CHANGE OF STATE OF MATTER

Matter can exist in three physical states: solid state, liquid state and gaseous state (or vapour state, For
example, water exists as a solid in the form of ice; as a liquid in the form of water; and as a gas in the form
of steam (or water vapour). Water comes as ice out of the freezer of a refrigerator, as water out of a tap,
and as steam (or water vapour) out of a kettle of boiling water.

We can change the physical state of matter in two ways:

1. By changing the temperature, and
2. By changing the pressure.

When we say that we can change the state of matter by changing the temperature, we mean that the
state of matter can be changed by heating it or cooling it. And when we say that we can change the state
of matter by changing the pressure, we mean that the state of matter can be changed by increasing the
pressure on (compressing it), or by decreasing the pressure on it.
The spaces between the particles, the force of attraction between the particles and the amount of
movement (or kinetic energy) of particles can be changed by changing the pressure and (or) temperature
of a substance.
So, depending on the pressure and temperature, etc., the same substance can exist in all the three physical
states: solid, liquid and gas. For example, under normal pressure, water exists as a solid in the form of ice
at a temperature of 0°C or below. It exists as a liquid in the form of water at room temperature, and as a
gas in the form of steam at a temperature of 100°C or above.
EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE
By increasing the temperature (by heating), a solid can be converted into liquid state; and the liquid can be
converted into gaseous state (or vapour state). And by decreasing the temperature (by cooling), a gas can
be converted into liquid state; and a liquid can be converted into solid state. These points will become
more clear from the following discussion.
1. Solid to Liquid Change: Melting
If we heat ice, it changes into water. In this case, solid ice changes into liquid water, so a change of state
has taken place. The process in which a solid substance changes into a liquid on heating, is called melting
(or fusion). So, when ice changes into water on heating, it is called melting of ice (or fusion of ice).
• The melting of a solid substance takes place at a fixed temperature.

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 • The temperature at which a solid substance melts and changes into a liquid at atmospheric
pressure, is called melting point of the substance.
For example, the ice melts at a temperature of 0°C to form liquid water, so the melting point of ice is
0°C (zero degree Celsius).
• At melting point, ice changes its state from solid to liquid.
• Different solids have different melting points.
For example, melting point of ice is 0°C; the melting point of wax is 63°C; whereas melting point of iron
is 1535°C.
• The metal with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3,414 °C (6,177 °F; 3,687 K); this property
makes tungsten excellent for use as electrical filaments in incandescent lamps.
• At atmospheric pressure carbon has no melting point but Carbon has the highest sublimation
point of all elements. Carbon does not melt at ambient pressure but sublimes at about 3,700 °C (6,700
°F; 4,000 K); a liquid phase only exists above pressures of 10 MPa (99 atm) and estimated 4,030–4,430
°C (7,290–8,010 °F; 4,300–4,700 K).
• Tantalum hafnium carbide (Ta4HfC5) is a refractory (resistant to decomposition by heat, pressure, or
chemical attack) compound with a very high melting point of 4,215 K (3,942 °C; 7,127 °F).

The melting point of a solid is a measure of the force of attraction between its particles (atoms or
molecules). For example, the melting point of iron metal is very high (1535°C) which tells us that the
force of attraction between the particles of iron is very strong.
When a solid is heated sufficiently, it changes its physical state and becomes a liquid. This happens as
follows: When a solid substance is heated, the heat energy makes its particles vibrate more vigorously.
At the melting point, the particles of a solid have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the strong
forces of attraction holding them in fixed positions and break to form small groups of particles. And the
solid melts to form a liquid.
2. Liquid to Solid Change: Freezing
When water is cooled (by lowering its temperature by keeping in the freezer compartment of a
refrigerator), it changes into solid 'ice'. The process of changing a liquid into a solid by cooling, is freezing.
For example, when water is cooled, it gets converted into a solid called 'ice'. This is called freezing of water.
• Freezing means solidification.
• When water freezes to form ice, then there is a change from liquid state to solid state.
• Please note that freezing is the reverse of melting.
• So, the freezing point of a liquid is the same as the melting point of its solid form.
change of state (liquid to solid) occurs during freezing. This happens as follows: When a liquid is cooled
(by lowering its temperature), its particles lose energy due to which they move slowly. If the liquid is
cooled enough (up to its freezing point), its each particle stops moving and vibrates about a fixed
position. At this stage the liquid freezes and becomes a solid.

