Rheology of Concrete - Critical Review, Recent Advancements, and Future Prospectives

Construction and Building Materials 392 (2023) 132007
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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Rheology of Concrete: Critical Review, recent Advancements, and

future prospectives
Romio Mandal a, Sarat Kumar Panda b, *, Sanket Nayak a
a
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India
b
School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha 752050, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In this paper, a critical review on the rheological properties of fresh concrete, its recent advancements, and future
Cement concrete prospects are discussed. Among the rheological properties, shear yield stress (τ0) and plastic viscosity (µ) are
Fresh properties extensively discussed as these two parameters are very much effective and efficient to control the overall
Flow
workability of concrete. Thixotropy, flow resistance, torque viscosity, and structural build-up are other important
Rheology
rheological parameters which are also discussed. Various fresh state activities, i.e. mixing, placing, pumping,
Yield stress
Plastic viscosity shooting, compaction, finishing, pressure formwork, multi-layer casting, and stability of concrete are charac
Special concrete terized by the use of above said rheological parameters. In this article, all the above rheological properties of
fresh concrete made with different types of cement, aggregates, mineral admixtures, chemical admixtures, and
fibers have been analyzed critically from the available data of open literature. Moreover, the mechanisms behind
the different rheological behavior of different constituents used in fresh concrete have been explored. Further,
the application and importance of rheology to special concrete such as self-compacting concrete (SCC) and 3D
printing concrete (3DPC) have also been discussed. This document is a collation and analysis of more than 250
research articles on different facts of the rheological properties of concrete, on one hand, this may be a step ahead
for the development of advanced design concepts on the rheology of concrete and, on the other hand, a useful
foundation document for further investigation.
1. Introduction including the aggregates and admixtures, it is also possible to achieve

the desired workability at lower cementitious materials content [3],
Nowadays, concrete is considered to be the second most used which in turn, reduces CO2 emission. Further, durable concrete can be
consumed material after water in the world [1–3]. The production rate produced by the use of several techniques along with suitable mineral
of concrete per year is more than 25 billion tons worldwide [4,5]. and chemical admixtures [10–18]. Moreover, the durability of concrete
Concrete is a composite material made of cement, fine aggregates, may be enhanced by controlling several fresh and hardened state
coarse aggregates, water, and admixtures [3,6]. Presently, the cement properties accurately [6,19].
consumption rate is around 4.1 billion tons per year globally [7]. Thus, The most important hardened state characteristic of concrete is
cement plants emit around 3.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) gases mechanical strength; whereas the most important fresh state charac
(0.83 kg CO2/kg of cement [8]) per year into the environment causing teristic is workability [6,20]. Workability is the ease of mixing, placing,
global warming. Additionally, the consumption of constituent materials flow, compaction, and finishing [6]. The properties of fresh concrete
for the production of cement decreases the availability of resources have a significant role in controlling the properties of hardened con
gradually [9]. Therefore, the development of better durable concrete is crete, durability, and cost [21,22]. However, very less attention is paid
sought, which indirectly reduces the raw materials consumption, CO2 to the fresh properties of concrete before site application. The slump test
emission, and repair cost, and controls the increased rate of concrete is used for the characterization of fresh concrete in most construction
production. One of the techniques to reduce cement consumption is the works because of its ease of use [22,23]. Slump is a single-point test; that
optimization of mixture proportions. For example, it is common to add essentially gives the measure of consistency and does not define all other
cementitious materials to increase workability. Instead, by optimizing, parameters contributing to workability such as placing, compaction,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S.K. Panda).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132007
Received 31 December 2022; Received in revised form 11 May 2023; Accepted 29 May 2023
Available online 7 June 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Mandal et al. Construction and Building Materials 392 (2023) 132007
finishing, etc. [24]. For example, at the same slump value, two concrete the additional shear stress needed to increase the flow rate [22].
mixtures may have different characteristics in terms of placing,
compaction, and finishing depending upon the type and quantity of 2.1.2. Thixotropy
cementitious materials, type and ratio of aggregates, and the use of The concrete stops flowing if the external shear force is removed and
admixtures [6,22,25]. the flocculation of the particle will start due to the interparticle inter
The slump test was developed long back when concrete scientists action; subsequently, the static yield stress is restored. This phenomenon
identified the role of water to cement (w/c) ratio on mechanical strength is known as the thixotropic behavior of concrete. Thixotropy is a
[22]. Later on, several other test methods such as flow table test, com reversible process and is another important rheological property
pacting factor test, ball penetration test, Vee-Bee consistometer test, etc., [29,39].
were developed to characterize the workability of concrete [6,21,22].
However, these test methods are either qualitative or quantitive 2.1.3. Structural build-up
empirical, which are mostly single-point [21,22,26]. In fact, fresh con The structural build-up is the evolution of yield stress with respect to
crete is a very complex fluid that not only contains particles ranging time [29]. This is because of the irreversible (due to hydration) and
from micrometers (cement) to millimeters (aggregates) but also changes reversible (due to thixotropy) nature of cement paste. This nature of
its characteristics with time due to the hydration of cement with water cement paste is the basis of the development of 3D printing concrete
[26,27]. Therefore, it is also difficult to define the fresh properties of [29].
concrete accurately based on the single-point tests. Some special con
crete such as self-compacting concrete (SCC) and 3D printing concrete 2.1.4. Shear-thickening and shear-thinning
(3DPC) completely depends on the fresh properties [26,28–30]. Hence, Sometimes, the viscosity is low at the low shear rate and increases
the research and applications will be more meaningful if the charac with the increase in the shear rate, this is known as the shear-thickening
terization of the fresh concrete could be done based on the fundamental behavior, and vice versa is known as the shear-thinning behavior [42].
science or material science approach instead of just single-point tests Generally, SCC has shear-thickening behavior; whilst, traditional con
[21]. From this realization, the concept of rheology (which is based on crete has shear-thinning behavior [38].
fundamental science and uses at least two parameters to describe the
flow properties of materials) to apply in concrete technology was 2.1.5. Flow resistance and torque viscosity
developed. Due to the complex geometry of some rheometers, the fundamental
Several research works have been reported on the rheological rheological parameters, i.e. ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ can’t be determined [40,42]. In
behavior of concrete using different cement, aggregates, admixtures this case, the flow resistance (also known as relative yield stress) and
(mineral and chemical), and fibers [22,26]. However, no standard torque viscosity (or relative viscosity) are directly derived from T-N
practice code or guidelines related to the rheology of concrete is avail (torque and rotational speed) relationship and considered for analysis
able. Hence, an extensive literature review must be done from the [40,42].
available test results in the open literature for the development of
advanced design concepts on the rheology of concrete. In this context, 2.2. Measurements of rheological properties
this paper aims to critically summarize the rheological properties of
various concrete mixes available in the literature to date. Firstly, the The rheological properties of fresh cement paste, mortar, and con
rheological terminologies and theories have been discussed. Subse crete are obtained by the use of several commercially available rhe
quently, the effects of different cement, aggregates, mineral admixture, ometers such as coaxial cylinder, parallel plate, cone and plate, vane
chemical admixture, and fibers on the rheological properties of fresh impeller, helical impeller, ball probe (single or double) etc. [22,41–43].
concrete have been reviewed critically. Lastly, the major application of However, most of these rheometers can’t directly give the fundamental
rheology on SCC and 3DPC, and the scopes for further research have rheological parameters, i.e. ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ upon measuring. The rheometers
been discussed. whose geometry is simple, the shear stress and shear strain rate are
determined from the torque and rotational speed, respectively
2. Rheology of concrete [22,41–43]. Subsequently, ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ are obtained from the different
well-known yield stress models such as the Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley,
Rheology is the branch of physics that describes the science of and modified Bingham models. However, for the complex geometry
deformation and flow of matter and expresses the interrelation among rheometers, either relative rheological parameters are determined from
stress, strain rate, and time [31,32]. Rheology involves time-dependent the T-N relationship, or some simulation/calibration theory is applied to
behavior under the influences of stresses of gases, liquids, and solids determine the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ [40–43]. The direct calculation of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’
(having plastic flow) [32,33]. The term rheology was first proposed by can also be done using the Reiner-Rewlin theory in combination with
Eugene C. Bingham in 1920 [26,34]. Later on, the ‘Society of Rheology’ Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley, and the modified Bingham models for the
and the ‘Journal of Rheology’ were established in 1929 [26,35]. The key coaxial cylinder rheometer or vane impeller rheometers as presented in
rheological parameters are shear yield stress and plastic viscosity Table 1 [36,42].
