SCHOTTY BARRIER DIODE

Schottky Diode:

It is also called Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode.

A Schottky barrier diode is a metal semiconductor junction formed by bringing

metal in contact with a moderately doped n type semiconductor material. A Schottky
barrier diode is also called as known as Schottky or hot carrier diode. It is named after
its inventor Walter H. Schottky, barrier stands for the potential energy barrier for
electrons at the junction. It is a unilateral device conducting currents in one direction
(Conventional current flow from metal to semiconductor) and restricting in the other.

Fig.16

 The charge storage problem of P-N junction can be minimize or limited in

schottky diodes.
 The potential barrier is set with a contact between a metal & semiconductor.

 The rectifying action is depends on majority carrier only.

 As the result there are is o excess minority carrier to recombination hence low
level of reverse recovery time.

 These diodes are used as rectifier at a single frequency exceeding 300 MHz to
20 GHz.

CONSTRUCTION SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE:

A Schottky barrier diode is shown in the figure 17

A metal–semiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor,

creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductor–semiconductor junction as in
conventional diodes).Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or
tungsten,and certain silicides, e.g. palladium silicide and platinum silicide; andthe
semiconductor would typically be n-type silicon.

The metal side acts as the anode and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of
the diode. This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and low forward
voltage drop.

The choice of the combination of the metal and semiconductor determines the forward
voltage of the diode. Both n- and p-type semiconductors can develop Schottky barriers;
the p-type typically has a much lower forward voltage.

As the reverse leakage current increases dramatically with lowering the forward
voltage, it can not be too low; the usually employed range is about 0.5–0.7 V and p-type
semiconductors are employed only rarely.

Fig 17

Schottky barrier diode is an extension of the oldest semiconductor device that is

the point contact diode.Here,the metal-semiconductor interface is a surface ,Schottky
barrier rather than a point contact.The Schottky doide is formed when a metal ,such as
Aluminium ,is brought into contact with a moderately doped N-type semiconductor as
shown on fig..It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as majority carriers on both
sides of the junction.Hence ,there is no depletion layer formed near the junction.It
shares the advantage of point contact diode in that there is no significant current from
the metal to the semiconductor with reverse bias.Thus ,the delay present in the junction
diodes due to hole-electron recombination time is absent here.hence,because of the
large contact area between the metal and semiconductor than in the point contact
diode,the forward resistance is lower and so is noise.
Below certain width the charge carriers can tunnel through the depletion region. At very
high doping levels the junction does not behave as a rectifier anymore and becomes an
ohmic contact. This can be used for simultaneous formation of ohmic.

The forward current is dominated by electron flow from semiconductor to metal and
the reverse is mainly due to electron from metal to semiconductor. As there is very little
minority carrier injection from semiconductor into metal, Schottky diodes are also said to
be majority carrier devices. The diode is also referred to as hot carrier diode because
when it is forward biased,conduction of electrons on the N-side gains sufficient energy
to cross the junction and enter the metal. Since these electrons plunge into the metal
with large energy, they are commonly called as hot carriers.

 Operation is due to the fact that the electrons in different material have different
potential energy.

 N type semiconductors have higher potential energy as compare to electrons of

metals.

 When these two are brought together in contact, there a flow of electron in both
direction across the metal-semiconductor interface when contact is first made.

 A voltage is applied to the schottky diode such that the metal is positive with
respect to semiconductor.

 The voltage will oppose the built in potential and makes it easier to current flow.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOTTKY DIODE

FIG .18
VARACTOR DIODE

The varactor diode was named because of the variable reactor or variable
reactance or variable capacitor or variable capacitance property of these diodes. A
varactor diode is considered as a special type of diode that is widely used in the
electronics industry and is used in various electronics applications. Varactor diode is
also a semiconductor microwave solid-state device, it is frequently used in applications
where variable capacitance is desired which can be achieved by controlling voltage.

Varactor diodes are also termed as varicap diodes, in fact, these days they are
usually termed as varactor diodes. Even though the variable capacitance effect can be
exhibited by the normal diodes (P-N junction diodes), but, varactor diodes are preferred
for giving the desired capacitance changes as they are special types of diodes. These
diodes are specially manufactured and optimized such that they enables a very high
range of changes in capacitance. Varactor diodes are again classified into various types
based on the varactor diode junction properties. And, these are termed as abrupt
varactor diodes, gallium-arsenide varactor diodes, and hyperabrupt varactor diodes.

