Review explicit and implicit numerical techniques for solving dynamics problems.

Explicit and implicit methods are approaches used in numerical analysis for obtaining numerical
approximations to the solutions of time-dependent ordinary and partial differential equations, as is required in
computer simulations of physical processes. Explicit methods calculate the state of a system at a later time
from the state of the system at the current time, while implicit methods find a solution by solving an equation
involving both the current state of the system and the later one.

Dynamic analysis is being used extensively in various industries, such as automotive, aerospace,
defense, biomechanics, etc. Two basic types of dynamic simulation procedures are available for
nonlinear problems, namely those involving explicit time integration and others using implicit
time integration. A major advantage of the explicit methods is their numerical speed as they do
not require formation and solution of a large matrix equation during each time step that is typical
of the implicit methods.(Arora and Dutta, 1997)
(Balakrishnan et al., 2017)Explicit methods are meant for simulating short transient dynamic
events and implicit methods are generally used to simulate static problems which are less
transient using mode superposition and also step integration in full transient methods are used to
solve dynamic events as in explicit method.
(Kreculj and Rasuo, 2018)The explicit method allows solving problems element by element.
Compared with the implicit method, it does not require the general matrix, since the velocity and
displacement nodes can be counted directly, using the central difference integration scheme.
However, the time step is limited by the size of the numerical stability. Accordingly, this method
is considered as conditionally stable, because if the time step is too large, there will be a
significant numerical error. In this method, there is no requirement for balance, so it is suitable
for highly dynamic analysis, such as high velocity impact.
(Wang et al., 2023a) In explicit methods, the future unknown state is directly expressed in terms
of the currently-unknown state with an explicit formula. Euler method is the simplest explicit
method

(Kreculj and Rasuo, 2018)In the implicit method, general equilibrium is achieved by iteration at
first, followed by evaluation of local element variables. If the balance is not achieved, this
method becomes expensive for calculation, since the matrix coefficients should recalculate with
different time steps. The implicit method is unconditionally stable, allowing the use of larger
increment time steps. It is suitable for problems that tend to be highly linear, static, and quasi-
static. Commercially available software for the application of implicit methods are: ABAQUS,
ANSYS, and NASTRAN
(Wang et al., 2023b)Implicit methods approximate the unknown future state in a backward
manner, which normally results in a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations. The backward
Euler method is an illustration of this concept
(Reiner and Vaziri, 2018)These incremental-iterative procedures are unconditionally stable
which allows for using large increments. Hence, large incremental time steps can be applied in
implicit schemes while maintaining numerical accuracy. However, the application of Newton-
Raphson method or other iterative schemes within each time step increases the computational
cost.

implicit static input G method does not involve time and dumping, this reduces the governing
differential equation two linear equation

The implicit static method involves inversion of stiffness matrix and especially for larger models
the number of degrees of freedom will be higher and these requires higher computational time
and makes the solution costly. In case of nonlinear problems, equilibrium of internal structure
forces With the externally applied loads needs to be satisfied at each load increment, Newton
Raphson method is used to solve these nonlinear finite element equations. In nonlinear problems,
many iterations are required to satisfy the equilibrium and in addition to it the impression of
stiffness matrix makes it computationally costlier than linear problems. Hence the explicit
method comes in to picture where invasion of stiffness matrix is not required for linear problems
the iteration are less and larger timestep can be used, advantage of implicit method is the solution
is unconditionally stable for a new large time step and computationally faster than explicit
method.
(Samiei, 2012) The difference between implicit and explicit methods is in their formulas for
predicting the new state of particles. The state of particles at the next time step can be calculated
from the state of particles at the current and or previous time steps. This will simplify solving the
equation because the new positions could be expressed as explicit functions of the already known
values. If the state of particles at the next time step is calculated not only from the current and
previous time steps but also from the next time step the equation of motion will be implicit in
new positions. Generally the implicit method is computationally more expensive because it
requires a system of equations to be solved at each time step on the other hand relatively large
time steps could be used in implicit methods due to higher numerical stability the common
practice in DEM simulations is the explicit updating and the implicit methods have barely used.
Implicit integration schemes
backward Euler
the local truncation error is thus proportional to the square of the step size with the constant of
proportionality related to the second derivative of , which is the first derivative of the given
IVP. The backward Euler method is termed an “implicit” method because it uses the
slope at the unknown point , namely: . The developed equation
can be linear in or nonlinear. Nonlinear equations can often be solved using the fixed-point
iteration method or the Newton-Raphson method to find the value of . While the implicit
scheme does not provide better accuracy than the explicit scheme, it comes with additional
computations. However, one advantage is that this scheme is always stable

Beeman
newmark beta
(Jeffreys and Jeffreys, 1999)

second order backward difference

Explicit methods
Forward Euler method
is a first-order numerical procedure for solving ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with a
given initial value. It is the most basic explicit method for numerical integration of ordinary
differential equations and is the simplest Runge–Kutta method.(Atkinson, 1991)
yn+1=yn+hf(tn,yn)
central deference method
The central difference method is based on finite difference expressions for the derivatives in the
equation of motion.

(Alexandre Dit Sandretto and Chapoutot, 2016)Runge-Kutta methods are well-known to have
strong stability properties which make them appealing to be the basis of validated numerical
integration methods. Using an implicit Runge-Kutta in an integration scheme needs to solve a
system of non-linear equations (see Section 3). In classical numerical methods, it is done with a
Newton-like solving procedure which provides generally a good approximation of the k i. While
some interval Newton-like procedure exists for solving systems of non-linear interval equations

Explicit techniques fail when they are required to represent sets of very large cardinality.
Fortunately, as an alternative, one may represent sets by encoding them over an appropriate
Boolean space. There are functions whose primes could be computed only implicitly(Villa et al.,
1997)
Conclusion
For the explicit method, very short time steps are required in order to obtain a stable solution.