Measurements

Measurement
• Measurement – determination of the dimensions, capacity,
quantity, or extent of something
• There are two systems of measurement that is used
commonly: The English system of units and the metric
system of units
• Examples of units in the English system are: inch, foot,
pound, quart, and gallon
• Examples of units in the metric system are: gram, meter,
and liter

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Metric System Units

• In the metric system, there is one base unit for

each type of measurement
• Prefixes are then added to the base unit
• The meter (m) is the base unit of length in the
metric system (1 m is equivalent to 1.09 yards)
• The gram (g) is the base unit of mass in the
metric system (28 g = 1 ounce, 454 g = 1 pound)
• The liter (L) is the base unit of volume in the
metric system (1 L is equivalent to 1.06 quarts)

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Uncertainty in
Measurements
Measurements will always have a
degree of uncertainty or error

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Significant Figures
• Uncertainty is indicated by the number of significant
figures recorded
• Significant figures are digits in a measurement that are
known with certainty plus one digit that is estimated

Number of significant figures = all certain digits + one

estimated digit

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Significant Figures

• Guidelines for Determining Significant Figures

1. All nonzero digits are significant
2. Zeros may or may not be significant
• Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant
Ex. 0.0141 has three significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are always significant
Ex. 3.063 has four significant figures
0.001004 has four significant figures
• Zeros at the end of a number are SIGNIFICANT if a decimal point is PRESENT in the number
Ex. 56.00 has four significant figures
0.05050 has four significant figures
• Zeros at the end of a number are NOT SIGNIFICANT in the number LACKS an explicitly shown decimal point
Ex. 59,000,000 has two significant figures
6010 has three significant figures

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operations

• 1. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the answer is the
same as the number of significant figures in the measurement that contains the
fewest significant figures

• 2. In addition and subtraction, the answer is given with as many significant figures as
the measurement with the least number of decimal places

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Scientific Notation
• Scientific notation is a numerical system in which
numbers are expressed in the form A X 10n, where
A is a number with a single nonzero digit to the left
of the decimal place and n is a whole number
• To convert from decimal notation to scientific
notation:
• 1. The decimal point in the decimal number is
moved to the position behind the first nonzero digit
• 2. The exponent for the exponential term is equal
to the number of places the decimal point has been
moved. (positive exponent = if the original digit is
10 or greater, negative exponent = if the original
digit is less than 1)

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Multiplication and Division of Scientific Notation

• The coefficients are combined in the usual way (multiplied or divided)

• The rules for exponential terms are:
• 1. To multiply exponential terms, add the exponents
• 2. To divide the exponential terms, subtract the exponents
Ex. (2.33 x 103) x (1.55 x 104)
2.33 x 1.55 = 3.61
103 x 104 = 103+4 = 107
Final answer is 3.61 x 107

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Multiplication and division with scientific notation
• Compute the following problem.
1. (1.3x1013 ) / (5.43x1011 ) = 2.4 x 101
2. (2.12 x 103) x (3.58x 104)= 7.59 x 107
3. (9.72 x 1012) / (3.19 x 106) = 3.05 x 106
4. (6.11 x 103) x (9.53 x 107)= 5.82 x 1011
5. (2.34 x 105)/ (8.78 x 108) = 2.67 x 10-4

Move the decimal point Move the decimal point

to the left to the right

10 x : becomes bigger 10 x : becomes smaller

Conversion Factors

• A conversion factor is a ratio that specifies how one unit of measurement is related to
another unit of measurement
• It is derived from equalities that relate units
Ex. 1 minute = 60 seconds
• A pair of conversion factor can be derived from this equality
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
and 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is a general problem-solving method
in which the units associated with numbers are used as a
guide in setting up calculations
5 x 5 = 52

cm x cm = cm2

𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑚

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Steps to follow
Identify the known or given quantity and the units of the new quantity
Step 1 to be determined. Write an equation with the given quantity on the
left and the units of the desired quantity on the right.

Multiply the given quantity by one or more conversion factors in such

Step 2 a manner that the unwanted (original) units are canceled, leaving only
the desired units

Step 3 Perform the mathematical operations indicated by the conversion

factor setup.

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 A standard aspirin tablet contains 324 mg of aspirin. How many grams of aspirin are in a
standard aspirin tablet?

Step 1:
324 mg = ? g

Step 2: Use of conversion factor Equality: 1mg = 0.001g

Sample 1 𝑚𝑔
0.001 𝑔
or
0.001 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑔

Problem 324 mg x
0.001 𝑔
= ?g
1 𝑚𝑔

Step 3:
0.001
324 = 0.324 g
1

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Sample Problem (2 conversion factors)

• Capillaries, the microscopic vessels that carry blood from small arteries to small veins, are on the average only 1 mm long.
What is the average length of a capillary in inches?
• Step 1: The given quantity is 1 mm, and the units of the desired quantity are inches.
1 mm = ? in.
• Step 2: No direct conversion factor relates mm to inches. However, a related conversion factor, meters to inches, could be used
1 𝑚𝑚 0.001 𝑚 1𝑚 39.4 𝑖𝑛.
mm → m → in. (1 mm = 0.001 m, 1 m = 39.4 in.) and and
0.001 𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚 39.4 𝑖𝑛. 1 𝑚.
The correct conversion factor setup is
0.001𝑚 39.4 𝑖𝑛.
1 mm x x = ? in.
1 𝑚𝑚 1.00 𝑚
• Step 3: Collecting the numerical factors and performing the indicated math gives
1 𝑥 0.001 𝑥 39.4
in. = 0.0394 in.
1 𝑥 1.00
Correct answer = 0.04 in.

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Calculate the following

• 1. Analysis shows the presence of 203 micrograms of cholesterol in a

sample of blood. How many grams of cholesterol are present in this blood
sample?
2.03 x 10-4 g cholesterol

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Density
• Density is the ratio of the
mass of an object to the
volume occupied by that
object
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
• 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
• Generally expressed in grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
for solids, grams per
milliliters (g/mL) for liquids

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
 Temperature Scales

• Heat is a form of energy. Temperature is

an indicator of the tendency of heat
energy to be transferred. Heat energy
flows from objects of higher
temperature to objects of lower
temperature.
• Both the Celsius and the Kelvin are part
of the metric system; Fahrenheit scale
belongs to the English system
• The Celsius scale is the most commonly
used in scientific work
From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Conversion between
Temperature Scales

From: Stoker, S. (2007) General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4th edition, Measurements in Chemistry
(pp. 20-38) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company