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APRIL 2023 REVIEW PROGRAM

CIVIL ENGINEERING LICENSURE EXAM

APPLIED MATH, SURVEYING, TRANSPORTATION & HIGHWAY ENG’G, CONST. MGT.

Monday, December 12, 2022 Module 11

SURVEYING

Surveying (or Geomatics) is defined as the science of gathering information about the physical Earth. It
includes measurement of distances, determining relative positions of points on or beneath the surface of the
earth, or establishing such points.

Types of Surveys

 Cadastral Surveys

This type of survey relates to laws of land ownership. It includes establishment or reestablishment of
real property boundaries.

 Construction Surveys

Often called "stake-out", "lay-out" or "setting-out". It is an essential part of construction that is

performed to establish reference points and markers that will guide the construction

 Hydrographic Surveys

This type includes mapping of bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, etc. It also includes measurement of
features such as discharge, etc.

 Industrial Surveys

A sub-discipline of surveying which requires high accuracy and precision. It includes alignment of
machineries and optical tooling.

 Mine Surveys

The practice of measuring and mapping on-ground or underground points for the purpose of exploiting and
utilizing mineral deposits.

 Photogrammetric Survey

Obtains reliable spatial information from photographic images (may it be aerial or terrestrial).

 Route Surveys

Route surveys provides the data needed to determine horizontal and vertical alignment, and even earthwork
quantities, for the design of linear structures such as roads, railways, pipelines, etc.

 Topographic Surveys

Survey method that are used to map natural and/or man- made features on the ground as well as obtain
elevations,

PACING

Pacing is one of the simplest method of measuring distances. It is used in instances where approximate results
can be enough for the data needed, such as getting the rodman in position during a cross-section survey, or
simply measuring a relatively short distance where accuracy is not that of an issue.

Pace - length of a step. Measured heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.

Stride - a double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.

Pace Factor - the distance covered by one pace.

THEORY OF ERRORS

Error is the difference between the observed value and the true value of a measurement. In reality, true values
can never be identified thus, all observations are assumed to have errors. Surveyors are tasked to correct their
observations depending on many factors such as the mechanical equipment used, environmental conditions during
the survey, and how careful the person is during the survey.

Most Probable Value

mpv = x̅

Standard Deviation

Sx = xσn − 1

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Probable Error of any Single Observation

PEs = 0.6745 Sx
PEs = 0.6745 (xσn − 1)

Relative Error or Precision of the Mean

PEm = 0.6745 Sx̅

xσn − 1
PEs = 0.6745 ( )
√n
Probable Error of the Mean

0.6745 Sx̅
RE =
x̅
xσn − 1
0.6745 ( )
PEs = √n
x̅

RULES FOR WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS

1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or measurements.

2. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.

CORRECTION TO TAPE MEASUREMENT

Measuring tapes are calibrated at controlled conditions. Surveyors need to consider environmental factors when
measuring distances using these instruments. The errors are relatively small for short distances but they
accumulate and become significant when measuring long distances.

 Tape Correction
TD LT ± E
=
MD LT
Where:
TD = True distance MD = Measured distance E = Total error

 Temperature Correction
CT = α (T2 − T1 ) L1

Where:
CT = Correction due to temperature
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion = 11.6 x 10-6 m/m.°C (for steel)
T2 = Temperature during the time of observation
T1 = Standard temperature / Temperature during calibration
L1 = Standard length

 Sag Correction
W 2 L3
CSAG =
24P2 2
Where:
w = linear density

 Pull Correction
(P2 − P1 )(L1 )
CP =
AE
Where:
Cp = Correction due to pull
P2 = Applied pull
P1 = Standard pull / Pull applied during calibration
A = Cross-sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of elasticity = 200 GPa (for steel)

 Normal Tension
CSAG = CPULL

W 2 L1 3 (P2 − P1 )(L1 )
2 =
24P2 AE

 Slope Correction
Cslope = S − H

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 Mean Sea Level Correction

L′ R − h
=
L R
Where:
L' = Length at mean sea level
L = Length measured at the specified elevation
R = Distance from the earth's core to the specified location
R(earth) = Distance from the earth's core to the mean sea level
h = Elevation of the place where the length is measured

LEVELING

Leveling is a branch of surveying that deals with the measurement of elevation of different points with respect
to a fixed line called datum.