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Change of Volume during melting and freezing
Generally, when a solid turns into liquid, its volume is increases due to decrease in Density. And when a
liquid turns into solid its volume is decreases due to increase in Density.
But some exceptions are Ice, Gray Cast Iron, Brass (Cu and Zn), Bismuth, Antimony, type metal (lead +
Antimony + Copper) etc. when turns into liquid, its volume is decreased.

Anomalous Expansion of Water

The general tendency of cold water remains unchanged until 4o C. The density of water gradually increases
as you cool it. When you reach 4oC, it’s density reaches a maximum. When you cool it further to make
some ice, i.e. 0oC, water expands with a further drop in temperature, meaning the density of water
decreases when you cool it from 4oC to 0oC. So, When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for
fresh water).
It is also a common cause of bursting of water pipes due to the pressure of expanding water when it
freezes in cold countries.

An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at atmospheric pressure—is
approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%. The
result of this process is that ice floats on liquid water (as density of ice is lower than water), which is an
important feature in Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of
water would freeze, in some cases permanently, resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and
plant life in fresh and sea water.

Effect of pressure on melting point

In General, an increase in pressure tends to prevent the solid from melting, therefore melting point
increases. Or A material is more dense in the solid than in the liquid state, as seen in most situations, the
melting point will rise with increased pressure.

But some exceptions are Ice, Gray Cast Iron, Brass (Cu and Zn), Bismuth, Antimony etc (as when turns
into liquid, its volume is decreased). When we increase pressure on these materials, their melting point
decreases.

Why does increased pressure lower the melting point of ice?

• In this case, if you increase the pressure on the ice melting point is decreases. It can do that by
making itself fit into a smaller volume, But Since water fills a smaller volume when it is liquid, rather
than solid. It will go to a lower melting point allowing more Solid to become liquid.

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Regelation is the phenomenon of ice melting under pressure and refreezing when the pressure is
reduced. This can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice, with a heavy weight
attached to it. The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally, permitting the wire to pass through
the entire block. The wire's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved, so the ice block will remain intact
even after wire passes completely through.

• This experiment is possible for ice at −10 °C or cooler.

• The phenomenon works best with high thermal
conductivity materials such as copper.
• Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday.
• It occurs only for substances such as ice, that have the property of
expanding upon freezing, for the melting points of those substances
decrease with the increasing external pressure.
• The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 °C for each additional atm
of pressure applied. For example, a pressure of 500 atmospheres is
needed for ice to melt at −4 °C.

Effect of impurities on melting point

The presence of even a small amount of impurity will lower a compound's melting point by a few degrees
and raised the melting point temperature range. Because the impurity causes defects in the crystalline
lattice, it is easier to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the molecules.
This is used to create freezing mixture.
In a freezing mixture, a soluble salt is added. The heat required to dissolve one mole of soluble solute in a
solvent is called heat of solvation. This heat required for dissolution of solid is taken from the mixture itself
and thus the freezing point decreases in steps. (The amount of heat removed is great enough that the
attractive forces between molecules draw the molecules close together.)
• When you add salt to ice, the temperature can drop from freezing or 0 °C to as low as -21 °C.
• A compound of dry ice with alcohol can also be utilized as a freezing mixture. They can reduce the
temperature up to −80∘C.
• A mixture of dry ice and solvents such as acetone, alcohol or ether acts as a freezing mixture.
• Freezing mixtures ate used to preserve perishable foodstuff like meat and fishes and to create
ice cream and kulfi.

