flows into pond / tank
Distributed to fields by canals.

Photograph of Tube well

Pakistan is water-deficit country. The rainfall is neither sufficient nor regular and does
not meet the growing needs of water. Agriculture is a major user and good yields depend
on the adequate availability of water at the right time. The increasing pressures of
population and industrialization have already placed great demands on water supplies and
there are an ever increasing number of local and regional conflicts over water availability
and use.

Q.1. Why do the writers refer to Pakistan as a ‘water-deficit country’?

Ans. Insufficient rainfall.
Growing needs.
Q.2. Using examples, explain why there are conflicts over water availability and
use.
Ans. Examples.
Farming vs Industry. Domestic vs food processing vs HEP vs others.
India vs Pakistan 1947 – 1960.
NWFP and Punjab vs Sindh.
Explanation.
Irrigation for more agriculture.
Industrialization – water for washing, cooling, processing.
Population growth – need for more.
Electricity for modern technology.

Most farmers in Balochistan do not have access to water from the River Indus. There are
many small rivers that flow into shallow lakes but they are dry for most of the year.
These small rivers can provide some water for irrigation. Other sources of water are
underground and some water flows in tunnels form the mountains.
Q.3. Describe the irrigation methods that can be used by farmers in Balochistan
and comment on the success of such schemes for increasing farming output.
Ans. Karez.
Canals from rivers.
Wells.
Shaduf to lift water.
Charsa to lift water.
Persian wheel to lift water.
Tanks for storage. Dams (small).
Success:- less important now, neglected – bad.
Sources drying up.
Lack of government investment.
Continuous supply – good.
Only water in the desert (oasis) good.
Water from mountains put to good use – good.
Does not evaporate – good.

Canal
A man made water way used to transport goods or irrigation water.
Canal has two types.
i. Inundation Canals / Seasonal Canals
ii. Perennial Canals.
Inundation / Seasonal Canals
These are seasonal canals and provide water to the fields in summer when the donor rivers are in
flood. These canals open in rainy season and closed in winters. These canals are beneficial for
kharif crops. Rabi crops took advantage of the moisture left in the land from summer flooding.
These canals irrigate the active flood plains where the land is sufficiently leveled and down ward
slopes from the river banks. The main net work of these canals in Sindh and southern Punjab.
The bar upland areas were not served by these canals as they could not rise up 5 to 7 metres high
bluff separating the flood plains and the bar upland.

Advantages
1. Water for irrigation.
2. Useful for kharif crop.

Disadvantages
1. Do not supply water throughout the year.
2. Single crop is cultivated.

Perennial Canals
These canal bring water to the fields throughout the year and are useful for both crops.
These canals have been taken out in bar upland areas from the dams and barrages.
Q.1. What are perennial canals and how may they lead to problem of water
logging and salinity in area S, photograph B.
Ans. Canals that can supply water all year round from reservoirs / barrages, via link
canals.
Problems
Too much irrigation water leading to evaporation in hot, dry climate.
Rise of water table.
Rise of salts to surface.

Advantages
1. Supply of water round the year.
2. Both crops are benefited.
Study Fig.3, which shows the perennial canal system in Pakistan.

Fig.3
Q.2. Describe the distribution of perennial canals.
Ans. Mainly on plains / Indus plain
Most widespread in Punjab
Only from Indus in Sindh
Mostly NE to SW in Punjab and upper Sindh
Mostly NW to SE in lower Sindh
South / east of highlands
No canals in SE area / Balochistan / north / west / mountains
Some in KPK.
Q.3. Explain how a perennial supply of water can damage farmland.
Ans. Too much water
Water table rises
Evaporates. Causes salinity / salts accumulates on surface.
Q.4. To what extent is it possible to increase water supply in Pakistan? .
Ans. Possibilities:
Indus river system + details
Rainfall in mountains
Melt water from mountains
Groundwater
Flat land for canals
Reduces losses, e.g. more storage, less leakage
Control misuse, e.g. by education.
Problems:
Not enough river water. Not enough rain. Loss by leakage, siltation. Evaporation
in hot water. Pollution. Demands always increasing. Lack of funds.
Some places remote, e.g. Balochistan.

