Describe that noble gas electronic configuration, octet and duplet Rules help predict chemical properties of main

group
elements. Define ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent and metallic bonds
Account for the electropositive and electronegative nature of metals and non-metals.

Compare the formation of cations and anions.

What Makes Noble Gases Unique?

Noble gases possess a unique trait that sets them apart from other elements. They
have a full outermost shell consisting of eight electrons, also known as the "octet
configuration." This promotes stability within the atom .

Even helium, which deviates from this pattern, has a stable "duplet configuration" with
only two electrons in its single shell. Due to their stable electron configurations, noble
gases have no need to bond with other atoms and remain content with their current
state.

Why Do Other Atoms Bond?

Within the periodic table, the majority of elements exist as compounds or molecules in
nature, while the noble gases stand out due to their inherent stability and reluctance to
form compounds or molecules under normal conditions. This stability can be attributed
to their complete valence shells by following octet or duplate electronic configuration,
which makes them electronically stable. However, other elements can also achieve a
stable electronic configuration by forming compounds or molecules by sharing or
transferring electrons between atoms.

To achieve stable electronic configuration like noble gases.

Four primary bonding mechanisms accomplish this: -

Ionic Bonding. Covalent Bonding

Coordinate Covalent Bonding: Metallic Bonding
ionization energies
Ionization energy is the energy Let's discuss each of these bondings one at a time.
needed to remove an electron
from an atom. Think of it as the Ionic compound
"break-up cost" to separate Positive Ions: The Loss of Electrons
an electron from its atomic
family Ionic bonding occurs when atoms gain or lose electrons in order to achieve a more
stable electron configuration. Metals, due to their low ionization energies, often
easily lose their valence electrons, resulting in a positively charged ion with the
same electron configuration as its nearest noble gas, typically with eight valence
electrons. This attribute of metals is known as electropositive character, which is
trendy in a periodic table. We will discuss this in more detail in upcoming chapters.
For instance, when a sodium atom loses its single valence electron, the remaining
electrons acquire a stable configuration. As a result of losing an electron, sodium
ends up with 10 negatively charged electrons instead of the initial 11

Because there are still 11 positively charged protons in its nucleus, the sodium atom
becomes a sodium ion, which is no longer neutral. It is now a sodium ion with a positive
electrical charge (1+), called an ionic charge. The ionic charge of 1+ is written in the
upper right corner Na +, where the 1 is understood. A metal ion is named by its
element name. Thus, Na + is named the sodium ion. The sodium ion is smaller than the
sodium atom because the ion has lost its outermost electron from the third energy

level. A positively charged ion of a metal is called a cation.

Ionic charge = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons

1+ = (11+) + (10-)

Magnesium obtains a stable electron configuration by losing two valence electrons

to form a magnesium ion with a 2+ ionic charge, Mg2+. The magnesium ion is
smaller than the magnesium atom because the outermost electrons in the third
energy level were removed. The octet in the magnesium ion is made up of
electrons that fill its second energy level.

Ionic charge = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons

1+ = (11+) + (10-)
 Negative Ions: Gain of Electrons

Nonmetal atoms have a high ionization energy, making it difficult to lose their
valence electrons. To achieve a stable electron configuration, nonmetal atoms gain
one or more electrons, resulting in the formation of a negatively charged ion. For
instance, a chlorine atom with seven valence electrons gains one electron to form
an octet. As a result, it becomes a chloride ion with an ionic charge of 1-

The name of a negatively charged ion, also known as an anion, is formed by using
the first syllable of its element name, followed by ide like (chloride).
Electron affinity refers to the energy
change when an atom accepts an Gaining electrons instead of losing, making nonmetals electronegative. Due to the
electron. Essentially, additional electron, a chloride ion is larger than a chlorine atom since it completes
it measures an atom's willingness its outermost energy level..
to gain an electron.
Ionic charge 1- = Charge of protons = (17+) + Charge of electrons + (18-)
Representative elements are Ionic Charges from Group Numbers
elements located in In ionic compounds, representative elements usually lose or gain electrons to give a
groups 1, 2, and stable electron arrangement like their nearest noble gas. We can use the group
13 to 18 of the periodic table. numbers in the periodic table to determine the charges for the ions of the
representative elements. The elements in Group 1A (1) lose one electron to form ions
with a 1+ charge. The elements in Group 2A (2) lose two electrons to form ions with a
2+ charge. The elements in Group 3A (13) lose three electrons to form ions with a 3+
charge. In this text, we do not use the group numbers of the transition elements to
determine their ionic charges. In ionic compounds, the elements in Group 7A (17) gain