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 Why Is Salt Used to Melt Ice on the Roads in Winter?
- Road salt, or sodium chloride, works by lowering the
freezing point of water, causing ice to melt even when
the temperature is below 0o C. When salt is applied, it
dissolves into separate sodium and chloride ions that
disrupt the bonds between water molecules, which
lower the melting point of ice and then ice starts to melt
at low temperature. That’s why salt is used to melt ice
on the road in winter.

3. Liquid to Gas Change: Vaporisation or (boiling)

Water normally exists in the liquid stat a compound of dry ice with alcohol can also be utilized as a freezing
mixture. They can reduce the temperature up to −80∘C. e. If we go on heating water, it ultimately starts
boiling and changes rapidly into a gas called steam. In this case, the liquid water changes into a gas, so a
change of state has taken place. The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on
heating, is called boiling. So, when water changes into steam rapidly on heating, it is called boiling of water.
• The boiling of a liquid takes place at a fixed temperature.
• The temperature at which a liquid boils and changes rapidly into a gas at atmospheric pressure, is
called boiling point of the liquid.
• At boiling point, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure
and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid.
For example, when water is heated to a temperature of 100°C, it boils rapidly to form a gas called
steam, so the boiling point of water is 100°C (hundred degrees Celsius). At boiling point, water changes
its state from liquid to gas (or vapour).
• Different liquids have different boiling points.
For example, the boiling point of alcohol is 78°C, the boiling point of water is 100°C, whereas the
boiling point of mercury is 357°C.
• The element with the lowest boiling point is helium.
• Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure; because it is
difficult to measure extreme temperatures precisely.
There are two conventions regarding the standard boiling point of water:
• The normal boiling point is 99.97 °C (211.9 °F) at a pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa).
• The IUPAC-recommended standard boiling point of water at a standard pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar)
is 99.61 °C (211.3 °F).
• The boiling point of a liquid is a measure of the force of attraction between its particles.
For example, the boiling point of mercury is very high (357°C) which tells us that the force of attraction
between the particles of mercury is very strong.
When a liquid is heated, it changes its physical state and becomes a gas. This happens as follows: When
a liquid is heated, the heat energy makes its particles move even faster. At the boiling point the
particles of a liquid have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction holding them
together and separate into individual particles. And the liquid boils to form a gas.

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 Effect of pressure on boiling point
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the (surrounding environmental) pressure. A
liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure.
A liquid at low pressure has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure.
Because of this, water boils at 99.97 °C (211.95 °F) under standard pressure at sea level, but at 93.4 °C
(200.1 °F) at 1,905 metres (6,250 ft) altitude.
• For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures.
As the pressure applied to the liquid surface is increased, the energy needed for the liquid molecules
to expand to gas phase also increases. Hence, a higher temperature is required to change liquid to gas
phase. So, boiling point of liquid rises on increasing pressure. Examples -
Pressure cooking is the process of cooking food under high pressure steam, employing water or a
water-based cooking liquid, in a sealed vessel known as a pressure cooker. High pressure limits boiling,
and creates higher cooking temperatures which cook food far more quickly.
• The pressure cooker was invented in the seventeenth century by the physicist Denis Papin.
• This is used to raise the internal pressure up to one atmosphere above ambient and gives higher
cooking temperatures between 100–121 °C (212–250 °F).