Types of Leveling

 Direct Leveling

The most commonly used method of leveling. Here, measurements are obtained directly from the leveling
instrument. It includes: Simple leveling, Differential leveling, Profile leveling, Reciprocal leveling,
etc.

 Trigonometric Leveling

A leveling process in which the elevation of a point or the difference of elevation between points are
measured indirectly. In this method, trigonometric relations are used to find the elevation of a point.

 Barometric Leveling

In this method, a barometer is used to determine the difference in elevation between points by obtaining
their atmospheric pressures. The method is based on Pascal's Principle (P = 𝛾h), it is fast and easy to
perform, but it only gives a rough estimate of the difference in elevation thus, it is rarely used.

 Stadia Leveling

A modified form of trigonometric leveling wherein a stadia instrument is used. The instrument allow
measurement of horizontal or inclined distances by the application of Tacheometry or Optical Geometry.

TACHEOMETRY

(Commonly known as stadia) is a surveying method used to quickly determine the horizontal distance to, and
elevation of, a point. Stadia observations are obtained by sighting through a telescope equipped with two or
more horizontal cross wires at a known spacing. The apparent intercepted length between the top and bottom wires
is read on a graduated rod held vertically at the desired point. The distance from telescope to rod is found by
trigonometry.

Stadia Method for Horizontal Sights

f d
=
i s
f
d= s
i
D = d + (c + f)
f
D = s + (c + f)
i
D = Ks + C

Where:
f = focal length of lens (constant for any lens)
i = spacing between stadia wires
K = f/i, stadia interval factor (usually 100)
c = distance from the instrument center (vertical axis) to the objective lens
C = c + f, stadia constant
s = stadia intercept (or interval)
d = distance from the focal point in front of telescope to the face of the rod
D = d + C distance from instrument center to the face of the rod.

Note: for Internal-Focusing Telescope, C = 0

Stadia Method for Inclined Sights

D = Ks cos θ + C
V = D sin θ
H = D cos θ
Where:
𝜃 = angle that the line of sight makes with the horizontal
V = vertical distance from the level sight to the middle
hair reading on the rod
H = horizontal distance from the instrument center to the
face of the rod
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EFFECT OF CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

Effect of Earth’s Curvature

The effect of earth's curvature is the amount by which the

horizontal line (see figure) departs from the earth's surface
(which is a level surface).

he = 0.0785 K 2

Where:
he = curvature correction, in meters
K = horizontal distance or level surface distance, in km

Refraction Correction

Rays of light passing through the earth's atmosphere in any

direction other than vertical are refracted or bent from a
straight path. This bending usually takes place in a direction
toward the earth's surface under normal conditions of
temperature and pressure gradients. Such bent rays of light
tend to diminish the effect of curvature for a slight amount,
normally about 14% (or 1/7) of the curvature effect.

hcr = 0.0675 K 2

TRAVERSE SURVEYING

Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. Traverse networks involve placing
survey stations along a line or path of travel, and then a using the previously surveyed points as a base for
observing the next point.

Bearing

Defined as the direction of any line with respect to either north or south.

Departure and Latitude

The coordinates of points are defined as departure and latitude. The latitude is
always measured parallel to the reference meridian (north-south) and the departure
is always perpendicular to it.

Linear Error of Closure

LEC = √(eDEP )2 + (eLAT )2

2 2
LEC = √(∑ DEP) + (∑ LAT)

Relative Error or Precision

LEC
RE =
Total Distance

Balancing a Traverse

 Compass Rule / Bowditch's Method

The correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any course is proportional to the ratio of
the distance or length of the course to the length of the traverse.

DistanceAB
Corrected LATAB = LATAB − x eLAT
Total Distance

DistanceAB
Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB − x eDEP
Total Distance

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 Transit Rule

The correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any course is proportional to the ratio of
the latitude or departure of the course to the arithmetic sum of all the latitudes or departures in the
traverse without regards to the sign.

|LATAB |
Corrected LATAB = LATAB − x eLAT
TotalLAT

|DEPAB |
Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB − x eDEP
TotalDEP

ROUTE SURVEYING

 Simple Curves

Simple circular curves consist of a circular arc of radius R connecting two tangent lines T at the
tangent point called the Point of Intersection (P.I.) at specific Angle of Intersection I. The curve
starts at the Point of Commencement (P.C.) and ends at the Point of Tangency (P.T.).