Transition elements are found

in the central block of the
periodic table, specifically
in the d-block. These elements
are characterized by their
ability to adopt multiple one electron to form ions with a 1- charge. The elements in Group 6A (16) gain two
oxidation states and have electrons to form ions with a 2- charge. The elements in Group 5A (15) gain three
partially filled d-orbitals. electrons to form ions with a 3- charge. The nonmetals of Group 4A (14) do not
typically form ions. However, the metals Sn and Pb in Group 4A (14) lose electrons to
form positive ions. TABLE( ) lists the ionic charges for some common monatomic ions of
representative elements

iIn the table provided, you can observe the represantative elements grouped
according to their placement in the periodic table. Each element is
accompanied by its charge and the corresponding nearest noble gas.
These noble gas indicates the stable electronic configuration that the
element aims to achieve
Formation of an Ionic Bond
Figure( ) shows the reaction between the elements sodium and chlorine.
During this reaction, a sodium (Na) atom transfers its valence electron to a
chlorine (Cl) atom and becomes a positive ion. The chlorine atom accepts the
electron into its outer energy level and becomes a negative ion. The compound
sodium chloride forms because of the attraction between oppositely charged
sodium and chloride ions. The electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged
particles together in an ionic compound is referred to as an ionic bond.
Compounds that contain ionic bonds are ionic compounds. If ionic bonds occur
between metals and the nonmetal oxygen, oxides form. Most other ionic
compounds are called salts.
Hundreds of compounds contain ionic bonds. Many ionic compounds are
binary, which means that they contain only two different elements. Binary ionic compounds
contain a metallic cation and a nonmetallic anion.
Magnesium oxide, MgO, is a binary compound because it contains the two
different elements magnesium and oxygen
 Properties of Ionic Compounds
.
The physical and chemical properties of an ionic compound such
as NaCl are very different from those of the original elements.
For example, the original elements of NaCl were sodium, a soft,
shiny metal, and chlorine, a yellow-green poisonous gas. However, when
they react and form positive and negative ions, they produce NaCl, which is ordinary
table salt, a hard, white, crystalline substance that is important in our diet.
In a crystal of NaCl, the larger Cl- ions are arranged in a three-dimensional structure
in which the smaller Na+ ions occupy the spaces between the Cl- ions
(see FIGURE ). In this crystal, every Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions, and every
Cl- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions. Thus, there are many strong attractions
between the positive and negative ions, which account for the high melting points and
boiling points of ionic compounds as you can see in table ( ) For example,
the melting point of NaCl is 801 °C. At room temperature, ionic compounds are solids.
In their molten or aqueous states, these compounds typically conduct electricity.
This is due to the weakened inter-ionic forces in such states, allowing ions to move freely,
and the movement of these free ions facilitating the passage of an electric current we
will discuss in detail in upcoming chapters. Conversely, in solid form, these compounds
usually do not conduct electricity because their ions are held in fixed positions and are
not free to move

Subscripts are small numbers

written slightly below and to the
right of a letter or symbol, often
used to show how many of a
certain element are present in a Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds
chemical formula. For example, The chemical formula of a compound represents the symbols and subscripts in the
in H₂O, the "₂" is a subscript lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms or ions. In the formula of an ionic compound,
indicating two hydrogen a the sum of the ionic charges in the formula is always zero. Thus, the total amount of
positive charge is equal to the total amount of negative charge. For example, to achieve
a stable electron configuration, one Na atom (metal) loses its one valence electron to
form Na +, and one Cl atom (nonmetal) gains one electron to form a Cl - ion. The
formula NaCl indicates that the compound has charge balance because there is one
sodium ion, Na +, for every chloride ion, Cl -. The ionic charges are not shown in the
formula of the compound
Subscripts in Formulas
Consider a compound of magnesium and chlorine. To achieve a stable electron configuration,
one Mg atom (metal) loses its two valence electrons to form Mg2+. Two Cl atoms
(nonmetals) each gain one electron to form two Cl- ions. The two Cl- ions are needed to
balance the positive charge of Mg2+. This gives the formula MgCl2, magnesium chloride,
in which the subscript 2 shows that two Cl- ions are needed for charge balance.