[36–41]. Thixotropy, structural build-up, shear-thinning, shear-
thickening, flow resistance, and torque viscosity are other rheological 2.3. Rheological models
properties and are subsequently discussed.
Among different rheological models, the Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley
2.1. Rheological terminologies (H-B), modified Bingham, and thixotropic models are the basis of the
rheology of concrete. The Bingham model (Fig. 1) approximates a linear
2.1.1. Shear yield stress and plastic viscosity connection between shear stress and shear strain rate. [42–46]. How
The shear yield stress (τ0) is the minimum stress to initiate or ever, the shear strain rate should be high enough to fulfill the Bingham
maintain flow. Thus, it is defined into two parts viz. static yield stress criteria. Additionally, a negative value of ‘τ0′ was also observed in some
(τ0s) and dynamic yield stress (τ0d). The minimum stress that is required experiments with the Bingham model [26,44]. Moreover, this model
to initiate flow is the static yield stress and the minimum stress that is fails to describe the shear-thickening behavior [45,47]. To overcome the
needed to maintain flow is the dynamic yield stress [26,39]. Once the aforementioned issues, the Herschel-Bulkley model (Fig. 1) was imple
flow happens, the resistance offered by a fluid to flow freely is known as mented [26,44–47]. This model can quantify some extent of shear-
the plastic viscosity (µ). Alternatively, plastic viscosity is a measure of thickening behavior of materials [45]. However, it fails to quantify the
2
Table 1 The Bingham, H-B, modified Bingham, and Roussel’s thixotropy

Expression of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ for Reiner-Rewlin theory in combination with Bingham, models are presented in Table 2. There are some other complex rheo
Herschel-Bulkley, and modified Bingham models for coaxial cylinder rheometer logical models for cementitious systems which are also presented in
[36,42,75]. Table 2. Nevertheless, they can be more suitable for their specific cases.
T-N relationship Expression of shear Expression of plastic
yield stress (τ0) viscosity (μ) 2.4. Qualitative description of rheological parameters of fresh concrete
( ( )
Reiner-Rewlin with G 1 H 1 1
τ0 = B μ = 2B
Bingham (BM) 4πh R21
− −
8π h R21 R22 The qualitative description of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of various mixes is pre
model:T = GB + HB N sented in Fig. 2.
)
1 1 For viscous concrete mixes having the same value of ‘τ0′ , the ‘µ’ value
R22 R2
ln
R1
increases if it becomes more sticky. Similarly, for stiff concrete mixes
Reiner-Rewlin with
(
GHB 1
having the same value of ‘µ’, the ‘τ0′ value increases with the increase in
Herschel-Bulkley (HB) τ0 =
4πh R21
− μ = stiffness of concrete. Both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ decrease with the increase in the
model:T = GHB + water-to-binder (w/b) ratio (wet mixes); whereas, the opposite phe
)
HHB Nn 1 1
HHB
(
1 1
)n
nomenon is always true for the decrease in the w/b ratio (dry mixes).
R22 R2 nn
ln 22n+1 πn+1 h 2
−
2 The wet mix contains more water as compared to the reference mix.
R1
R1n R2n Hence, the value of ‘τ0′ decreases because of the increase in distance
( ( )
Reiner-Rewlin with GMB 1 H 1 1 between the aggregate particles. Simultaneously, the value of ‘µ’ also
modified Bingham τ0 = − μ = MB − 2
4πh R21 8π h R1 R2
2 2
decreases due to the increase in liquid content and decrease in aggregate
(BM) model:T =
) content. The value of ‘µ’ decreases significantly with the increase in air
GMB + HMB N + CN2 1 1
content (entrained air) due to the lubrication effect of air bubbles.
R22 R2
ln
R1 However, the effect on ‘τ0′ is very less. More paste (cementitious mate
rials) content decreases the value of ‘τ0′ due to the increase in distance
where, T, N, R1 , R2 , and h are the torque, rotational speed, inner radius, outer
between the aggregate particles. However, the value of ‘µ’ increases due
radius, and height, respectively. For establishing the T-N relationship, the
required parameters (G and H) are obtained corresponding to different rheo
to more availability of powder content.
logical models. Furthermore, the rheological properties are greatly influenced due to
the use of different types of cement, aggregates, admixtures, and fibers
[26,48–50]. The effects of each on the rheological properties of concrete
have been discussed critically in the next subsequent sections.
3. Effect of concrete ingredients on concrete rheology
3.1. Cement
The rheological properties are different for different types of avail

able cement because of the different chemical compositions and physical
properties. The major commercially available types of cement are or
dinary Portland cement (OPC), Portland pozzolana cement (PPC), and
Portland slag cement (PSC) [51–53]. Dhanapal and Nanthagopalan [54]
investigated the rheological properties of OPC, PPC (fly ash-based), and
PSC paste for different grades of concrete by varying w/b ratios. It was
found that the solid volume fraction (SVF) and shape of the binder
significantly influenced the rheological properties. A non-linear trend of
‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ with SVF greater than 0.46 was more pronounced due to the
shear thickening behavior. Further, a decreasing trend of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ was
also noted with the increase in the w/b ratio. This could be due to the
decrease in SVF in the system [54]. It was also noted that both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’
were more for PSC as compared to OPC and PPC. PPC and PSC are
Fig. 1. Comparison between Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley models. mainly produced by substituting OPC with Class-C fly ash and slag,
respectively. The effect of these two cement-replacing materials is
shear-thinning behavior [45]. To overcome the drawbacks of both broadly discussed in the mineral admixture section.
models, the modified Bingham model is used [26,45]. This model con Apart from traditional cement (OPC, PPC, and PSC), some special
tains the characteristics of both (Bingham and H-B) models which pro cement such as superfine cement (SFC), ultrafine cement (UFC), mag
vides the most consistent value of ‘τ0′ for the case of non-linear nesium phosphate cement (MPC), foamed cement (FC), calcium sul
rheological behavior [45]. foaluminate cement (CSAC), high alumina cement (HAC), composite
Though, the H-B and modified Bingham models provide advantages cement (CC), and sulfate-resisting cement (SRC), are also used in con
over the Bingham model; however, these are a little bit complex [42]. crete as per demand, accordingly, the rheological behaviors are different
Hence, the Bingham model is commonly preferred due to its ease of use; [51,52,55–61].
whereas, H-B or modified Bingham models are preferred for special Chen and Kwan [55] reported that the addition of SFC at water-to-
cases or when the Bingham model does not sufficiently match the test cementitious materials ratio (W/CM) ≥ 0.24 increased ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’.
data [22,42,47]. Whereas, the addition of SFC at W/CM ≤ 0.22 decreased both param
Another important model is Roussel’s thixotropy model [26,39]. eters. The addition of SFC up to 20%, increased the packing density and
This model determines the magnitude of the flocculation rate (Athix), water film thickness (WFT) significantly, which, in turn, improved the
which is also much helpful in developing today’s modern concrete such rheological properties. However, at the same WFT, the addition of SFC
as SCC. always increased both rheological parameters. Kaufmann et al. [56]
observed that the replacement of up to 20% OPC by UFC decreased ‘τ0′
3
Table 2
Rheological models for fresh cement, mortar, and concrete [26,39,42,46–48].