Where:

R = radius of curvature
T= tangent distance
M = middle ordinate
E = external distance
x = offset distance
C = length of chord
Lc = length of curve
P.C. = point of curvature or commencement
P.I. = point of intersection
P.T. = point of tangency
i = deflection angle = 𝜃 /2
𝜃 = central angle

I I I I
T = R tan ( ) M = R (1 − cos ) E = R (sec − 1) C = 2R sin ( )
2 2 2 2

Degree of Curve

A value that measures the sharpness of the circular curve. It is based on either of the two (2) basis:

 Arc Basis

Assumes that each degree (of central angle) subtends an arc of 20 meters (or 1 station, 100 ft in
the English system).

D I
=
20 LC

D I
=
20 RI π
180
1145.916
R=
D

 Chord Basis

Assumes that each degree (of central angle) subtends a chord of 20 meters (or 1 station, 100 ft
in the English system).

D 20⁄2
sin =
2 R

10
R=
D
sin
2

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 Compound Curves

A compound curve is a combination of two or more circular curves with

the center of curvature on the same side of the curve. The point where
the two circular curves meet is called the Point of Compound Curvature
(P.C.C).

Where:
I= I1 + I2, angle of intersection of the compound curve
I1 = angle of intersection of the first simple curve
I2 = angle of intersection of the second simple curve
R1 = radius of curvature of the first simple curve
R2 = radius of curvature of the second simple curve
T1 & T2 = tangent distance of each curve
T = T1 + T2, length of the common tangent
C1 & C2 = length of chord of each curve
C = long chord of the compound curve

 Reverse Curves

A reverse curve is a combination of two or more circular curves

with the center of curvature on the opposite side of the curve.
The point where the two circular curves meet is called the point
of Reverse Curvature (P.R.C).

There are four (4) different cases for reverse curves:

1. Parallel tangents, Equal radii

2. Parallel tangents, Unequal radii
3. Non-parallel tangents, Equal radii
4. Non-parallel tangents, Unequal radii

Regardless of the case, the same simple curve principles can

still be used.

 Spiral Transition Curve

There are cases where a transition is designed between

the tangent road and a circular central curve,
especially for highspeed roads and railways. The
transition provides a gradual change in curvature in
order to lessen the effects of sudden change in path.
This part of the reference will try to explain the
geometry and physics behind such curves.

Where:
TS = Tangent to Spiral
SC = Spiral to Circular Curve
CS = Circular Curve to Spiral
ST = Spiral to Tangent
ES = External distance of the Spiral Tangents
TS = Length of Spiral Tangents
IS = Spiral Angle of Intersection
ØS = Spiral Angle at S.C.
Ls = Length of Spiral
IC = Angle of Intersection of the Circular Curve
RC = Radius of Curvature of the Circular Curve
P = Length of Throw

Rate of change of normal acceleration Deflection angle

v2 ϕ
C= i=
LR 3
Super elevation Length of throw
v2 xc
e+f = ρ=
gR 4

Spiral angle
Length of spiral tangents
L2
θ=
2R c Ls Ls Is
Ts = + (ρ + R c ) tan
2 2
Offset distance
L3
𝑥= External distance
6R c Ls

Distance from TS to any point on the spiral

Is
Es = (ρ + R c ) sec ( − R c )
along the spiral tangent 2

L5
y=L−
40 R c 2 Ls 2
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HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE

The DPWH Highway Safety and Design Manual requires minimum sight distances in different regions on the road.
This is to provide a safe stopping distance if there is an obstacle on the road, may it be an object or another
vehicle moving on the opposite lane. There are two (2) cases of obstruction in a horizontal curve:

CASE 1: The Sight Distance is less than the Length of the Curve. S < L

S2
R=
8M
CASE 2: The Sight Distance is greater than the Length of the Curve. S > L

L(2S − L)
R=
8M

VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are those viewed in a vertical plane. It provides gradual change of grade, thus giving motorists
a smooth ride while traversing the roadway. There are two (2) general forms, (a) convex or summit curves, and
(b) concave or sag curves.