The symbol of varactor diode is shown in the Fig 19

Fig 19

The varactor diode symbol consists of the capacitor symbol at one end of the
diode that represents the variable capacitor characteristics of the varactor diodes. n
general, it looks like a normal PN- junction diode in which one terminal is termed as the
cathode and the other terminal is termed as anode. Here, varactor diode consists of two
lines at one end (cathode end of normal diode) that indicates the capacitor symbol.

VARACTOR DIODE WORKING

To understand the working principle of the varactor diode, we must know what is
a capacitor and how can we change the capacitance. Let us consider the capacitor that
consists of two plates separated by an insulating dielectric as shown in the figure 20.
 Fig 20

We know that the capacitance of an electrical capacitor is directly proportional to the

area of the plates, as the area of the plates increases the capacitance of the capacitor
increases. Consider the reverse biased mode of the diode, in which P-type region and
N-type region are able to conduct and thus can be treated as two plates. The depletion
region between the P-type and N-type regions can be considered as insulating
dielectric. Thus, it is exactly similar to the capacitor shown above.

Fig 21

The size of the depletion region of diode changes with change in reverse bias. If the
varactor diode reverse voltage is increased, then the depletion region size increases.
Similarly, if the varactor diode reverse voltage is decreased, then the depletion region
size decreases or narrows. Hence, by varying the reverse bias of the varactor diode the
capacitance can be varied
 Fig 22

VARACTOR DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

The varactor diodes have the following significant characteristics:

 Varactor diodes produces considerably less noise compared to other

conventional diodes.
 These diodes are available at low costs.
 Varactor diodes are more reliable.
 The varactor diodes are small in size and hence, they are very light weight.
 There is no useful purpose of varactor diode operated when it is operated in
forward bias.
 Increase in reverse bias of varactor diode increases the capacitance as shown in
the figure below.

Fig 23
APPLICATIONS
Few important applications of varactor diodes can be listed as follows:
 RF Filters
 Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs)
 Varactor diodes can be used as frequency modulators.
 In microwave receiver LO, varactor diodes can be used as frequency multipliers.
 Varactor diodes can be used as RF phase shifters.
 Varactor diodes are used to vary the capacitance in variable resonant tank LC
circuits. Since the junction capacitance of a varactor is in the pF range, it is
suitable for use in highfrequency circuits.
 automatic frequency control device,
 FM modulator,
 adjustable band-pass filter
 Parametric amplifier

TUNNEL DIODE

This diode was first introduced by Dr. Leo Easki in 1958.

A tunnel diode is a pn junction that exhibits negative resistance between two values of
forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage).

A conventional diode exhibits *positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse

biased. However, if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it
exhibits negative resistance (i.e. current decreases as the voltage is increased) in
certain regions in the forward direction. Such a diode is called tunnel diode

CONSTRUCTION

It is a high-conductivity two-terminal P-N junction diode having doping density

about 1000 times higher as compared to an ordinary junction diode. This heavy doping
produces following three unusual effects :

Firstly, it reduces the width of the depletion layer to an extremely small value
(about 0.00001 mm).

Secondly, it reduces the reverse breakdown voltage to a very small value

(approaching zero) with the result that the diode appears to be broken down for any
reverse voltage.

Thirdly, it produces a negative resistance section on the V/I characteristic of the

diode. It is called a tunnel diode because due to its extremely thin depletion layer,
electrons are able to tunnel through the potential barrier at relatively low forward bias
voltage (less than 0.05 V).
 Such diodes are usually fabricated from germanium, gallium-arsenide (GaAs)
and gallium antimonide (GaSb). The commonly-used schematic symbols for the diode
are shown in fig 23. It should be handled with caution because being a low-power
device, it can be easily damaged by heat and static electricity.

THEORY.

The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p-type and n-type
semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as
heavily as a conventional diode. This heavy doping results in a large number of majority
carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, most are not used during the initial
recombination that produces the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion layer is very
narrow. In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is
100 times narrower. The operation of a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect
and hence the name.

Tunneling effect. The heavy doping provides a large number of majority

carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n
sections. This causes many valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer
to the conduction region. Therefore, it takes only a very small applied forward voltage to
cause conduction.

The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the
conduction band with little or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling. Valence
electrons seem to tunnel through the forbidden energy band.