Models’ name Equations Suitability
Bingham model τ = τ0 + μγ̇ Materials having liner stress vs strain rate behavior
H-B model τ = τ0 + aγ̇b For shear-thickening materials
Modified Bingham model τ = τ0 + μγ̇ + cγ̇2 For all types of materials (linear and nonlinear)
Roussel,s thixotropy model τ0 (t) = τ0 + Athix tAthix =
τ0 Much helpful for SCC and 3D printing concrete
√̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅ T
√̅̅̅̅̅
Casson model τ = τ0 + μγ̇ Mixtures having viscous addictive such as SF.
De Kee model τ = τ0 + μγ̇e− Aγ̇ Materials with 100% cement and rheology modifying agents
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Yahia and Khayat model τ = τ0 + 2 τ0 μγ̇e− Aγ̇ For shear-thinning and low-shear-thickening materials
Vom Berg model τ = τ0 + Asinh− 1 (Bγ̇) Both shear-thinning and shear-thickening materials
Robertson − Stiff model τ = (A + γ̇)C For drilling fluids and cement slurries
τ : shear stress; τ0 : yield stress; μ : plastic viscosity; γ̇ : shear rate; a : consistency factor; b : flow index;
c : 2nd order parameter; Athix : floculation rate; T : characteristic time of floculation; A, B, C : constants
Table 3
Description of rheological properties of various cement as compared to OPC
[55–61].
Type of Rheological properties
cement
Shear yield stress (τ0) Plastic viscosity (μ)
PPC Decreases* Marginally decreases*

PSC Decreases* Decreases*
SFC Increases when (W/CM) ≥ 0.24 Increases when (W/CM) ≥ 0.24
Decreases W/CM ≤ 0.22 Decreases W/CM ≤ 0.22
UFC Decreases up to 20% replacement Decreases up to 20% replacement
Increases beyond 20% Increases beyond 20%
replacement replacement
MPC Decreases first and then increases Decreases first and then increases
with the increase in the M/P ratio with the increase in the M/P ratio
FC —— Increases with the increase in
foam quality (10 to 30%)
CSAC —— ——
HAC —— ——
CC —— ——
SRC decreases ——
*Detailed trends are discussed in the mineral admixtures section

Fig. 2. Qualitative description of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of various concrete
mixes [22,26,48–50]. 3.2. Aggregates
and ‘µ’. Whilst, at higher dosages of UFC, the values were increased. The Aggregates (coarse and fine) are inert materials and occupy 55 to
addition of UFC up to 20% (optimum), gradually increased the packing 75% volume of the total volume of concrete [51,52]. There are various
density of the mix, which, in turn, decreased the rheological properties aggregates such as natural aggregates, recycled aggregates, lightweight
[56]. Ma et al. [57] reported that both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of MPC paste were aggregates, and heavyweight aggregates used in concrete.
decreased firstly and then increased with the increase in the magnesium
to phosphate (M/P) ratio from 2.5:1 to 4.5:1. The rheological properties 3.2.1. Natural coarse and fine aggregates
were noted to be best at the M/P ratio equal to 3:1. The high M/P ratio The viscosity of concrete containing coarse and fine aggregates can
decreased the WFT and accelerated the early age hydration rate, which be determined from Eq. (1) as given below.
increased the rheological parameters. The use of foamed cement (FC) ( )− [ηFA ]Smax ( )− [ηCA ]Gmax
S G
increased the viscosity with an increase in foam quality (10 to 30%) ηc = ηp 1 − 1− (1)
Smax Gmax
[58]. Mate et al. [59] informed that gypsum content did not show any
important effect on the viscosity of the pastes of CSAC. It was also
where, ηc : viscosity of concrete; ηp : viscosity of paste; S: sand volume
informed that the paste with w/c = 0.4 and without SP exhibited a
fraction; Smax : maximum sand solid volume; G: gravel volume fraction;
shear-thinning behavior. Farouk et al. [60] reported that HAC with
Gmax : maximum gravel solid volume; ηFA : intrinsic viscosity of fine
carboxylic acid exhibited linear rheological behavior of paste. Further, it
aggregate; ηCA : intrinsic viscosity of coarse aggregate [62]. Further, the
is evident from their finding that the viscosity of the paste increased with
yield stress of concrete can be determined from Eq. (2).
the increase in acid content. Aiad et al. [61] investigated the delayed
addition of admixtures on the rheology of SRC and reported the delayed τc = τm + f (ts) (2)
time enhanced the rheological properties. The maximum shear stress
values of SRC were noted to be less as compared to OPC irrespective of where, τc, τm, and f(ts) are the yield stress of concrete, yield stress of
all delayed time. The rheological behavior of composite cement (CC) as mortar, and total apparent solid volume, respectively [62].
compared to OPC is not reported to date. Thus, from Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), it can be inferred that the rheological
Thus, due to the insufficiency of research works on the rheological properties of concrete depend on the volume fraction and packing
properties of concrete involving special types of cement, there is further density of aggregates. Further, the packing density depends on the
scope for detailed study. Based on the literature [55–61], the description shape, size, gradation, and type of aggregates. Therefore, the effect of
of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of various special cement as compared to OPC is summa each property and types of aggregate on the rheology of concrete need to
rized in Table 3. be further described.
4
The volume fraction of aggregates is an important parameter that Faleschini et al. [74] reported that the use of coarse RCA in concrete
majorly affects the rheological properties of concrete. Cao et al. [63] increased ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. It was also concluded that ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of recycled
studied the effect of coarse aggregate volume fraction on the flow aggregate concrete (RAC) can properly describe its rheological behavior
behavior of concrete via the discrete element model (DEM). It was and can be modeled as Bingham fluid. Singh and Singh [75] studied the
observed that the static yield stress increased with the increase in coarse rheological behavior of different grades of self-compacting RAC as
aggregate volume. Ivanova and Mechtcherine [64] also reported the compared to natural aggregate concrete (NAC). It was reported that for a
same phenomenon. The ‘µ’ also increases with the increase in the vol given grade, ‘τ0′ increased with the increase in RCA percentage. It was
ume fraction of the coarse aggregates. Hu and Wang [65] reported that also reported that although the Bingham model is valid in the obser
‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of mortar increased with the increase in sand content. vation; however, the rheology can be more accurately described by the
Correspondingly, the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of concrete increased with the increase Herschel-Bulkley and modified Bingham model. Research work also
in coarse aggregate content [65]. This is due to the availability of more reported that both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were more for dry coarse RCA as compared
aggregate particles and less mortar/paste which would coat them for a to the saturated-surface-dry (SSD) RCA [76,77]. This is due to the
better flow. reduction of the effective w/c ratio by absorbing the mixing water
Rheology is also influenced by the size and gradation of aggregates. [76,77]. The water absorption of RCAs increases with the increase in
Hu and Wang [65] also observed that the well-graded aggregate (con elapsed time, which results in more increase in yield stress and plastic
taining coarse and fine) as compared to the single-sized aggregate viscosity over time for the RAC than that of NAC [78,79]. The use of fine
reduced ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. However, the effect of aggregates on concrete RCA also influences the rheological properties of concrete. Carro-López
rheology is sometimes confusing due to the combined effect of size and et al. [79] reported that the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of concrete increased with the
gradation. Li and Liu [66] informed that the ‘τ0′ of mortar depends on increase in fine RCA percentage.