One requirement of a vertical curve is that the rate of change of grade is constant. Of all the geometric
shapes, a parabola perfectly fits this requirement

There are two (2) types of parabolic curves

1. SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE

The figure below shows a symmetrical parabolic convex or summit curve. A summit curve is formed if a
positive (+) backward tangent meets a negative (-) forward tangent at a common point called vertex V. A
vertical curve is symmetrical if the horizontal length is equal at both sides of the vertex. Since the
curve is parabolic, its geometric properties should conform to that of a parabola.

L
H = (g1 − g 2 )
8

2. UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

A curve is said to be unsymmetrical if the length of curve at each side of the vertex is not equal.
Consider the unsymmetrical parabolic summit curve shown,

L1 (g1 − g 3 ) = L2 (g 3 − g 2 )

EARTHWORKS

Cross-Section Method

The method of plotting the existing cross-section

perpendicular to a particular line (usually the
center line of a proposed road) for the purpose of
obtaining quantities such as volumes. It is
usually done on linear construction projects such
as highways, railroads, and canals. The procedure
involves staking the centerline then elevations
are obtained at strategic points at right angle to
the centerline, at intervals of full or half
stations. Cross-section where, S = sight distance,
L = length of vertical curve, A = absolute value
of the algebraic difference in grades, in percent,
h1 = eye-height, h2 = object height. All data is
needed in estimating the amount of cut or fill
needed for a given strip of roadway.

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Volume Approximation Methods in Earthworks

 Volume Using End-Area Method (Also called average-end-area method)

L
VE = (A1 + A2 )
2
 Volume Using Prismoidal Formula

This formula applies to volumes of all geometric solids that can be considered prismoids. A prismoid is a
solid having ends that are parallel and similar but not congruent, and trapezoidal sides that are also
similar but not congruent.
L
VP = (A1 + 4Am +A2 )
6
Prismoidal Correction

The prismoidal correction is the correction to be applied to the volume using end-area method to make it equal
to the volume using prismoidal formula.

L
∆VP = (D − D2 )(C1 − C2 )
12 1

SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance is the length of unobstructed view of the driver. It is crucial in the design of roads since
visibility is one of the key factors for it to be safe and efficient.

Types of Sight Distance

1. Stopping Sight Distance(SSD)also known as the Absolute Minimum Sight Distance

2. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) defined as twice the SSD
3. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) defined as the sight distance required for a safe passing of vehicles
4. Headlight Sight Distance - the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the illumination
of the head lights

Sight Distance Elements

1. Driver Eye Height is the observed eye height of a driver;

2. Object Height is a possible object in the path of a vehicle;
3. Design Speed and Vehicle Type.

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

There are two components in stopping sight distance:

 Reaction Distance – the distance traveled while the driver perceives a hazard, decides to take action,
then acts by starting to apply the brakes to start slowing down. It depends on the reaction time from the
instant that the hazard comes into view, to the instant that the driver applies the brakes.

Reaction Distance, di = vt

The reaction time to be used for road safety design is 2.5 seconds, and it is applied to the whole range
of design speeds.

 Braking Distance – the distance required for the vehicle to slow down and stop. From rectilinear motion,
this distance is taken as
v2
Breaking Distance =
2g (f ± G)
Where:
v = velocity in m/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction between the tire and the roadway
G = grade of the roadway; uphill (+), downhill (-)

The stopping sight distance is therefore,

v2
SSD = vt +
2g (f ± G)

Sight Distance Requirement for Vertical Parabolic Curves

For highways, the usual basis for the minimum length of parabolic curves may be sight distance.

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Sight Distance for Summit Curves

For summit (or crest) curves, the minimum length for sight distance criterion depends on the height of
the driver's eye and the height of the object to be seen over the crest of the curve.

AS2
S<L ∶ L= 2
200(√h1 + √h2 )

2
200(√h1 + √h2 )
S>L ∶ L = 2S −
A
Where:
S = sight distance
L = length of vertical curve
A = absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades, in percent g1 – g2
h1 = eye-height
h2 = object height

Desirable Length of Curve (For Sag Curves)

Sharp grade change over a relatively small length may cause discomfort and violates the sight distance
standards. AASHTO suggest the following equation as to give the desirable length of sag curve,

AK 2
L=
395
K = design velocity in kph

Sight Distance for Sag Curves

For sag curves, the sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night.

AS2
S<L ∶ L=
120 + 3.5 S

120 + 3.5 S
S>L ∶ L = 2S −
A

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