As the forward voltage is first increased, the diode current rises rapidly due to
tunneling effect. Soon the tunneling effect is reduced and current flow starts to decrease
as the forward voltage across the diode is increased. The tunnel diode is said to have
entered the negative resistance region. As the voltage is further increased, the tunneling
effect plays less and less part until a valley-point is reached. From now onwards, the
tunnel diode behaves as ordinary diode i.e., diode current increases with the increase in
forward voltage.

V-I CHARACTERISTIC.

shows the V-I characteristic of a typical tunnel diode.

As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero, electrons from
the nregion “tunnel” through the potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward voltage
increases, the diode current also increases until the peak-point P is reached. The diode
current has now reached peak current IP (= 2.2 mA) at about peak-pointvoltage VP (=
0.07 V). Until now the diode has exhibited positive resistance. (ii) As the voltage is
increased beyond VP, the tunneling action starts decreasing and the diode current
decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is reached at valley-
point voltage VV (= 0.7V). In the region between peak-point and valley-point (i.e.,
between points P and V), the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e., as the forward bias
is increased, the current decreases. This suggests that tunnel diode, when operated in
the negative resistance region, can be used as an oscillator or a switch.

Fig 24

(iii) When forward bias is increased beyond valley-point voltage VV (= 0.7 V), the tunnel
diode behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards, the diode
current increases with the increase in forward voltage i.e., the diode exhibits positive
resistance once again.It may be noted that a tunnel diode has a high reverse current but
operation under this condition is not generally used.

Tunneling Effect

In a normally-doped P-N junction, the depletion layer is relatively wide and a

potential barrier exists across the junction. The charge carriers on either side of the
junction cannot cross over unless they possess sufficient energy to overcome this
barrier (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si). As is well-known, width of the depletion region
depends directly on the doping density of the semiconductor. If a P-N junction is doped
very heavily (1000 times or more)*, its depletion layer becomes extremely thin (about
0.00001 mm). It is found that under such conditions, many carriers can ‘punch through’
the junction with the speed of light even when they do not possess enough energy to
overcome the potential barrier. Consequently, large forward current is produced even
when the applied bias is much less than 0.3 V. This conduction mechanism in which
charge carriers (possessing very little energy) bore through a barrier directly instead of
climbing over it is called tunneling
 Fig 25

EXPLANATION

Energy band diagrams (EBD) of N-type and Ptype semiconductor materials can
be used to explain this tunneling phenomenon. Fig. 54.16 shows the energy band
diagram of the two types of silicon separately. As explained earlier (Art. 51.21), in the N-
type semiconductor, there is increased concentration of electrons in the conduction
band. It would be further increased under heavy doping. Similarly, in a Ptype material,
there is increased concentration of holes in the valence band for similar reasons. (a) No
Forward Bias When the N-type and P-type materials are joined, the EBD under no-bias
conditiion becomes as shown in Fig. 24(a).

The junction barrier produces only a rough alignment of the two materials and
their respective valence and conduction bands. As seen, the depletion region between
the two is extremely narrow due to very heavy doping on both sides of the junction. The
potential hill is also increased as shown.

(b) Small Forward Bias When a very small forward voltage (≅ 0.1 V) is applied,
the EBDs become as shown in Fig. 54.17 (b). Due to the downward movement of the N-
region, the P-region valence band becomes exactly aligned with the N-region
conduction band. At this stage, electrons tunnel through the thin depletion layer with the
velocity of light thereby giving rise to a large current called peak current Ip.

(c) Large Forward Bias When the forward bias is increased further, the two
bands get out of alignment as shown in Fig. 24(c). Hence, tunneling of electrons stops
thereby decreasing the current. Since current decreases with increase in applied
voltage (i.e. dV/dI is negative), the junction is said to possess negative resistance at this
stage. This resistance increases throughout the negative region. However, it is found
that when applied forward voltage is increased still further, the current starts increasing
once again as in a normal junction diode.

APPLICATIONS

Tunnel diode is commonly used for the following purposes :

1. as an ultrahigh-speed switch-due to tunneling mechanism which essentially

takes place at the speed of light. It has a switching time of the order of nanoseconds or
even picoseconds;
2. as logic memory storage device − due to triple-valued feature of its curve for
current.
3. as microwave oscillator at a frequency of about 10 GHz − due to its extremely
small capacitance and inductance and negative resistance.
4. in relaxation oscillator circuits − due to its negative resistance. In this respect,
it is very similar to the unijunction transistor.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages of a tunnel diode are :

1. low noise,

2. ease of operation,

3. high speed,

4. low power,

5. Insensitivity to nuclear radiations T

The disadvantages are

: 1. the voltage range over which it can be operated properly is 1 V or less;

2. being a two-terminal device, it provides no isolation between the input and

output circuits
 PIN diode

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region

between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and
n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.