Effect of impurities on boiling point

If we add impurities to a solution boiling point of the solution increases. This happens because the
presence of impurities decreases the number of water molecules available to be vaporized during
boiling. Once this took place, it takes a greater amount of heat to make the same amount of impure
solution to vaporize as it would take to make a pure solution to vaporize, thus there would be raise in
the solution's overall boiling point.
Or
Boiling point is related to the vapour pressure of the solution. On adding an impurity, the vapor
pressure of solution decreases. With an increase in concentration of solute, vapour pressure decreases,
hence boiling point increases.
This phenomenon is known as ‘elevation of boiling point’. For example – adding salt to water will lead
to increase in its boiling point.
4. Gas to Liquid change: Condensation
If we cool steam (or water vapour) by lowering its temperature, it is converted into liquid water. In this
case a gas (steam) changes into a liquid, so a change of state has taken place. The process of changing a gas
(or vapour) to a liquid by cooling, is called condensation.
• So, when steam (or water vapour) changes into water on cooling, it is called condensation of steam
(or condensation of water vapour).
A change of state (gas to condensation liquid) takes place during condensation. This happens as
follows: When a gas is cooled enough (by lowering its temperature), then its particles lose so much
kinetic energy that they slow down, move closer together until they start being attracted to each other,
and form a liquid.
• Please note that condensation is the reverse of boiling (or vaporisation).

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Latent heat
Normally, when heat is given to a substance, then its temperature rises. This, however, is not so when a
change of state of a substance takes place. Because when heat is given to change the physical state of a
substance (from solid to liquid or liquid to gas), there is no rise in temperature of the substance.
• The heat energy which has to be supplied to change the state of a substance is called its latent
heat.
• Latent heat does not raise (or increase) the temperature. But latent heat has always to be supplied
to change the state of a substance.
• The word 'latent' means 'hidden'. It is called latent heat because it becomes hidden in the
substance undergoing the change of state, and does not show its presence by raising the
temperature.
• So, the latent heat which is given to change the state of a substance cannot be detected by a
thermometer.
Why latent heat does not cause a rise in temperature of the substance.
- Every substance (solid or liquid) has some forces of attraction between its particles which hold
them together. Now, if a substance has to change its state, then it is necessary to overcome (or
break) these forces of attraction between its particles. The latent heat which we supply is used up
in overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles of a substance during the change of
state. The latent heat does not increase the kinetic energy of the particles of the substance. And
since there is no increase in the kinetic energy of the particles, the temperature of a substance does
not rise during the change of state.
Latent heat is of two types:
- Latent heat of fusion, and
- Latent heat of vaporisation.
Latent Heat of Fusion (Solid to Liquid Change)
The latent heat of fusion (or melting) of a solid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert 1
kilogram of the solid (at its melting point) to liquid, without any change in temperature. It has been
found by experiments that 3.34 x 105 joules of heat has to be supplied to change 1 kilogram of ice (at
its melting point, 0°C) to water at the same temperature of 0°C. So, the latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.34 x 105 joules per kilogram (3.34 x 105).
We have just seen that when a solid melts (on heating), its temperature remains the same. Now, an
important question arises: Where does the heat energy go? Actually, this heat energy is used up in
changing the state of the solid substance by overcoming the force of attraction between its particles.
• So, particles in water at 0° C (273 K) have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same
temperature.
When we hold a piece of ice in our hand, it feels very cold. This can be explained as follows: The piece
of ice held in our hand starts melting slowly. This ice takes the latent heat (required for melting) from
our hand. Our hand loses heat to ice and hence we feel it to be cold.
When a solid melts, it absorbs heat to form liquid. The reverse of this is also true. That is, when a
liquid freezes to form a solid, an equal amount of heat is given out. For example, when ice at 0°C
melts, it absorbs latent heat of fusion to form water at the same temperature.