the ratio of the size of aggregate to paste film thickness (D/PFT). With Similar to natural aggregate, the shape, size, and gradation of RCAs
the increase in the D/PFT ratios, the ‘τ0′ of mortar increased [66]. also influence the rheological property. Both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ increase with
The shape of aggregates also has significant effects on the rheology of the increase in irregularity in shape and roughness (texture) [80,84].
concrete. Ozel and Yucel [67] reported a lower value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ for Usually, with the decrease in aggregate size, both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ decrease.
concrete made with natural stone than the crushed aggregate. The However, with the decrease in the size of RCAs, the adhered mortar
natural aggregates (rounded) reduced both parameters because of the content increases [73], thereby increasing the water absorption capac
decrease in friction between the particles. Whereas, the opposite trend ity. This in turn increases the rheological parameters. Thus, there seems
also existed in the case of crushed stone (angular) aggregates. For flaky to have a combined effect of size and adhered mortar content on the
and elongated aggregates, both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased due to the rheological properties of concrete. Hence, there is a scope for a detailed
increase in the collision of particles [26]. Similar effects of volume study of the rheological behavior of concrete made up of different size,
fraction, shape, and size of aggregates on the rheology of mortar/con grading and adhered mortar content of RCA.
crete were reported by several other authors [68–72] and are summa The negative impact on the flowability of RAC can be minimized by
rized in Table 4. the use of mineral and chemical admixtures [81–84]. The use of low
calcium fly ash can significantly improve the flowability of RAC because
3.2.2. Recycled coarse and fine aggregates of its spherical particles and ball-bearing effect [81,82]. Kim et al. [81]
Recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) are obtained from old concrete observed that the use of fly ash in RAC decreased ‘µ’ significantly;
structures to save natural resources and achieve sustainability [73]. The whereas, ‘τ0′ decreased slightly. Singh and Singh [82] reported that the
surface of RCAs contains adhered mortar, which is irregular and porous. shear-thinning behavior moved to shear-thickening behavior as the w/b
The adhered mortar enhances the friction with the ingredients of the mix ratio decreased from 0.40 to 0.28 for RCA-based samples. The use of the
and consumes more water than the natural aggregate [73]. The increase superplasticizer (SP) improved the flowability of RAC [83,84]. Bizinotto
in friction and water absorption significantly influences the rheological et al. [84] reported that the use of SP could able to lower the ‘τ0′ of RAC.
properties of concrete, which is discussed elaborately below. Whereas, the air-entraining admixture (AEA) could able to lower ‘µ’. The
trends of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of RAC made with various admixtures and mix
design methods as compared to the reference RAC are presented in
Table 4
Effect of various properties of aggregates on the rheology of concrete [62–72].
Aggregate Rheological properties
properties
Volume Increases Increases

fraction
Smaller size Increases with increase in fine Increases with the increase in
(fine aggregate content in mortar fine aggregate content in
aggregate) Decreases with the increase in mortar
fine aggregate content while Decreases with the increase in
decreasing the coarse content fine aggregate content while
in concrete decreasing the coarse content
in concrete
Larger size Increases with the increase in Increases with the increase in
(coarse amount as well as size amount as well as size
aggregate)
Rounded Decreases Decreases
(natural
stone)
Angular Increases Increases
(crushed
stone)
Flaky Increases Increases
Elongated Increases Increases
Rough surface Increases Increases
Fig. 3. Influence of RCAs on the rheological properties of con
Smooth surface Decreases Decreases
crete [74–77,81,84].
5
Fig. 3. Table 5
Among different mix-design methods such as direct volume Rheological properties of RCAs, LWAs, and HWAs as compared to NCAs.
replacement (DVR), direct weight replacement (DWR), and equivalent Types of Rheological properties
mortar volume (EMV) methods of RAC, the EMV method showed a aggregates
significant increase in ‘µ’ [74,84–86]. Knaack and Kurama [86] inves
tigated the rheological behavior of RAC prepared with DVR, DWR, and RCAs Increase Increase
LWAs May increase or decrease May increase or decrease
EMV methods. It was found that compared to the conventionally depending on the surface depending on the surface
designed methods (DWR and DVR), the workability of RAC designed morphology morphology
with the EMV method was significantly worsened. The severe increase in HWAs Increase Increase
rheological parameters in the EMV method is due to the presence of a
few amounts of fine particles (such as cement and fine aggregates) in the
furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume (SF), and metakaolin (MK), are
concrete mixes, increased RCA percentage, and decreased water avail
pozzolanic materials, which mainly contain reactive amorphous silica
ability in the mixes [84].
and some other oxides [6,10,95]. Besides, limestone powder (LP) as
filler and some other mineral admixtures such as rice husk ash (RHA),
3.2.3. Lightweight aggregates (LWAs)
sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), and sewage sludge ash (SSA) are also
Lightweight aggregates (LWAs) are made of different sources such as
sometimes used to replace cement. The approximate ranges of oxide
perlite, vermiculite, expanded clay, fly ash pellets or sintered aggre
composition of major oxides for various mineral admixtures are sum
gates, coconut shells, oil plum shells, rubber, ceramic wastes, etc.
marized in Table 6.
[87–90]. Senff et al. [88] used two types of LWAs viz. perlite and
From the table, it has been observed that the amounts of major oxides
vermiculite to observe the effect on rheological properties. It was
such as CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are different for each mineral
noticed that both LWAs increased the yield stress with the increase in
admixture. Additionally, the physical properties such as specific gravity,
replacement percentage. However, the data on plastic viscosity is
surface morphology, and particle size distribution of each mineral
confusing. It was further noticed that perlite showed the highest values
admixture are also different. Hence, the rheological behaviors of con
of yield stress initially, while VER tended to act for longer periods. This
crete containing these mineral admixtures are different [96,97] and are
could be due to the mortar with vermiculite developing high surface
discussed in the following subsections.
friction between the particles. Lv et al. [89] studied the rheological
properties of concrete made with lightweight coarse aggregate (crushed
3.3.1. Fly ash (FA)
shale ceramist wastes) and rubber (used as fine aggregate to replace the
Fly ash (FA) possesses almost the same particle size (10 to 100 µm)
sand). It was noted that the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of the mix increased with the
and fineness (300–500 m2/kg) as OPC [98,99]. However, its specific
increase in the rubber particles replacement ratio. This could be due to
gravity is lower (2.0 to 2.5) than OPC (3.15), which results in more paste
the rough and irregular morphological features of the rubber particles.
volume [98–102]. There are mainly two types of FA, i.e. high calcium FA
Othman et al. [90] reported that the tire rubber particles, when used as a
or class-C FA and low calcium FA or class-F FA (CaO content up to 10%)
sand replacement, reduced the workability of concrete significantly. The
[97–99]. Further, due to different production methods, the character
significant reduction was attributed due to the rough surface and elastic
istic of each FA is different. The effect of different FA on the rheological
behavior of rubber particles that increased the friction between the
behavior of concrete is presented in Fig. 4.
rubber particles and other concrete constituents. The different plastic-
The addition of class-F FA in cement increases the flow properties of
based sustainable synthetic aggregates showed different trends of
concrete because of its spherical particles and ball-bearing effect
workability [91]. Hence, suitable attention is required to achieve the
[96–101]. Ahari et al. [96] reported that the use of class-F FA decreased
required rheological properties of lightweight aggregate concrete.
yield value and increased viscosity. Laskar and Talukder [102] observed
that the addition of class-F FA decreased the value of ‘τ0′ in high-
3.2.4. Heavyweight aggregates (HWAs)
performance concrete. However, at the higher replacement level, the
Heavyweight aggregates (HWAs) are used for the production of
‘τ0′ increased slightly. Further, no significant change in ‘µ’ was observed.
heavyweight concrete for radiation shielding (medical or nuclear),
Hassani et al. [103] informed that the viscosity of paste was less with
offshore structures, ballasting for pipelines, etc. [92–94]. The most
more class-F FA content and less OPC content in geopolymer binder.
commonly used HWAs are barite (BaSO4), magnetite (Fe3O4), manu
Park et al. [111] found that the yield stress was decreased first and then
factured aggregates such as iron, etc. [92–94]. Bouali et al. [93] studied
slightly increased with the increase in class-F FA percentage; whilst, the
the rheological properties of concrete using barite (having a density of
plastic viscosity was increased at all replacement levels. Quero et al.
