CHAPTER 10

Glass Fractures and Fragments

Glass fractures or fragments are
often of value as evidence or leads in
an investigation. Fractured glass
found at a scene may show the direction
from which a bullet entered a pane of
glass. And it may show the angle from
which the bullet was fired. Fractured
glass may show the direction from which
a blow was struck. Windowpanes broken
outward, away from the inside of a room,
may reveal the direction, force, and
limits of an explosion. Window panes
broken inward, toward the inside of a
room, may suggest the means of an
intruder’s entry. And sometimes glass
fragments bear chemical traces of
inflammable agents.
Glass fragments also may yield clues
to help identify suspects. If an intruder
breaks a window, fragments of glass
may stick to his clothing. They may fall
into a trouser cuff. Or they may adhere to or cut for useful or decorative puroses. Or
the soles and the sewn edges of his shoes. like mirrors and safety glass, it may be
If glass is broken in a fleeing-the-scene combined with other materials for special
vehicle accident, fragments of glass may purposes. Different amounts of ingredients
be found stuck to or in the tires of a used in batches of molten glass yield
variations. These variations, when found
suspect’s vehicle. Such fragments can be and proven by the lab, may be of value as
collected, analyzed, and compared to evidence.
glass found on the scene.
The main determining factor of the
Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica evidence value of glass lies in the existence or
and two or more alkaline materials. The lack of a physical fit between a questioned
silica is often a natural sand. The alkaline sample and a standard. This fit can make it
materials are often soda, lime, or potash. The possible to tell if the two fragments came
mixture also may have other elements and from the same source. The physical
metals. These may be from impurities, or properties of glass may also show the way in
added for color, strength, heat-resistance, or which a piece of glass was broken. Glass
other purposes. Glass is made by melting its bends and stretches before breaking. It
elements in a crucible at very high seldom breaks squarely across. Usually it
temperature. The molten mass is then either leaves convex/concave edges or stress lines
rolled, blown, or molded into desired sizes on the fractured edges. These breaks yield
and shapes. Later it may be polished, ground, both radial and concentric fractures.
DETERMINING POINT OF IMPACT AND DIRECTION OF FORCE
Broken glass shows two kinds of fractures: of a wheel as they radiate outward from the
primary, first-made fractures, and point of impact. Secondary fractures are
secondary, subsequent fractures. Primary concentric. They form a series of broken
fractures are radial. They look like the spokes circles, or arcs, around the point of impact.

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Radial fractures show up on the surface reliable.) Radial fractures follow the 4-R Rule.
opposite to the one where the fracturing blow Ridge lines on Radial fractures are at Right
or pressure was applied. These fractures tend angles to the Rear (side opposite the impact).
to lengthen after awhile because of internal This rule is valid only from point of impact to
stresses set up by the initial shock. The the first concentric fracture and valid only to
original radial fracture looks like a wavy line. the first bend in the glass. You must find the
Extensions to the original fracture run in a point of impact to be able to find the direction
straight line. Temperature changes cause of force.
extensions to take place more quickly.
The direction of a blow is rarely found by
Concentric fractures are made by a force checking a single piece of broken glass. If you
working in the opposite direction from that must show the way a pane of glass broke, you
which made the radial fractures. The glass need enough pieces to find which are the
bends, then stretches and breaks on the same radial edges. Finding the outside and inside
side as the first blow. Concentric fractures of the glass may be helped by examining the
extend from one radial fracture to another. glass surface. The amount of dirt, putty
marks, and other clues may help you
WINDOW GLASS mentally place the pane in its original form.
Edges of broken pieces of window glass bear
a number of curved lines, called ridge lines. WINDSHIELD GLASS
These ridge lines are almost parallel to one Determining the point of impact and
side of the glass and perpendicular (at right direction of force is more difficult in
angles) to the other. Ridge lines are often windshield glass. Windshield, or safety glass,
visible to the naked eye. If they are hard to is made with a transparent binding agent like
see, the glass can be turned at angles to the vinyl plastic sandwiched between two sheets
light so the reflection will show the lines. of plain glass. The binding agent halts the
Ridge lines show the increase in stress setup
in the glass until it breaks. shattering of the glass when it is struck. Due
to the structure of safety glass, cracking is
In radial fractures, the ridge lines are often incomplete. Neither the radial nor the
always perpendicular to the side opposite the concentric cracks go all the way through from
impact. (The use of ridge lines to determine one side to the other. If concentric cracks and
point of impact in concentric fractures is not no radial cracks are on one side this is the side