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Latent Heat of Vaporisation (Liquid to Gas Change)
The latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert 1
kilogram of the liquid (at its boiling point) to vapour or gas, without any change in temperature. It has
been found by experiments that 22.5 x 105 joules of heat is required to change 1 kilogram of water (at
its boiling point, 100°C) to steam at the same temperature of 100°C.
• The heat of vaporization of water is about 2,256 kJ/kg or 22.5 *105 j/kg.
• Particles in steam, that is, water vapour at 373 K (100° C) have more energy than water at the
same temperature.
We will now discuss why the temperature of boiling water does not rise even though heat is being
given continuously. This can be explained as follows: Water is a liquid substance. The particles of water
attract one another with certain forces. These forces of attraction hold the water particles together in
the liquid state. The heat which we supply to water during boiling is used to overcome (or break) the
forces of attraction between water particles so that they become totally free and change into a gas
(steam). This latent heat does not increase the kinetic energy of water particles and hence no rise in
temperature takes place during the boiling of water.
Sublimation
The changing of a solid directly into vapours on heating, and of vapours into solid on cooling, is known as
sublimation.
Please note that
• (i) the changing of a solid directly into vapour (or gas) is called sublimation, and
• (ii) the changing of vapour (or gas) directly into solid is also called diposition.
• The solid substance which undergoes sublimation is said to 'sublime'. The solid obtained by
cooling the vapours of the solid is called a 'sublimate’.
Example of sublimate
• Ammonium chloride, Iodine, Carbon dioxide (or dry ice), Camphor, Naphthalene and Anthracene.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE

• In other words, the physical state of matter can also be changed by increasing the pressure or
decreasing the pressure.
• For example, gases can be changed into liquids by increasing the pressure (accompanied by
lowering of temperature). And some solids (like solid carbon dioxide) can change into gases on
decreasing the pressure.
Gases Can be Liquefied by Applying Pressure and Lowering Temperature
• When a high pressure is applied to a gas, it gets compressed (into a small volume), and when we
also lower its temperature, it gets liquefied. So, we can also say that gases can be liquefied (turned
into liquids) by compression and cooling.
Example -
• Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is stored under high pressure. This is because on decreasing the
pressure on solid carbon dioxide, it gets converted directly into carbon dioxide gas.

FIROZ HASAN 8
 • Solid carbon dioxide is a white solid called dry ice.
• Since solid carbon dioxide directly changes into carbon dioxide gas (or sublimes), and does not melt
to produce a liquid (like ordinary ice), it is called dry ice. Dry ice can produce much lower
temperatures than that produced by ordinary ice.

EVAPORATION
When a liquid is left exposed to air, its volume decreases gradually. This is due to evaporation. In this
process some of the liquid at the surface turns into vapour (or gas) and mixes with the gases in the air.
Thus, when a liquid turns into vapour (or gas), it is said to evaporate.
The process of a liquid changing into vapour (or gas) even below its boiling point is called evaporation.
Evaporation of a liquid can take place even at room temperature, though it is faster at higher
temperatures. Whatever be the temperature at which evaporation takes place, the latent heat of
vaporisation must be supplied whenever a liquid changes into vapour (or gas). The wet clothes dry due to
evaporation of water present in them. And rain water puddles also dry up because of evaporation of
water. Common salt is also recovered from sea-water by the process of evaporation.
The process of evaporation can be explained as follows. Some particles in a liquid always have more
kinetic energy than the others. So, even when a liquid is well below its boiling point, some of its particles
have enough energy to break the forces of attraction between the particles and escape from the surface
constantly escaping from the liquid to form vapour (or gas).

Factors Affecting Evaporation

The evaporation of a liquid depends mainly on the following factors:
(i) Temperature
(ii) Surface area
(iii) Humidity
(iv) Wind speed
We will discuss all these factors in detail, one by one.
1. Temperature
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the temperature of the liquid. In other words, the rate of
evaporation of a liquid increase on heating. When the temperature of a liquid is increased by heating it,
more particles of the liquid get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour state (or gaseous state). This
increases the rate of evaporation. Thus, the rate of evaporation of a liquid can be increased by heating it.
The rate of evaporation of a liquid becomes maximum at its boiling point.
2. Surface Area of the Liquid
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the surface area of the liquid. So, if the surface area of a
liquid exposed to the air is increased, the rate of evaporation of the liquid increases. For example, if the
same liquid (say, water) is kept in a test-tube and in a china dish, then the liquid kept in the china dish will
evaporate more rapidly (because more of its surface area is exposed to air).