4200 kg/m3) as cement as well as fine aggregate substitution. They
[162] reported that ‘τ0′ decreased with the increase in class-F FA con
found that ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were decreased when barite was used as a cement
tent. In other studies, Jiang et al. [146], Zhang and Han [151], and
substituent. However, ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased when barite was used
Vance et al. [166], reported that both the rheological parameters
as a fine aggregate substituent. Jiao et al. [94] reported that the addition
decreased with the increase in class-F FA percentages.
of 3% wt. nano-Fe3O4 (apparent density of 4950 kg/m3) particles
The influence of class-C FA on the rheological properties is opposite
significantly increased ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ due to the high water demand of the
to that of the influence of class-F FA [26,96,97,104]. Class-C FA can be
nanoparticles and the increase in inter-particle contacts. However,
characterized by self-cementitious properties as well as pozzolanic ac
under the external magnetic field, the measured ‘τ0′ was observed to be
tivity [99]. This type of FA has active ingredients which take part in
less. Generally, concrete with HWAs would require more force to initiate
hydration reaction quickly. Additionally, class-C FA contains more un
or maintain the flow; on the other hand, the resistance to flow governed
burnt carbon which is coarser and irregular [99]. Ahari et al. [96,97]
by the fluid would also be more, which, in turn, increases both rheo
reported that the class-C FA-based SCC exhibited more yield value and
logical parameters.
viscosity than class-F FA. This could be due to the presence of more
Based on the above discussions, the description of the rheological
spherical shape particles of class-F FA, which packed better and reduced
properties of various aggregates, i.e. RCAs, LWAs, and HWAs as
the interparticle friction due to the higher ball-bearing effect. Whilst, the
compared to the NCAs is presented in Table 5.
class-C FA possessed some irregularly-shaped particles, which decreased
fluidity. Grzeszczyk and Lipowski [104], used four types of class-C FA
3.3. Mineral admixtures
having different fineness and observed that the values of the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’
of paste were increased with the increase in class-C FA content for all
Mineral admixtures such as fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast
6
Table 6
Approximate ranges of major oxide composition of various mineral admixtures.
Oxides FA GGBS SF MK LP RHA SCBA
(%) [99] [99] [123] [136–141] [146–151] [155] [156]
CaO 3.5–33.0 30.0–50.0 0.3–0.5 0.02–1.2 52.0–57.0 0.5–3.0 1.0–12.0

SiO2 33.0–61.0 28.0–40.0 82.0–96.0 50.0–68.0 0.1–2.0 82.0–94.0 55.0–77.0
Al2O3 4.6–32.0 6.0–24.0 0.2–0.9 25.0–45.0 0.1–1.4 0.2–1.4 1.0–15.0
Fe2O3 2.3–10.0 1.0–3.0 0.1–2.0 0.5–4.0 0.1–0.5 0.2–1.5 0.2–12.0
Fig. 4. Influence of FA on the rheological properties of concrete

[96,104,111,132,146,151,166].
four samples.
The particle size of FA also influences the rheology of concrete Fig. 5. Influence of GGBS on the rheological properties of concrete
[105–107]. Li and Wu [106] investigated the effect of mean particle size [97,111,113,114,122].
(PD) of class-F FA on the fluidity of paste and informed that with the
increase in mean PD, the flow decreased up to a certain value, and then geopolymer mortars [116].
increased. Lee et al. [107] reported that the fluidity of the paste The particle size of slag also influences the rheology of concrete
increased as the particle size distribution become wider. The increase in [118,119]. Hammat et al. [119] reported that the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of
fluidity is due to the increase in packing density, which reduces the self-compacting mortar were decreased with the increase in the fineness
amount of water retained inside the cluster particles and increases the of slag. In fact, both rheological parameters also decreased with the
amount of free water in the system. increase in slag percentage. However, the use of very fine or ultrafine
slag increased the rheological parameters and decreased fluidity because
3.3.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) of the increase in surface area and reactivity of slag particles
GGBS possesses almost the same specific gravity (around 2.9) and [120–122,127].
fineness (more than 350 square meters/kg) as OPC [108–110]. Due to
the less chemical activity of the components and smooth surface of 3.3.3. Silica fume (SF)
grains as compared to OPC [99], the incorporation of GGBS in concrete SF is a very fine material, having average particle sizes of less than 1
lowers the rheological parameters as depicted in Fig. 5. µm and fineness (Blaine) of 13,000 to 30000 m2/kg [123,124]. Its spe
Park et al. [111] reported that the yield stress of paste made with cific gravity is significantly lower (around 2.2) than OPC (3.15)
GGBS was decreased up to 30% replacement and then increased up to [111,123]. Its high fineness or microparticles consume more water, in
45% replacement. Whilst, the plastic viscosity was decreased at all crease the packing density, and fill micropores [26,123]. Additionally,
replacement levels. Boukendakdji et al. [112,113] informed that the SF particles tend to agglomerate and have a lubrication effect under
addition of GGBS to cement improved the workability of SCC. The ‘τ0′ certain conditions. The use of SF significantly influences the rheological
and ‘µ’ decreased up to 25% substitution [113]. Ahari et al. [96,97] properties as illustrated in Fig. 6.
found that yield value and viscosity were decreased with the addition of Ahari et al. [96] reported that the use of SF increased the yield value
slag content irrespective of the water-to-binder ratio. Shi et al. [114] first and then decreased with the increase in SF content. However, the
used four kinds of slag viz. blast furnace slag (BSF), rougher surface blast torque plastic viscosity decreased always. Benaicha et al. [125] found
furnace slag (RBFS), phosphorous slag (PS), and rougher surface phos that the addition of SF increased ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. A similar phenomenon was
phorous slag (RPS) and reported similar decrement trends of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. also reported in other research works [111,126,134]. Collins [127]
Few others literature reported that the increase in slag content increased observed that the addition of condensed silica fume in the alkali-
the rheological parameters of concrete. Derabla and Benmalek [115] activated slag binder significantly increased the water demand. He
reported that the use of granulated slag and crystallized slag reduced the et al. [128] reported that with the increase in SF content, the value of ‘µ’
fluidity of heat-treated SCC and increased the viscosity. The use of slag was decreased first and then increased in the paste with ultra-low water
in slag-cemented backfill increased ‘τ0′ and decreased ‘µ’ with time binder ratio (w/b = 0.19–0.23); whilst, the value of ‘τ0′ was not signif
[117]. In an experimental investigation, it is presented that up to 50% of icantly affected up to 15% replacement. Beyond that, the value of ‘τ0′
slag replacement could not alter the rheology of FA-GGBS-based increased sharply. Adethya et al. [129] concluded that the SF could be
7
Ling et al. [138] found that when FA is substituted by MK in the paste

of SCC, the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were decreased slightly for a very small quantity
of replacement (up to 2%), and then these properties were increased for
the replacement percentage up to 8%. This is because of the larger
specific surface area of MK as compared to FA. It is also noticed in the
literature that the use of MK increased the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of concrete
[139–141]. The negative effect of MK on the flowability of concrete
could be overcome by the use of Catodique-ray tube (CRT) glass as fine
aggregate as suggested by Ouldkhaoua et al. [141].