A. Lined Canals
Lined canals are paved with cement and brickwork on the bed and sides.

Photograph of Lined Canal

B. Unlined Canals
Unlined canals are without any brick work. Their bottom and sides are of earth and soil.

Photograph of Unlined Canal

Disadvantages of Unlined Canals
1. Rise water table to the surface level.
2. Cause water logging and salinity.
Factors (leading to the development of canal irrigation system in Pakistan).

Natural:
1. Southward slope of the rivers makes construction of canals easier because water flows
southwards naturally.
2. Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting of snow can be stored in
in reservoirs during summer season.
3. Soft soil and level land of the Indus plain makes digging of canal easier than in the
rugged lands of Baluchistan.

Human:
1. Cheap labor and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction.
2. Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams and
barrages.
3. Capital.
4. Machinery and transport.

Why do we construct the canals / Purpose?

1. To avoid wastage of water.
2. To provide water for irrigation.
3. Provide water to end user.
Study Fig.4, which shows canal water supply in Pakistan.

Fig.4
Q.1. Study Fig.4. In which year was the water supply highest?
Ans. 1999
Q.2. How much higher was this than the supply in 2002?
Ans. 31 (million acre feet).
Q.3. Why is there not enough water supply from canals to meet the needs of all
users?
Ans. Shortage of rainfall.
Evaporation.
Less river water / restrictions by India / more dams on rivers.
Siltation in reservoirs / canals.
Seepage / leakage from canals.
Wastage by users.
Water pollution.
High demand / variety of uses.
Theft of water.
Population increase.
Lack of investment.

Water Table
Level of ground water is called water table. It is very easy to obtain ground water on
foothills of mountains and difficult in desert areas.

Waterlogging
The rise of the water table to the surface level is called water logging and the appearance
of salty patches is called salinity.
Water available all year.
Crops given more water than they use.
Water table rises to surface level.
Fertilizers add to salts in water.
Salts left behind / form a hard crust on surface.
Soil becomes infertile / toxic.

Salinity
Evaporation of water.
Salt in irrigation water.
Salts brought to surface.
Unlined canals leak.

Measures (to overcome the problem of water logging and salinity)

1. Lining the canals.
2. Planting the trees in affected areas.
3. Installing the tube wells.
4. Education to improve farming methods.
5. Flushing out of salts by water from tube wells surface drains.
The tube wells pump out water at high speed and keep the water level down. If the
pumped water is fresh, it could be used for irrigation, e.g. in Punjab province. If pumped
water is saline it would be drained into river or lake, e.g. in Sindh which is drained into
Manchar Lake.

6. Government Schemes
Government of Pakistan have chalked out a reclamation project to solve the problem in
1959. Name of the project was SCARP (Salinity control and Reclamation project).
According to it Indus Basin divided into different projects and tube wells were installed.
SCARP I.
It covers the areas of Rechna Doab including Faisalabad and Sheikhupura and Reclaimed
1.9 million acres.

SCARP II.
It includes the areas of Chaj Doab and reclaimed 2.27 million acres. 3311tubewells were
installed, 450 miles long lined canals and channels were built.

SCARP III.
It includes the areas of Jhang, Muzafargarh and covers 1.28 million acres.1550 tube wells
were installed, 150 miles long lined canals and channels were built.

SCARP IV and V.
It includes the areas from Khairpur to Ran Kutch in Sindh and 257 miles long lined
canals built to carry extra water to Manchar Lake.
Q.1. Explain why waterlogging and salinity of soils causes problems to farmers.
Ans. Reduces cultivable area / makes land un-usable.
Reduces yield / damage crops.
Reduces income / profit.
Expensive to reclaim land.
Study Photograph B, showing an area in Hyderabad District damaged by water logging
and salinity.