Fig 26

the PIN diode consists of a semiconductor diode with three layers. The usual P
and N regions are present, but between them is a layer of intrinsic material a very low
level of doping. This may be either N-type or P-type,

The thickness of the intrinsic layer is normally very narrow, typically ranging from
10 to 200 microns. The outer P and N-type regions are then heavily doped

here is very lightly doped wide region between P and N regions. Wide I – region
makes them inefficient rectifiers. Under zero or Reverse Bias PIN diode has low
capacitance so high resistance to RF signal. Under FB a typical PIN diode will have
very low resistance (typical 1 Ω) an RF conductor. It makes a god RF switch

The PIN diode has heavily doped p-type and n-type regions separated by an
intrinsic region. When reverse biased, it acts like an almost constant capacitance and
when forward biased it behaves as a variable resistor.

The built in field stretches over the intrinsic region, causing minority carriers to be
swept out by the field over a larger volume. It is often used for light detectors, and some
high efficiency solar cells.

The capacitance between the P and N region decreases because of the

increased seperation between P and N region.thid advantage allow the PIN diode to
have fast response time. Hence these diode are useful at very high frequencies (above
300MHZ)

There is a great er electron hole pair generation because of the increased

electricfield between the P and N region.this advantage allows the PIN diode to
process even the weak signal
OPERATION

When P n region is unbiased (no voltage is applied acrossthe diode)ther is a

diffusion ofelectron aand holesacross the junction due to the different concentration of
atoms in the P I N region

The diffusion of electron s and holes produce a depletion layer across the PI and
NI junction as shown in Fig.7-21(b). The depletion layer penetrate to a little distance in
the P –type and N –type semiconductor regions but to a larger distance in the I-region.
Under such condition , the device has a high value of resistance.

Fig 27

When the PIN diode is forward biased, the width of the depletion layer s
decreases. As a result of this, more carriers are injected into the I-region. This reduces
the resistance of the I-region. I the depletion layer is not thick, then the I-region
becomes flooded with the carriers at a suitable bias. Thus, when a PIN diode is forward
biased, it acts like a variable resistance as shown in fig 27 The forward resistance of an
intrinsic region decreases with the increasing current.

On the other, when the PIN diode is reverse biased, the depletion layers become
thicker. As the reverse bias is increased , the thickness of the depletion layer increases
till the I-region becomes free of mobile caries. The reverse bias , at which this happens,
is called swept out voltage. At this stage the PIN diode acts like an almost constant
capacitance as shown in Fig. 27

APPLICATION

The PIN diode is used in a number of areas as a result of its structure proving some
properties which are of particular use.
  High voltage rectifier: The PIN diode can be used as a high voltage rectifier.
The intrinsic region provides a greater separation between the PN and N regions,
allowing higher reverse voltages to be tolerated.
 RF switch: The PIN diode makes an ideal RF switch. The intrinsic layer
between the P and N regions increases the distance between them. This also
decreases the capacitance between them, thereby increasing he level of isolation
when the diode is reverse biased.
 Photodetector: As the conversion of light into current takes place within the
depletion region of a photdiode, increasing the depletion region by adding the
intrinsic layer improves the performance by increasing he volume in which light
conversion occurs.
These are three of the main applications for PIN diodes, although they can also be used
in some other areas as well

GUNN DIODE

Gunn diode basics

the Gunn diode is a unique component - even though it is called a diode, it does not
contain a PN diode junction. The Gunn diode or transferred electron device can be
termed a diode because it does have two electrodes. It depends upon the bulk material
properties rather than that of a PN junction. The Gunn diode operation depends on the
fact that it has a voltage controlled negative resistance.

GUNN DIODE SYMBOL

The Gunn diode symbol used in circuit diagrams varies. Often a standard diode is seen
in the diagram, however this form of Gunn diode symbol does not indicate the fact that
the Gunn diode is not a PN junction. Instead another symbol showing two filled in
triangles with points touching is used as shown below.

Gunn diode symbol

Fig 28