Due to the variation of governing parameters, some other studies
reported that the use of MK improves the workability of concrete.
Mansour et al. [142] observed that the use of Algerian MK decreased the
viscosity and shear stress of cement paste irrespective of shear rate. The
effect was observed to be significant with the 10 to 15% MK replacement
level; however, with 20% replacement, both values were increased.
Barkat et al. [143] found that the use of local MK decreased the ‘τ0′ and
increased ‘µ’ of self-compacting Portland limestone cement (PLC) con
Fig. 6. Influence of SF on the rheological properties crete. Sales et al. [144] reported that the use of MK decreased both
[96,111,125,126,128,130,131,134,151]. rheological parameters of lime (L)–metakaolin (MK) slurries. In this
case, lime particles tend to agglomerate in the system. Hence, with the
utilized up to 15% without much affecting the rheology of SCC. Yun increase in MK content, both rheological parameters were decreased
et al. [130] observed that the SF enhanced the flow resistance and because of the strong repulsion force between MK particles. Thus, we
reduced the torque viscosity slightly. The water-to-binder (w/c) ratio can conclude that the use of a small quantity of MK decreases the
also plays a significant role in controlling rheology. Liu et al. [131] rheological parameters due to the increase in packing density as the fine
found that with w/c ratio = 0.4, the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased. MK particles fill the spaces made by larger particles. However, the values
Whilst, for w/c = 0.5 and 0.6, both the parameters were decreased first of rheological parameters increase after the optimum dosages because of
and then increased with the increase in SF percentage. Further, no the increase in water demand.
obvious regularity of rheological properties was found for w/c = 0.7.
Rahman et al. [132] reported that the addition of a lower amount (2.5%) 3.3.5. Limestone powder (LP)
of SF increased the value of ‘Athix’. Among different silicas (nano-silica LP has a combination of filler effect, nucleation effect, dilution effect,
(NS), silica fume (SF), and pyrogenic silica (PS)), the use of NS and SF and chemical effect [145]. The variation of rheological properties of
decreased the value of ‘µ’, but PS increased this value [133]. Burroughs concrete involving LP is depicted in Fig. 8.
et al. [135] used eight different types SFs and reported that all SFs could Jiang et al. [146] reported that the incorporation of LP (30%)
not be treated as equivalent as the rheological behavior of SF-based significantly increased the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. This was due to the in
composites depends on the specific source and dosage of SF, and w/b crease in resistance of the suspension to applied shear because of fine
ratio. particle size. Felekoğlu et al. [147] investigated the rheology of mortar
made with two types of limestone filler (namely EM and OK) and FA.
3.3.4. Metakaolin (MK) The OK-type limestone increased the viscosity up to 20% replacement.
Metakaolin (MK) is obtained by the calcination of kaolin clay be
tween the 700 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C range [136,137]. Its particles are much finer
(more that 700 m2/kg) than the particles of cement. The use of MK
greatly influences the rheology of concrete as depicted in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Influence of MK on the rheological properties of con Fig. 8. Influence of LP on the rheological properties of concrete
crete [138,140–143]. [146,149,151,153,166].
8
Whilst, the EM-type increased the viscosity at all replacements. This was
due to the more angular and coarse structure of the EM-type than that of
the OK-type. The mean particle size (MPS) and fineness of LP greatly
influence the rheology of mixes. The flow time and viscosity of cement
limestone grouts increased with the increase in the fineness of limestone
[148]. Vance et al. [166] observed that with the increase in LP (volume
%) both rheological parameters were increased when smaller limestone
particles (MPS = 0.7 µm and 3.0 µm) were used; whilst, for the coarser
limestone particles (MPS = 15 µm), the parameters were decreased
marginally. Turk and Demirhan [149] reported that when silica sand
was replaced by LP, both yield stress and viscosity were increased due to
the rough and angular surface texture of fine ground LPs which
increased the particle interaction under flow. Gołaszewska [150] used
two types of limestone filler viz. B (5630 cm2/g) and T (4790 cm2/g) and
reported that the T-type could not influence the value of ‘τ0′ . Whereas, B-
type increased the value because of the finer particles as compared to the
T-type.
Few other research results were opposite to the above results due to
variations of governing parameters [151–153]. Zhang and Han [151]
observed that the addition of 10% ultra-fine (UF) LP decreased the value
of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of cement paste. This was attributed to the increase in
packing density by ultra-fine materials for lower replacement levels. Fig. 9. Influence of RHA on the rheological properties of con
Beeralingegowda and Gundakalle [152] reported that the mixes of SCC crete [124,159,161].
were more workable up to 20% fine LP replacement. However, the
fineness of LP and variation of SP dosages were not reported in the 3.3.6.2. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA). SCBA has very good sources of
article. Han et al. [153] investigated the three different fineness of LP, silica (almost 70%) [156]. Most of the studies reported that the addition
such as L2000 (1880 cm2/g), L4000 (4120 cm2/g), and L7000 (7340 of SCBA decreases the workability of concrete [156,161–163]. Jittin and
cm2/g) on the rheology of cementitious materials and reported that the Bahurudeen [161] reported that with the increase in SCBA percentage
viscosity was decreased with increase in LP content for all three samples. the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased in SCBA-based binary and SCBA-
The discrepancy among the research results published is due to the RHA-based ternary blended cement pastes. In other studies, it was also
different surface morphology of LP taken by different researchers in observed that the addition of SCBA enhanced the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’
their investigation. Usually, irregular and rough particles of LP increase [162,167]. To achieve the same workability, the SCBA-based concrete
friction between the granular. It has also a high adsorption capacity to required more SP than the control concrete [163]. The increase in the
superplasticizers. These lead to an increase in water demand to maintain ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ is due to the absorption of water by the particles and the
the workability; thereby increasing the rheological parameters. prismatic and irregular shape of SCBA [156,161].
Among other mineral admixtures, SSA is less used in concrete. The
3.3.6. Other mineral admixtures use of SSA decreases the workability of concrete due to its porous
Among other mineral admixtures, rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane microstructure and irregular shape [157,164,165]. There is a scope for a
bagasse ash (SCBA), and sewage sludge ash (SSA) were being tried to detailed study of the rheological properties of concrete made up of SSA.
replace cement clinkers [154–157]. Based on the discussion above, the description of the rheological
properties of various mineral admixtures is summarized in Table 7.