Photograph B
Q.2. Describe the appearance of the area S in photograph B
Ans. Bare / no vegetation.
Cracks / cracked mud.
Pools of water.
Saline water.
White / mustard color.
Edged with black / grey.
Q.3 Name the project set up to control salinity.
Ans. Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP).
Q.4. Explain why waterlogging and salinity of soils causes problems to farmers.
Ans. Reduces cultivable area / makes land un-usable
Reduces yield / damages crops
Reduces income / profit
Expensive to reclaim land.
Reasons why this occurs
Water table rises
Evaporation (caused by hot climate)
Salts left behind / form a hard crust on surface
Soils becomes infertile
Farmers use too much water / poor farming methods
Perennial water supply / available all year

The Indus Water Treaty (1960)

In 1947, when Pakistan was created, the province of Punjab was divided. Part of it was
given to India and part to Pakistan. The head works at Madhupur on the river Ravi and at
Firozpur on the Sutlej were in India, but many of the canals that branched off from them
were irrigating agriculture lands of the newly founded Pakistan.
In March 1948, India stopped the flow of water into Pakistani canals. This was a serious
matter. Pakistan took the issue up with India and an interim agreement was arrived at on
4 May 1948. For a permanent solution to the problem, negotiations started in 1952 under
the auspices of the World Bank. In September 1960, an agreement was signed which
came to be known as the Indus Water Treaty, Pakistan received exclusive rights over the
three western Rivers, the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab and India those of the three eastern
rivers,
The Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. There was to be a transitional period ending on 31 March
1970, which was extendable by three more years. During this transitional period, India
agreed to continue supplying water to Pakistan. During the same period, it was expected
that Pakistan would construct two storage dams, five Barrages, one Gated Siphon and
eight link canals to divert some of the water of the western rivers into the interfluves of
the eastern rivers. The construction cost was to be met with the help of aid from the
United States, The United Kingdom, West Germany, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. A part of the cost was also to be paid by India. The remaining expenditure was
to be met by Pakistan. The replacement works were entrusted to WAPDA.
Study Fig.5, shows the location of rivers in Punjab

Fig.5
Q.1. In which year was the Indus Water Treaty signed?
Ans. 1960.
Q.2. Why was the Indus water treaty necessary for Pakistan?
Ans. 1. Most of Pakistan suffers from low rainfall.
2. Most of Pakistan suffers from unreliable rainfall.
3. Increasing population means more food is needed.
4. Punjab divided between India and Pakistan in 1947 / at partition.
5. Head waters of Pakistan’s main rivers / eastern rivers, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej are
in India. Head works in India at Madhupur on Ravi and at Firozpur on
Sutlej. Canals from them provided water for irrigated land in Pakistan.
6. India cut off water supplies to Pakistan in 1948 and the land became arid.
7. Pakistan made to buy water from India.
8. Construction of dams on western rivers by India.

Dam
A man made structure built across a river in order to control the flow of water / use
water for irrigation. Following are the types of dam.

Tarbela Dam (IWT)

The two storages dams which were to be built as part of the Indus Water Treaty were at
Tarbela and Mangla. The Tarbela Dam is located on the River Indus near Tarbela about
47 kilometres upstream from Atock. It is a multipurpose project designed to store 11.0
million acre-feet of water and to generate 2.1 million kilowatts of electricity. It irrigates
part of the Potwar Plateau, but its main function is to supply water to the Chashma-
Jhelum Link Canal through which the Trimmu-Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal
system is also fed.The Tarbela Dam also feeds the Taunsa-Panjnad Link Canal. The
Jinnah, Chashma, Taunsa, Gudu, Sukkur and Kotri Barrages built on the River Indus are
supplied with water from the Tarbela Dam in winter when the flow is low. It is 143
metres high and has a reservoir area of 243 square km. It has nine huge gates to control
the outflow of water. It is the world’s largest earth filled dam and has two big spillways
from the reservoir which was impressive feature.

Photograph of Tarbela Dam.

Photograph of Tarbela Dam

Mangla Dam (IWT)
The Mangla Dam which was completed in 1969, is located on the River Jhelum and has a
storage capacity of 5.5 million acre-feet. In future, it will be possible to raise its storage
capacity to 9.6 million acre-feet. It supplies water to canals irrigating the chaj and bari
doabs. The water is also used to generate electricity. Ultimately, three million kilowatts
of electricity will be generated from this dam. The Mangla lake, besides serving as the
reservoir of the dam, has also been developed as a fishing center and a tourist resort.

Photograph of Mangla Dam.