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of impact. If only radial and no concentric A lab expert can also test for the side of
cracks are found on one side, this is the side impact based on the property of safety glass.
away from the impact. The cracked side may Safety will bend, and remain bent, instead of
be found by sliding a fingernail or sharp- shattering when struck. The bending will
pointed instrument along the glass surface cleave in a concave surface on the impact side
across the apparent cracks. and a convex surface on the other.
COLLECTING AND HANDLING
Glass and glass fragments are collected Pick up the glass by the edges and avoid
much like other types of evidence. the flat surface as much as you can. Collect as
Differences are due to the nature of the glass many fragments as you can to make
itself and to the information you are seeking. reassembly as complete as possible. Collect
Glass and glass fragments must be and preserve particles too small to match or
photographed and located on your crime reconstruct. The lab can analyze these for
scene sketch before they are touched or their physical properties.
moved. Their obvious or suspected relation to Sometimes, when glass is broken out of a
the case must be noted. When you collect window or door, pieces remain in the frame.
fragments, avoid smudging prints or Remove the frame and keep it intact, if you
disturbing dust, dirt, bloodstains, or other can. This will help in the reassembly of the
foreign matter which may be on the glass. broken pieces. If this cannot be done, the
These may provide leads or be evidence in pieces left in the frame should be carefully
themselves. Wear rubber or fabric gloves. marked. Show both inside and outside
Use rubber-tipped tweezers or something like surfaces. Take them out to avoid further
them to handle small fragments. This will damage to the glass or disturbing anything
keep the glass from being scratched. Metal thereon. If the frame is not removed, samples
tweezers with adhesive tape over the inner of the wood, paint, putty and any other
surface of the points work well. materials should be taken from it.
MARKING
Mark glass fragments with a diamond found. This helps in the reassembly of
point or Carborundum pencil. A piece of fragments and in the reconstruction of the
properly marked adhesive tape or a grease incident. Include a sequence number which,
pencil will also work. Include your initials, when keyed with your notes, photographs,
the date, and the time. Place marks where and sketches, will identify where the
there is no deposit of value as evidence. Place fragments were found. Place fragments too
marks on the side which was up (or inside if small for markings in containers. Mark both
taken from a window frame or door) when the container and lid.
PRESERVING
Wrap glass or glass fragments in soft examined by the lab must be packed
paper, cotton, or like material so they don’t carefully. Friction, shifting, or contact with
break. Do this in a way to avoid damage to other items can destroy or contaminate the
prints or other substance to be sent to the lab evidence.
or saved as evidence. Put the wrapped glass Submit all pieces and fragments pertaining
in containers and fasten the containers so to an incident at the same time. Identify each
that the glass will not shift. Wrappings and piece of evidence clearly on separately
containers should be marked “Fragile.” wrapped items.
Evidence which you decide should be
EVALUATING
Glass fragments and fractures are relation to all other evidence. Your
evaluated like other items of evidence. You evaluation begins as evidence is collected,
consider their value alone and also in and it continues until the case is closed.

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Early in your evaluation, consider the need specialists may, if enough glass from a
for scientific lab analysis. Glass is not vehicle is found, learn the vehicle’s make,
destroyed or appreciably altered in lab work model, and year. They may also eliminate the
except in spectrographic examination of small possibility that the glass came from a suspect
fragments. Thus, the evidence pieces can be vehicle, thus thinning the field. But
used later to compare with suspect pieces, if sometimes you may want to delay sending
they are needed. If lab examination is needed, some items to the lab. Keeping pieces of a
request it as soon as you can. Speed may be broken headlight lets you match it to
essential to halt the loss of odors or residue. remaining pieces found on a suspect’s
vehicle. This can be confirmed later by lab
Early submission for lab analysis may analysis.
help your case. For example, the lab