3.3.6.1. Rice husk ash (RHA). RHA is a more reactive pozzolana, which
is obtained by the controlled calcination of rice husk [155,158]. The use 3.3.7. Ternary blend system
of RHA remarkably affects the concrete’s rheology as shown in Fig. 9. The ternary blend system uses three components viz. cement, lime
Le et al. [124] reported that with the increase in RHA percentage in stone, and mineral admixtures (such as fly ash, slag, silica fume, calcined
self-compacting high-performance concrete, the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ clay, etc.) [166–169]. Vance et al. [166] studied the rheological prop
were increased. It was further noted that with the increase in mean erties of ternary binders containing Portland cement, limestone, and
particle size (MPS) of RHA, both the rheological parameters were metakaolin or fly ash. It was found that ‘µ’ increased with the increase in
enhanced. Celik and Canakci [159] studied the rheological properties of
cement-based grout mixed utilizing RHA with three different water-to- Table 7
binder (w/b) ratios. It was observed that the increase in RHA percent Description of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of various mineral admixtures as compared to OPC.
age significantly increased the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of grout at w/b = Type of mineral Rheological properties
0.75. However, at w/b equal to one or more, the values were slightly admixtures
affected. Muthukrishnan et al. [160] observed that the 3D-printed mix
involving RHA requires more water and SP to maintain workability. Class-F FA Decreases Marginally decreases
Recently, Jittin and Bahurudeen [161] found that the addition of RHA Class-C FA Increases Increases
GGBS Decreases Decreases
enhanced the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of SCBA-RHA-based ternary blended SF Increases Marginally decreases for lower
cement paste. However, Laskar and Talukdar [102] found that the yield (10–15%) replacement and then
stress decreased and plastic viscosity increased with the increase in RHA increases
content of high-performance concrete. MK Decreases for lower Decreases for lower replacement
replacement levels and then levels and then increases
Hence, most of the research works reported that with the increase in
increases
RHA percentage, both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased. The RHA particles LP Depends on the surface Depends on the surface
absorb water on its surface and store water in its pores that in turn, morphology morphology
increase the rheological parameters [158–161]. RHA Increases Increases
SCBA Increases Increases
SSA —— ——
9
fine limestone content. Whilst, for the coarser limestone, ‘µ’ remained
unchanged. On the other hand, ‘τ0′ decreased at higher FA content even
though the mixes contained fine limestone. Further, ‘τ0′ was observed to
be reduced with increasing limestone content for the mixes containing
metakaolin and fine limestone. Siqueira et al. [167] investigated the
rheology of a ternary blend system containing Portland cement (PC),
limestone, and SCBA. It was noted that the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were
increased with the increase in SCBA content. Arora et al. [168] observed
that the highly efficient microstructural packing of the ternary blend
system improves workability [168]. Thus, the rheological behavior of
the ternary blend system depends on the type, percentage addition of
components, and their characteristics [166–169].
3.3.8. LC3 system

LC3 (Limestone calcined clay cement) system has two effects, i.e.
filler effect (fills the pores) and chemical effect (reacts with aluminates)
[170,171]. Nair et al. [170] studied the fresh properties of limestone
calcined clay blended cementitious systems and reported that the LC3
system decreased the workability of concrete. Higher dosages of
superplasticizer were required for limestone-calcined clay cement
blends system in comparison to OPC or FA-based systems. It was also
found that the calcined clays showed difficulties in retaining workability Fig. 10. Influence of WRs on the rheological properties [122,130,183,184].
for extended durations. Muzenda et al. [171] reported that the calcined
clay in the LC3 increased the static and dynamic yield stress, initial resin, and concluded that modified polyacrylic resin was the most
thixotropic index, plastic viscosity, and cohesion. Additionally, the effective because it exhibited the lowest viscosity as compared to others.
calcined clay decreased the harmonic distortion in the LC3 system. This Björnström and Chandra [175] reported that the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of cement
was due to the high specific surface area and layered structure of pastes made up of different sulfonated-based SP and polycarboxylic
calcined clay, which contributed to its high-water demand. However, acid-based SP were than the reference paste. However, their dispersion
the limestone in LC3 showed the opposite effect. mechanism was different. In polycarboxylates-based SP, the dispersion
mechanism was controlled by steric hindrance. Whereas, in the
3.4. Chemical admixtures Sulfonated-based SP, the dispersion mechanism was controlled by
electrostatic repulsion. Robert et al. [176] investigated the impact of
Chemical admixtures such as water-reducers, set controllers, air- four families of SP such as PCE, SMF, SNF, and LS on the rheology of
entraining agents, viscosity-modifying agents, shrinkage-reducing ad class F FA-incorporated cement paste and concluded that both ‘τ0′ and
mixtures, corrosion inhibitors, etc. are usually used in concrete ‘µ’ were decreased up to the saturation dosages and then increased.
[6,15,18]. The molecular bonding and physiochemical properties of Similarly, all kinds of SP decreased the rheological parameters and
each chemical admixture are different [18,51]. Hence, the rheological increased the fluidity of cement paste, mortar, and concrete [177–182].
properties of concrete having the above chemicals admixture are However, Aied et al. [183] reported that among different sulfanilates,
different, which are discussed in the following subsections. such as cyclohexanone glyoxylic sulfanilate (CGS), acetone glyoxylic
sulfanilate (AGS), and melamine glyoxylic sulfanilate (MGS), the use of
3.4.1. Water reducers (WRs) CGS increased the yield stress, apparent viscosity, and plastic viscosity
WRs are mainly organic water-soluble polymers that are commonly up to 0.2% dosages, and then decreased in oil well cement slurries.
used to improve the workability and/or strength of concrete [6,18,172]. Furthermore, lignin and PCE-based SP reduced the relative yield stress
Generally, lignosulphates (LS), hydroxycarboxylic acids, carbohydrates, and relative plastic viscosity of geopolymer (GP) concrete [184]. Hence,
sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF), sulphonated naphthalene it can be concluded that almost all type of superplasticizers decreases the
formaldehyde (SNF), polycarboxylates ether (PCE), polyacrylates, etc. yield stress and plastic viscosity of cementitious systems. It is worth
are used as water reducers in concrete [6,18,172]. However, SNF and mentioning that in most of the cases of SPs, the reduction of ‘τ0′ is more
PCE-based superplasticizers (SP) are more popular worldwide [173]. than ‘µ’.
The use of these WRs significantly lowers the rheological parameters as
depicted in Fig. 10. This is because of the dispersion effect due to the 3.4.2. Set controllers (SCs)
electrostatic repulsion in old-generation SP or steric hindrance in new- Set-controlling chemicals are typically accelerators or retarders
generation SP. [6,15,18,51]. The accelerators help to set the mix faster; whereas, the
Adjoudj et al. [122] reported that the use of PCE-based SP decreased retarders show the opposite effect [185–190]. This is because the ac
both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ with the increase in PCE content. Yun et al. [130] celerators or retarders influence the early-age dissolution process in the
revealed that the PCE reduced the flow resistance quickly for the 0.1% concrete mixes. Several types of accelerators such as calcium chloride,
admixture dosages and then reduced slightly for the additional 0.1% potassium carbonate, some calcium and/or sodium-based nitrite, ni
dosages of shotcrete mixes. The torque viscosity was decreased almost trates, thiosulfate, and thiocyanate, etc. used in concrete
equally from start to end. As compared to SNF-Based SP, the use of PCE- [15,27,185–188]. These decrease the flowability of concrete due to their
based SP is more effective in improving workability. Qian and Schutter immediate setting action [27,15,186]. Some of the research witnessed
[173] observed that both SNF and PCE-based SP decreased the dynamic that the use of accelerators increased both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ [186,188].