Photograph of Mangla Dam

Warsak Dam
Warsak a multipurpose project, designed to provide water for irrigation and for the
generation of electricity. It is located on the river Kabul about 32 kms. from Peshawar. Its
installed capacity is 240MW.

Kurramgarhi Dam
It is located on the river Kurram at Kurramgarhi. The dam provides water to the Bannu
civil canals and has improved the irrigation of 530 square km. of land.

Ghazi Barotha Project

A new hydel project which is located on the river Indus near Ghazi town. It is a large
project with a capacity of 1450 MW. It is expected to be completed soon.

Purpose of the Reservoirs / Dams

1. The dam and reservoir is used for flood control, irrigation and generation of HEP.
2. The reservoir is an artificial lake which can be used for fishing, boating and recreation.
3. Water can be supplied to nearby towns for domestic purposes.
4. The dam also provides a road across the river.
Small Hydel Plants
There are a number of small hydel plants in Pakistan. Their installed capacity is 107 MW.
One of them is Renala, located in the Upper Bari Doab Canal and commissioned in1925,
it is the oldest hydel plant in Pakistan. Another is in Rasul, located between the Upper
and Lower Jhelum Canals. It was commissioned in 1952, after which import of electricity
from India was stopped.
Small Dams
Besides large irrigation projects, a number of small dams have also been built in the
Western Highlands. They irrigate relatively smaller areas and are located on narrow
streams commanding small alluvial areas in hilly regions. Some of these dams have been
built by the WAPDA and others by the Small Dams Organization set up by the
Agricultural Development Corporation. An example of a smaller dam is Rawal dam on
the river Kurang. Besides supplying water to Islamabad, it irrigates about 50 square kms.
of land. The Khanpur dam on the river Haro, which will irrigate 148 square kms. in the
Abbotabad, Attock and Rawalpindi districts, has been recently commissioned.
Balochistan has a number of small dams. The Nari-Bolan Project uses the monsoon flow
of the Bolan River to irrigates 97 square km. of the Sibi plains. The Narachip Project
irrigates 13 square kms. of the Loralai District. The Hab Dam in the Lasbela District,
which was commissioned in 1982, is designed to irrigate 340 square km. of land in and
around Lasbela and Karachi.
Q.1 What are the natural factors that have favored the construction of dams and
reservoirs.
Ans. Deep valleys increases storage capacity / provides high head of water for hydel.
Narrow valleys for dams reduces amount of materials required for dam.
Solid rock for dams to support weight of dam.
Large basins For water storage.
Impervious rocks for reservoir to seepage of water. Low evaporation rates.
Forested valley sides hold soil / slow rate of siltation.
High precipitation/ rainfall / snowfall.
Study Fig.6, shows a diagram of a hydel plant

Fig.6
Main Features of a Hydel Plant are:
1. The dam wall is constructed to create a water reservoir.
2. Tunnel leads the water from the reservoir to the turbine.
3. The power station is located at the base of the dam. The force of water from the
tunnel runs the turbine which moves the generator. The generator generates the
electric current.
4. The reservoir is the storage of water which is necessary to run the turbine
continuously.
5. A natural feature is the hilly region where the dam site is located. Hills are seen in the
back ground.
6. Pylons and transmission lines to supply electric current to nearby large towns.
Study Fig.7, which shows the distribution of large and small dams.