Lewis Dot and cross Formula

To explain the various types of bonds and to visualize the shift in the valence
electrons, G. N. Lewis proposed the Lewis dot formula. In this, the valence
electrons of the participating atoms are shown in the form of dot or cross. The
valence electron of one of the participating atoms is represented as the dot and
that of the other one as the cross now we will discuss some example on
formation of ionic compounds with reference of dot and cross formula .
Formation of Sodium Fluoride (NaF)
Electronic configuration of:

 Sodium (11) is 2, 8, 1
 Fluorine (9) is 2, 7

Sodium has a tendency to lose its one valence electron to attain the
nearest inert gas configuration of neon. Na−→Na+
Fluorine has a tendency to accept an electron from sodium to attain
the electronic configuration of neon. F + e −→F−

Combining the resulting ions: Na + F −→NaF

Formation of Calcium Chloride (CaCl₂)

Electronic configuration of:

 Calcium (20) is 2, 8, 8, 2
 Chlorine (17) is 2, 8, 7

Calcium has a tendency to lose its two valence electrons to attain

the nearest inert gas configuration of argon.

Ca−→Ca2+

Chlorine has a tendency to accept one electron to attain the

electronic configuration of argon. But since calcium loses two
electrons, two chlorine atoms will be needed to balance the
charges.

Cl + e −→ Cl

Combining the resulting ions:

Ca2+ 2Cl−→CaCl2

So, the formation of these compounds is a result of the transfer of

electrons in order to attain a more stable, inert gas electronic
configuration for the involved atoms.
daily encounter with ionic compound
We use ionic compounds such as salt, NaCl, and baking soda, NaHCO3, every day. Milk of
magnesia, Mg(OH)2, or calcium carbonate, CaCO3, may be taken to settle an upset stomach.
If you take a mineral supplement, iron may be present as iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4, iodine as
potassium iodide, KI, and manganese as manganese(II) sulfate, MnSO4. Some sunscreens
contain zinc oxide, ZnO, while tin(II) fluoride, SnF2, in toothpaste provides fluoride to
help prevent tooth decay

A molecular compound (covalent compound)

A molecular compound consists of atoms of two or more nonmetals that share one or
more valence electrons. The atoms are held together by covalent bonds that form a
molecule. There are many more molecular compounds than there are ionic ones. For
example, water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are both molecular compounds.
Molecular compounds consist of molecules, which are discrete groups of atoms in a
definite proportion. A molecule of water (H2O) consists of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen. When you have iced tea, perhaps you add sugar molecules
(C12H22O11), a molecular compound.

Other familiar molecular compounds include propane (C3H8), alcohol (C2H6O), the
antibiotic amoxicillin (C16H19N3O5S), and the antidepressant Prozac (C17H18F3NO).
Here, we will learn about only basics, but in higher classes, you will discuss them in
more detail about molecular compounds.

Molecular compounds are also known as covalent compound because atoms that form
molecular compound is linked through covalent bonding, which might be polar or non-
polar
Molecular compounds, also called covalent compounds, are formed through polar or
nonpolar covalent bonding. Let's discuss covalent bonding.

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a bond formed when two atoms share one or more electron pairs.
Each atom contributes an equal number of electron(s) towards the bond formation.

Formation of Hydrogen Molecule

Hydrogen has one electron. It shares this electron with another atom of hydrogen,
attaining the duplet configuration. Hence, the two hydrogen atoms share the electron
pair, and thereby, a covalent bond is formed between the two hydrogen atoms.
Since the bonding between two hydrogen atoms is associated with equitable sharing of
electrons between the bonded atoms, this does not result in any charge separation
within the molecule. These types of bonds are called non-polar covalent bonds.

Some other examples of non-polar covalent bonds are given below

Multiple Covalent
Bonds In many molecules, atoms attain a nobl -gas configuration by sharing more than
one pair of electrons between two atoms, forming a multiple covalent bond. Atoms of
the elements carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur most often form multiple bonds. How
do you know when two atoms will form a multiple bond? The number of valence
electrons of an element is associated with the number of shared electron pairs needed
to complete the octet and gives a clue as to how many covalent bonds can form. Double
and triple covalent bonds are examples of multiple bonds. A double covalent bond
occurs when two pairs of electrons are shared. The atoms in an oxygen molecule (O2)
share two electron pairs, forming a double bond. Each oxygen atom has six valence
electrons and must obtain two additional electrons for a noble-gas configuration. If each
oxygen atom shares two electrons, a total of two pairs of electrons is shared between
the two atoms a double covalent bond results. See Figure ( ). A triple covalent bond is
formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. Nitrogen (N2)
shares three electron pairs, producing a triple bond. One nitrogen atom needs three
additional electrons to attain a noble-gas configuration. Figure ( ) shows the triple bond
formed between two nitrogen atoms.
Electronegativity is a measure
of how strongly an atom wants
to attract and hold onto electrons
. The higher the electronegativity,
the greedier the atom is for
electrons.
Polar Covalent Bond
A polar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond formed between two non-identical
atoms. Since the two atoms differ in their capacity to attract the shared electron pair,
unequal sharing of electrons results. Due to the unequal sharing of electrons, fractional
positive and negative charges are developed on the bonded atoms, and the bond is said
to be polar. Although it is a covalent bond, a slight ionic character is imparted to the
bond due to the electronegativity difference between the two bonded atoms