FIROZ HASAN 9
 • In our daily life, we spread out the washed wet clothes while drying to increase their surface area
for the rapid evaporation of water present in them (which leads to quicker drying of wet clothes).
• After rain, the wet roads dry quickly because the rain water is spread over a large area of road. This
gives the particles of water a greater chance of escaping from the liquid.
3. Humidity of Air
The amount of water vapours present in air is represented by a term called humidity. When the amount of
water vapours present in the air is small, the air appears to be 'dry' and we say that the humidity is low. On
the other hand, when the of water vapours in the air is large, the air appears to be 'damp' and we say that
the humidity is high. So, humidity of air tells us the degree of 'dampness' of air.
When the humidity of air is low, then the rate of evaporation is high, and water evaporates more readily.
Under these conditions, sweat from our body evaporates readily and we feel cool and comfortable. The
wet clothes dry quickly under the conditions of low humidity of air.
When the humidity of air is high, then the rate of evaporation is low, and water evaporates very slowly.
In the later part of summer, the humidity of air increases. People sweat a lot in such weather. But the
sweat from our bodies does not evaporate readily due to high humidity of air. Such weather becomes
muggy (damp) and we feel hot and uncomfortable. This type of weather is experienced during cloudy days
in the rainy season and in areas close to the sea (coastal areas). The wet clothes take a long time to dry
when the humidity of air is high.
4. Wind Speed
The rate of evaporation of a liquid increase with increasing wind speed. When the speed of wind increases,
the of water vapour move away with the wind, decreasing the amount of water vapour in the
surroundings. This increases the rate of evaporation of water. The washed wet clothes dry more quickly on
a windy day because evaporation is faster due to the high speed of the wind.
Cooling Caused by Evaporation
We have already studied that whenever a liquid evaporates, it must be supplied the latent heat of
vaporisation. The cooling caused by evaporation is based on the fact that when a liquid evaporates, it
draws (or takes) the latent heat of vaporisation from 'anything' which it touches. By losing heat, this
anything' gets cooled. Keeping these points in mind, we will now give some examples of the cooling caused
by evaporation.
• If we put a little of spirit (ether or petrol) at the back of our hand and wave it around, the spirit
evaporates rapidly and our hand feels very cold. This is due to the fact that to change from the
liquid to the vapour state, spirit requires latent heat of vaporisation. The spirit takes this heat of
vaporisation from our hand. The hand loses heat and gets cooled. This is an example of cooling
caused by evaporation.
• During hot summer days, water is usually kept in an earthen pot (called pitcher or matka) to keep
it cool. The earthen pot has a large number of extremely small pores (or holes) in its walls. Some of
the water continuously keeps seeping through these pores to the outside of the pot. This water
evaporates (changes into vapour) continuously and takes the latent heat required for vaporisation
from the earthen pot and the remaining water. In this way, the remaining water loses heat and
gets cooled. This is also an example of the cooling caused by evaporation.

FIROZ HASAN 10
 • It should be noted that all the water on the earth does not get evaporated due to the high value of
the latent heat of vaporisation of water.
• At many places, especially in villages, people often sprinkle water on the ground in front of their
homes during the hot summer evenings. This water evaporates by taking the large latent heat of
vaporisation from the ground and surrounding air. By losing heat, the place becomes cool and
comfortable.
• People often sprinkle water on the roof top. This water evaporates by taking the large latent heat
of vaporisation from the roof and in this way roof is cooled in the summer days.
• Please note that water vaporising from the leaves of trees also cools the surrounding air

Plasma recombination is a process by which positive ions of a plasma capture a free (energetic)
electron and combine with electrons or negative ions to form new neutral atoms (gas).
Recombination is an exothermic reaction, meaning heat releasing reaction.

FIROZ HASAN 11