Fig.7
Q.2. Study the map, Fig.6, describe the distribution of the dams.
Ans. 1. In mountains.
2. Major dams all in N / and NW Pakistan / Upper Punjab and NWFP.
3. Major dams all on river Indus and its tributaries.
4. Most of small dams are in N and NW.
5. Most of small dams are on tributaries of the river Indus.
6. One small dam on river Hab in south (Baluchistan).
7. One small dam near Sibi.
Q.3. Naming an industry in each case, describe three different purposes for which
manufacturing and processing industries use water.
Ans. 1. Cooling water for iron and steel industry.
2. Washing / cleaning in textile industry.
3. For boiling in food processing.
4. As ice to preserve frozen food.
5. To provide humidity in textile mills.
Q.4. Compare the purposes for which the water is stored by the two types of dam.
Ans. 1. Small dams and large dams store water mainly for irrigation.
2. Major dams serve near and far areas but small dams only serve local areas.
3. Small and major dams provide water for the use of domestic and industry.
4. Major dams are more multi-purpose than small dams.
5. Two major dams have purpose of providing water to link canals……
…..Tarbela and Mangla dams
…..water from Indus and Jhelum rivers
…..transferred to eastern rivers.
 6. All major dams are major suppliers of HEP but small dams supply little / no
HEP.
7. The reservoirs behind both large and small dams are used for fishing /
recreation e.g. Mangla reservoir produces 2 % of inland fish catch.
8. Large dams more important for flood control than small dams.
Q.5. State three problems caused by the storage of water in reservoirs and its use
for agriculture.
Ans. By storage of water.
1. People have to be moved from the area to be flooded for storage.
2. Silting of reservoirs.
3. Loss of silt downstream for agriculture.
4. Loss of water downstream for irrigation by inundation canals.

By use for agriculture.

1. Water logging in irrigated areas.
2. Salinity in irrigated areas.
3. So much used in Punjab that parts of Sindh are suffering from a shortage of
water.

Q.6 What is silting and how is it caused.

Ans. Silting means the deposition of silt, mud and sand on the bed of the reservoirs.

Causes of siltation.
1. Rivers erode the material from bed / sides.
2. Large load carried by the river.
3. Deforestation.
Q.7 Why is silting a problem / effects.
Ans. 1. May damage the machinery.
2. May block the pipes.
3. Increases the risk of flooding.
4. May shorten the life of reservoir.
5. Decreases water holding capacity of the reservoir / canals which limits the
HEP production / water for irrigation.
6. Has to be removed for drinking water.
7. Expensive / difficult to remove.

Methods to control the silt

1. Planting trees along the hill slopes surrounding the river valley.
2. To build small dams in the river up streams from the dam.
3. To build small dams in the tributary streams joining the main river.
Q.8 Other than supplying water to industry, for what purposes may reservoirs
and dams be used?
Ans. Storage of water. Hydro electric power. Domestic water. Irrigation. Fishing.
Recreation of reservoir. Flood control, Road on dam.
Q.9 Name in full the two institutions set up by the government to build the dams.
Ans. 1. Water and Power Development Authority.(WAPDA)
2. Small Dams Organization.(SDO)
Q.10 Why do the reservoirs of these dams hold large quantities of water?
Ans. Deep valley / large valley.
Steep sites.
Large river / permanent flow / water from snowfields / glaciers.
Low evaporation / cool climate.
High rainfall.
Study photograph C showing the Hanna Dam.

Photograph C
Q.11. Describe the site of the dam.
Ans. Steep rock.
Bare rock / rocky / barren.
Deep and narrow valleys.
Gravel / sand.
Q.12. What evidence shows that the water level in the reservoirs is low?
Ans. Dry ground / Silt / flat land at edge.
Q.13. Compare the barrage shown in Photograph D with the dam in Photograph
C.
Ans. Barrage is:- Longer / wider / less high.
Water on both sides.
Low / flatter land.
Dam is:- Steep rock.
Bare rock / rocky / barren.
Deep and narrow valleys. Gravel / sand.

Study Photograph D showing the Balloki Barrage.

Photograph D
Q.14. Suggest why the amount of water stored in the reservoir is decreasing.
Ans. Siltation / silting deposited due to soil erosion / deforestation.
Less water supply due to climatic change / lower rainfall.
Increased usage.
Q.15. What can be done to stop the amount of water in the reservoir from reducing
further?
Ans. Silt traps.
Afforestation.
Removal of silt.
Reducing wastage / pollution.

Barrage
A structure built across a river in order to store water / to use water for irrigation.

Photograph of Trimmu Barrage

Details of the five barrages and the gated siphon constructed under the Indus water Treaty
are given below:
Chashma Barrage (IWT)
Located on the River Indus and completed in 1970. Designed to divert one million cusecs
into the Chashma-Jhelum Link, thereby irrigating areas served by the Sidhnai-Mailsi-
Bahawal Link system and the Haveli and Rangpur canals.