Examples are given below.

comparative studies of ionic and molecular compound
 GIANT COVALENT COMPOUND

Giant covalent structures are made up of many non-metal atoms arranged in a

repeating pattern called a giant lattice. Covalent bonds connect all the atoms to form
very strong substances. Now, we will discuss some examples of giant covalent solids
compounds.

Diamond
The Diamond Figure depicts the impressive diamond structure, wherein each
carbon atom is covalently bonded to four others, resulting in a tetrahedral
arrangement. This unique bonding pattern creates a remarkably inflexible three-
dimensional structure, contributing to diamond's unparalleled hardness.
Moreover, all outer shell electrons of the carbon atoms are utilized for covalent
bonding, leaving no electrons to conduct electricity.
Graphite
The figure shows the structure of graphite. This is a layer structure. Each carbon atom is
bonded to three others within each layer by strong covalent bonds. Each layer is,
therefore, like a giant molecule. There are weak forces of attraction between these
layers, so the layers will pass over each other easily. With only three covalent bonds
formed between carbon atoms within the layers, an unbonded electron is present on
each carbon atom. These ‘spare’ (or delocalized) electrons move freely between the
layers, and it is because of these spare electrons that graphite conducts electricity.
Testing the electrical conductivity of ionic and covalent substances

The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram to investigate the electrical conductivity of a number of compounds in
aqueous solution.

1 Write a conclusion for this experiment Using your answers to columns three and four in the results table. In your
conclusion, state and explain any trends shown in the results.
2 Would the results be different if solid potassium chloride was used instead of potassium chloride solution?
Explain your answer.
3 What is the reason for using graphite electrodes instead of diamond?
4 Is it possible to determine the type of bonding through the application of electricity?
 Coordinate Bond
A coordinate bond is a type of covalent bond where only one of the bonded atoms
contributes the electron pair, which is then shared by both atoms. The donor atom
provides the electron pair, while the acceptor atom accommodates the shared pair of
electrons. The coordinate bond is symbolized by a one-sided arrow, with the arrowhead
pointing towards the acceptor and the tail towards the donor. It's important to note
that after the formation of a coordinate covalent bond, there is no difference between
covalent and coordinate covalent bonds

.Example: 1. Formation of ammonium ion +

The lone pair of electrons is donated by N-atom of ammonia and it is accepted by H+.
Hence, N atom is a donor and H+ is an acceptor.

2. Formation of hydronium ion

Atom of water molecule is a donor and H+ is an acceptor.

Metallic Bond

A metal atom generally has either 1, 2 or 3 electrons in its valence shell. It can easily
lose these electrons and gain stability. Metals atoms are, thus, highly electropositive in
nature. These electrons lost by the metal are called free electrons or delocalized
electrons.

The free electrons of all the metal atoms form an electron pool. The resulting positively
charged metal ions are believed to be held together by the electron pool. The force of
attraction that exists between the mobile electrons and the metal ions is known as a
metallic bond. Which is a relatively strong bond as you can observe from the melting
point in above table
 Metals are commonly used in making wires and sheets for a variety of
practical reasons:

1. Metals like copper and aluminium are excellent conductors of electricity,

making them ideal for wires in electrical devices.
2. Metals can be easily shaped: drawn into thin wires or flattened into sheets
without breaking. This quality is known as ductility for wires and
malleability for sheets. Some metals, such as aluminium, combine strength
with lightness, which is essential for applications like construction or
aircraft manufacturing.
3. Metals are durable and can withstand various environmental conditions,
ensuring longevity.
4. Many useful metals are abundant and accessible, ensuring they can be
widely used for various purposes.

Metal Alloys
Due to the nature of a metallic bond, it is relatively easy to introduce other
elements into a metallic crystal, forming an alloy. An alloy is a mixture of
elements that has metallic properties. Table 8-8 lists some commercially
important alloys and their uses. A company that manufactures trophies
probably would use which alloy listed in the table?