RECONSTRUCTING FRACTURED GLASS

Only the lab can truly reconstruct a piece of or if class marks can be found, you may show
fractured glass. But you may want to put the object as to make, type, size, and so forth.
pieces of glass in relation to one another to This will permit getting a duplicate, and the
get a better look at the fractures. How you do problem is made easy.
this will depend on the size and shape of the
object. Do not do this on a permanent basis. Lab specialists can reconstruct curved
Pieces or fragments are not sent to the lab in glass by forming a cast the size and shape of
a reconstructed form. Damage may occur in the inside surface. They use linseed oil putty
handling or transit. or a like material that will keep its elasticity.
If the lens can be identified, a plaster cast
You must take care not to rub the fractured may be made from a duplicate, The fractured
edges against each other. You may cause pieces can be mounted on it, and held in place
more flaking or fracturing and destroy parts by plastic tape. Pieces and fragments,
of the ridge line marking. One way to avoid properly marked, can then be matched by
this is to keep the edges at least a pencil their edges and pattern markings, placed on
point’s width apart. When as many pieces as the cast, and pressed in just enough to hold
possible are in place, the outlines may then be them in place.
traced on the paper. Make notes on the paper
to fit your markings on the pieces for future If lab specialists do not have enough pieces
reference and use. If you need a more to identify the object or show the
permanent reconstruction later, the pieces circumference and spherical surface, they
may be fixed to a base of plywood or heavy take a piece with enough arcs to make rough
cardboard with plastic tape or glue. measurements to allow forming a putty cast.
They can use a spherometer or a Geneva gage
To reconstruct a curved or irregular-shaped to tell both curvature and circumference.
piece, like a bottle or jar, is more difficult. You They also may get close measurements by
must find out both the size and the shape of geometrical projection. Using the arcs of the
the object. Some pieces (such as automobile circumference and sphere of the found
headlight lenses) may have patterns cast or fragments, they trace the arc of a fragment
cut into them. These you can compare and on a piece of paper. Then they use standard
match more easily then you can smooth glass geometrical construction to approximate the
surfaces. In many cases, the pattern may be diameter. The circumference can then be
matched independently of the fractured projected.
edges. But the exact matching of edges is still
the most conclusive evidence of common source. Keep in mind that these are only rough
approximations. Lenses are made not only in
Prepare by first finding out the round, but also in oval and other shapes. And
circumference and the curvature of the spherical surfaces are not always completely
spherical surface. If you have enough pieces, regular in contour.

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EXAMINING FRACTURES IN THE FIELD