Rasul Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Jhelum and completed in 1968. Its flood discharge capacity is
850,000 cusecs. Supplies water to the Rasul Qadirabad Link canal and eventually to the
Sulaimanki Barrage on the Sutlej.

Marala Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Chenab and completed in 1969. Its flood discharge capacity
is 1.1 million cusecs. Supplies water to the Ravi Link canal and the Upper Chenab Canal.
Qadirabad Barrage (IWT)
Located on the River Chenab and completed in 1970. Its discharge capacity is 0.9million
cusecs. Supplies water to the Qadirabad Balloki Link through the Rasul Qadirabad Link.

Mailsi Siphon (IWT)

A gated siphon located on the River Sutlej near Mailsi. Its purpose is to carry water on
the Sidhnai-Mailsi Link across the Sutlej into the Bahawal canal. The Sidhnai Barrage
supplies water to the Sidhnai-Mailsi Link canal.

Uses / Purpose of Barrages

1. Irrigation/release water for irrigation;
2. Provide water supply to perennial canals/link canals;
3. Flood control; Flow of water controlled;
4. To stimulate economic development/industry/settlement.
5. Provide water for irrigation.

Difference between Barrage and Dam

• Dams store water / barrages control flow of water;
• Barrages can supply little / small amounts / no electricity (dams are major suppliers of
hydel power),
• Silting is a problem for dams (but not barrages);
• Maintenance cost is lower for barrages (more expensive for dams);
• Construction and or maintenance time is quicker for barrages (longer for dams);
• Construction cost is lower for barrages (more expensive for dams);
• Fewer or no people have to be evacuated for barrages;
• Barrages have less environmental impact than dams;
• Barrages can be built on flat land (dams require steep slopes);
• Dams have multiple uses whereas barrages do not;
• Dams provide water for a larger area than barrages;
• Barrage to deviate channel to an area where there is no river;
• Do not need to excavate a large area for barrages.

Other Barrages
Jinnah Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Two canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Upper Thal Canal, South Thal Canal. It irrigates the areas of Mianwali
Muzaffargarh, Khushab, Bhakkar, Lieh and irrigates the 2200000 acres.

Taunsa Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Two canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Right and Left Bank canal and Taunsa Panjnad Link canal. These canals irrigates
the areas of Muzaffargarh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur and drained 1900000 acres.

Guddu Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Three canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Ghotki, Begari and Desert Pat Feeder canals. These canals irrigates the areas of
Sukkur, Mirpur, Rohri, Jacobabad and commanded area is 11600 square kilometers.
Kotri / Ghulam Muhammad Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Four canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Kotri, Kalri, Penyari and Phuleli. These canals irrigates the areas of Badin,
Sanghar, Hyderabad, Mirpur, Nawabshah and irrigates11100 square km. of land.

Sukkur Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Seven canals have been taken out from this Barrage,
namely NW canal, Rohri canal, Nara, East Khairpur, West Khairpur, Rice, Dadu and
irrigates 22000 square kms. These canals irrigates the areas of Hyderabad, Sanghar,
Larkana, Dadu, Nawabshah and Khairpur.
Q.1. Name an example of a barrage.
Ans. Balloki Kotri Sidhnai Chashma Marala
Sukkur Guddu Sulaimanke Islam Khanki
Qadirabad Taunsa Rasul Trimmu. Jinnah
Panjnad
Q.2. What is the main purpose of a barrage and how is this purpose achieved?
Ans. Main Purpose:
To provide water for irrigation.
How purpose is achieved:
1. Gates closed.
2. Barrages store water behind it.
3. Canals / Link canals take water and distribute it into a network of smaller
canals.
4. Link canals take water from western rivers to eastern rivers.
Q.3. Briefly describe the changes that have taken place in the land use of the
lower Indus plain as a result of building barrages.
Ans. 1. Large areas (previously desert) are cultivated.
2. Different crops are cultivated e.g. rice / sugarcane / wheat / bananas.
3. Led to an increase in land used for settlement.
4. Water logging and salinity (areas) due to poor management of irrigation.

Link Canal
Canal which carries water from one canal to another.

Link canals (under the Indus Water Treaty)

1. Rasul Qadirabad
Carries water from the Rasul Barrage on the River Jhelum to the River Chenab.
2. Qadirabad-Balloki
An extension of the Rasul-Qadirabad Link by which water is transferred to Ravi.
3. Balloki-Sulaimanke
Connects the Ravi and Sutlej.
4. Trimmu-Sidhnai
Transfers water from the Trimmu Barrage to the Ravi.
5. Sidhnai-Mailsi
Takes the water transferred from the Trimmu Barrage to the Ravi into the Sutlej.
6. Mailsi-Bahawal
Supplies water to the Bahawal canal.
7. Chashma-Jhelum
Transfers water from the Chashma Barrage on the Indus to the Jhelum.
8. Taunsa-Panjnad
Transfers water from the Taunsa Barrage on the Indus to the Chenab to feed the
canals in Punjab

Fig.8, shows the irrigation system of Pakistan.

Fig.8

Purpose of the Link Canals

1. In general the purpose of the link canals is to transfer water from the three
western rivers (Indus. Jhelum. Chenab) to two eastern rivers (Ravi and Sutlej).
2. To provide water for irrigation canal / perennials canals.
3. To compensate for water lost (to India) from eastern rivers.
Remodel the Existing Canals
In addition to the construction of new links, existing link canals, like the Marala-Ravi,
Balloki - Sulaimanke and Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur (BRB), have been
remodeled. Thus, Punjab is interlaced with a network of canals to compensate the loss of
three eastern rivers to India.

Prupose of Remodel the Existing Canals

1. Assurance of continuous supply of water for irrigation.
2. To avoid siltation.
3. To avoid soil erosion.
Q.4. Explain the importance of the Indus Water Treaty to Pakistan.
Ans. Ensures that India does not restrict Pakistan’s water supply / water supply in
Pakistan is maintained
Ensures an effective irrigation system in the Indus Plain
Pakistan has exclusive rights to water of the rivers Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
Maintains agricultural production
Tarbela and Mangla dams built to store water
Barrages / syphon / link canals built to distribute water
Enabled construction cost of works to be shared with Western countries and India.

Minor Irrigation System

1. The Diversion Canal
The Diversion canal and Sailaba are minor irrigation systems which are practiced in the
western highlands. In the diversion canal, water is taken off from narrow streams through
small man-made channel to irrigate small areas. This can only be done when the river is
full. Diversion canals are called kaurjo in Makran. This form of irrigation is practiced
over a large area, from Chitral to Makran.

2. Sailaba
Sailaba irrigation uses the surface run-off of hill slopes. Whenever a sufficient quantity of
rainfall takes place, water flows down hill slopes and reaches the plains, where the
agricultural fields are located. This water is diverted into the fields and nourishes the
crops. Of course, a sufficient quantity of rainfall does not take place every year, so this
method of irrigation has limited utility. The available water is never enough to irrigate a
large area of land.

Ground Water
Water beneath the surface of the ground called ground water.
There is a scarcity of water in Pakistan and so there is a big need of irrigation for the
cultivation of crops. Both ground water and surface water are used for irrigation. Ground
water is tapped by tube wells, karez, and wells. Surface water is tapped by canals,
diversion and sailaba. They are used to re-channel the surface water flowing into the
streams and rivers. Ground water is extremely useful in the areas like Baluchistan Plateau
and desert areas because in these areas irrigation is impossible due to less rainfall and
unsuited land. In big cities like Karachi, there is a shortage of water due to growing
population. People use water for domestic purposes so they pump out the water through
pipes drilled into the ground.
Ground water can be saline or sweet. It is non-saline near the source of re-charge i.e.
rivers and major canals. It gradually becomes more saline as the distance from re-charge
sources increases.
In big industrial cities like Karachi, ground water may not be fit for human consumption
due to seepage of toxic chemicals, sewage or sea-water into the ground. Therefore ground
water should be tested in a laboratory before it is used.
Cusec
Cubic unit of water passing per second through a river or canal.
Discharge
The quantity of water passing through a river.

Span
Door of a Barrage.
Gated Siphon
Inverted U-shaped pipe which carries water over a barrier to the other side. The
flow of water is controlled by the gate.

Prepared By:
Muhammad Hussain
Lecturer Chenab College Jhang.
0332-6281233