In the field you must be able to distinguish the right of the glass, very little chipping will
fractures caused by heat from those caused be found on the right side of the exit hole.
by blunt force. And you must be able to Instead, there will be a lot of chipping around
distinguish both of these kinds of fractures the left side of the exit hole. And the entrance
from that created by high-speed impact like hole will show straight and short radial
that of a bullet. fractures on the right, while one or two long
radial fractures should appear on the left. If a
BULLET HOLE FRACTURES bullet enters from the left of the glass, these
fractures will be reversed.
Checking glass for bullet holes may
provide useful knowledge. It may be possible To learn the angle from which a bullet was
to determine the direction from which a bullet fired, the bullet hole should be compared with
was fired. Sometimes the sequence of a series test shots fired from varied known angles.
of bullet holes can be learned. And sometimes The test shots should be fired through the
the type of ammunition used and the distance same type of glass and under the same
from which the bullet was fired may also be conditions with the same type weapon and
learned. ammunition as the original bullet hole.
The direction from which a single bullet Ammunition type can sometimes be
enters a piece of glass, whether window, learned from the size and features of the
plate, or safety, is often seen with ease. A bullet hole. Bullet holes in safety glass offer
bullet makes a somewhat clean-cut hole in more evidence than those in window glass,
the side of entrance. As it penetrates, it because safety glass fragments do not fall.
pushes glass fragments ahead of it. This When a bullet goes through a pane of glass in
causes a saucer-shaped or coning depression a sidewise fashion, it is often hard to show
on the exit side, with a greater diameter than the caliber of the bullet. The lab can
the entrance hole. Determining direction sometimes estimate the caliber and type of
becomes more difficult when several bullets weapon used. Coordinate with the lab to
enter safety glass closely together. The last learn the best way to submit your evidence
bullets enter a glass surface which already for this test.
has a number of cracks. As a result, small
pieces are knocked out around the holes on Determining the distance from which a
both sides. However, broken edges on the bullet was fired depends on knowledge of the
entrance side are almost perpendicular to the ammunition used. A high speed projectile
surface of the glass. On the exit side these fired from afar may yield a fracture like one
edges are at an angle to the surface. from a slower projectile fired at closer range.
If a bullet has been fired from a long distance,
Sometimes it is important to know which most of its velocity is spent before it reaches
of two or more bullet holes in a pane of glass the pane of glass. It will break the pane in
was made first. You may be able to determine much the same way as will a stone. A shot at
this from the fractures. When a fracture close range with a weapon with great muzzle
traveling across glass meets a fracture that blast will give like results. The blast itself
is already present, the newer fracture will breaks the glass but may leave powder
be stopped. If fractures from one bullet hole residue and cause a crystallizing (frosting) of
are stopped by those of another, you the glass.
may conclude that the blocking fracture was
made first. BLUNT OBJECT FRACTURES
The angle from which a bullet enters a Glass fractures caused by a blunt object
piece of glass may be found by the amount of will show a pattern of fractures like, but not
chipping at the exit crater. If a bullet strikes as regular as, the pattern from a bullet. This
glass straight-on, chipping around the exit difference is mainly due to the impacting
hole will be fairly even. If a bullet enters from force being dispersed over a greater area.

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It may be harder to tell the side from which HEAT FRACTURES
the impact came. But you can still tell by the Recognizing heat fractures in glass can
ridge lines on the edges of the radial help you eliminate areas of concern in your
fractures. investigation. Fractures due to heat are
First, partly reconstruct the object to find wave-shaped. They do not show a regular
the radial and concentric fractures. Then pattern of radial and concentric lines like
look at the radial fracture lines. The ridge fractures caused by impact. Heat fractures
lines on the side opposite the impact will be also show little, if any, curve patterns (stress
well-developed and distinctly individual. The lines) along the edges. Expansion of the glass
ridge lines on the front, or impact side, will be (stretching action) occurs first on the side
much less so. They tend to run together here exposed to the heat. Glass splinters will often
and lose their individuality. The 4-R Rule still fall toward that side. Reconstruction of a
applies. Because glass bends away from the glass object fractured by heat will show the
side of impact, the first (radial) fracture wave-shaped fracture pattern.
occurs on the rear side after the limit of
elasticity has been reached. This causes the If the ridge lines are smooth, or almost so,
distinct ridge lines on the stretching (rear) and no point of impact is found, and you have
edge of the radial fractures. At the same time, considered other factors like the
some grinding action takes place on the front circumstances under which the fragments
side. This causes some chipping and flaking were found and their location, you may
of the edge and partial obliteration of the conclude that the fracture was due to
ridge lines. excessive heat.

EXAMINING FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES IN THE LAB

Glass fragments and fractures may yield blow and the direction and angle of impact. It
important leads when examined by trained may also show the sequence of holes.
technicians. The lab can analyze glass Glass on vehicles often bears traces of the
fragments and fractures by a variety of paint used on the vehicle body. Such traces
means. A scientific examination of glass can be of value, especially in cases of fleeing-
particles may show matching physical and the-scene accidents, because they may show
chemical features. This could prove whether the color of the vehicle. While these traces
the particles did or did not come from the may be plainly visible to you, better results
same piece of glass. It can show if minute can be obtained by USACIL. Examine glass
particles that look like glass are actually in such cases with great care. You do not
glass. Examination of fractured glass may want to disturb any specks, flakes, chips of
tell not only the type of glass, but the paint, or other foreign matter on the glass.
manufacturer. The manufacturer’s name or And be sure to make specific reference to
logo may be imprinted or molded in the glass. them in your request for lab examination.
Examination may show the direction of a

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