yield stress and thixotropic index. However, PCE-based SP decreased the Dressler et al. [188] investigated the yield stress and evolution of yield
dynamic yield stress more effectively as compared to SNF-based SP. This stress with varying dosages of alkali-free accelerators of 3D printing
was because the SNF followed a monolayer adsorption model; whilst, shotcrete concrete. It was found that the ‘τ0′ was increased with the
PCE followed a multi-layer adsorption model. Papo and Piani [174] increase in accelerator dosages (0 to 6%). A significant difference in
studied the rheology of cement paste using three different types of SP, i. yield stress was observed between 0% and 6% accelerator dosages at
e., melamine resin, modified lignosulphonate, and modified polyacrylic
10
time 90 min. Additionally, at all accelerator dosages, the evolution of [195]. However, the thixotropy value of 3D printing mortar remained
yield stress was witnessed. This phenomenon is known as structural almost constant up to 0.15% AEA rate and then significantly increased
built-up and has advantages in improving the buildability of 3D printed with 0.2% AEA rate. Cao et al. [196] observed that the sodium dode
layers. From this characterization, the safe printing time can be calcu cylbenzene sulfonate-based AEA (an anionic surfactant) along with
lated for taking the load of the second or subsequent layers. HRWR decreased the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ first due to the lubrication
On the other hand, the retarding admixtures such as sugars, ligno effect at lower dosages, and then increased up to a certain value due to
sulfates, gluconates, carbohydrates, hydroxycarboxylic acids and salts, the bridging effect in presence of HRWR, and then decreased again due
and phosphates are used to increase the setting time and keep the con to the double layers formation of surfactants on the surface of bubbles or
crete workable for long durations. [15,189,190]. Generally, the re breaking of bridges. Dils et al. [197] found that both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were
tarders make the concrete mixes to retain the same workability or increased when AEAs were added to the fresh cementitious materials.
increase the workability depending upon the chemical composition of Banfill [198] reported that there is no significant influence on the yield
the retarders. There is a scope for detailed research on the rheological stress of concrete containing AEA; conversely, a decrease in plastic
properties of concrete involving retarding admixtures. viscosity is noticeable with the increase in air content.
The conflict of the presented results by different researchers on the
3.4.3. Air-entraining agents (AEAs) yield stress is due to the measurement of rheological parameters of
AEAs are generally used to protect against the damage of concrete different types of AEAs at different shear rates. However, ‘µ’ was
due to freezing and thawing cycles [6,191,192]. These agents also in decreased with the addition of air-entraining agents in most of the cases.
crease workability because of the creation of air bubbles that act like Generally, the bubbles act as flocculating particles without shear which
ball-bearing, which makes easiness for the aggregates to move in the wet may enhance ‘τ0′ , and the bubbles act as lubricants when shear is applied
concrete, and thus the fresh properties increase [191]. Basically, several which may reduce ‘µ’.
vegetable and animal fats and oils and their fatty acids, natural wood
resins, alkali sulfates, etc. are used as AEAs. The effects of AEAs on the 3.4.4. Viscosity modifying agents (VMAs)
rheological properties of concrete are depicted in Fig. 11 [193–197]. VMAs are used to provide the stability to extremely flowable con
Struble and Jiang [193] studied the rheology of cement paste using crete such as SCC [6,51,199]. The highly flowable concrete is prone to
three different types AEAs (alkali-neutralized gum rosin, neutralized tall segregation because of the low viscosity of the paste. The VMAs increase
oil, and a tall oil with α-olefin sulfonate) and reported that with the the cohesiveness/viscosity and thus improve stability [200–210]. Usu
increase in the percentage of AEAs, the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were ally, VMAs micro-silica (MS), nano-silica slurry (NS), high molecular
increased and decreased, respectively. The authors explained it by two ethylene oxide derivate (EO), natural polysaccharide (PS), starch deri
competing actions viz. the formation of bubble bridges (which increased vate (ST), methyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, cellulose ethers, bentonite,
‘τ0′ ) and the fluid action of bubbles (which decreased ‘µ’). However, at a some colloidal agents are used in concreting works [200–210]. The
low w/c ratio (w/c = 0.3) and the use of a high-range water reducer mechanism of action of VMAs can be classified into three categories, viz.
(HRWR) with alkali-neutralized gum rosin, both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were adsorption, association, and intertwining. In adsorption, the VMA mol
increased. This is because the bubble bridges dominate over any fluid ecules adsorping on the water molecules, which leads to the expansion
action of the entrained air bubbles. Yun et al. [130] reported that the use of the VMA molecules, thereby increasing the viscosity. In association,
of sulfonate silica-based AEA decreased the flow resistance and torque the VMA molecules in the polymer chain develop attractive forces and
viscosity. Zhang et al. [194] explored the effect of bubble feature pa trap the water inside, which in turn forms a viscous gel. In intertwining,
rameters on the rheology of concrete and informed that smaller sizes the molecules of VMA start intertwining with each other and form a
(10–600 µm) of air bubbles reduced both rheological parameters cohesive network, thus enhancing the viscosity. Apart from viscosity,
because these gave full play to the ball as well as lubrication effect. In 3D the VMAs also enhance the yield stress of fresh concrete as depicted in
printable mortars, both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were decreased with the addition of Fig. 12.
AEAs up to 0.15% rate and then both parameters were slightly increased Leemann and Winnefeld [200] investigated the rheology of concrete
made with different inorganic VMAs (MS and NS) and organic VMAs
(EO, PS, and ST). It was noted that all the VMAs significantly increased
the value of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ with the increase in VMAs percentages. Yun et al.
Fig. 11. Influence of AEAs on the rheological properties [130,193–197]. Fig. 12. Influence of VMAs on the rheological properties [130,200,202].
11
[130] reported that methylcellulose (MC)-based VMA decreased the concrete [219–229]. The rheological behavior of fiber-reinforced con
flow resistance first and then increased; whilst, torque viscosity was crete depends on several factors such as volume fraction, aspect ratio,
increased always [130]. Grabiec [201] informed that VMA decreased diameter, and length of fibers as presented in Table 9.
the fluidity and increased the slump flow time of SCC. Sonebi [202] Apart from the above various properties of fibers, types of fiber
reported that the use of diutan gum (second-generation VMA) exhibited highly influence the rheological behavior as qualitatively depicted in
more apparent viscosity as compared to welan gum. This is because of Fig. 13.
the long-side chain of diutan gum, which leads to greater entanglement Yun et al. [130] reported that the use of 0.4% (% of cement content)
and intertwining. Both diutan gum and welan gum increased the yield nylon synthetic fiber significantly enhanced the flow resistance of high-
stress and plastic viscosity at the same SP dosages. The rheological performance shotcrete wet mixes. However, the torque viscosity was
behavior of various VMA-based fresh cementitious mixes depends on slightly increased up to 0.2% fiber content and then decreased by about
several factors [202–207]. For starch ether-based VMA, the shear- 40% for additional 0.2% fibers. Hossain et al. [223] investigated the
thinning behavior was noticed at the low shear rate; whilst, the shear- influence of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), steel, and hybrid fibers on the fresh
thickening behavior was noticed at the high shear rate [203]. Bouras and rheological properties of fiber-reinforced self-consolidating con
et al. [204] reported that the polysaccharide-type VMA exhibited shear- crete (FRSCC). The results revealed that the metallic fiber produced 1.3
thickening behavior for all the values of the shear rate. Brumaud et al. to 1.8 times higher ‘µ’ as compared to the PVA fiber. It was also noted
[205] presented a good relationship between the measured yield stress that the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ were increased with the increase in PVA, metallic,
and the amount of adsorbed cellulose ether (CE) molecules. Bülichen and hybrid fiber volume. Moreover, the maximum dosages (by volume
et al. [206] revealed that the action of methyl hydroxyethyl cellulose %) of PVA and metallic fibers are limited to 0.125% and 0.3%, respec
(MHEC) was dependent on the temperature. The dynamic viscosity was tively, for FRSCC mixes because of PVA’s higher workability reduction
increased monotonically with the increase in methyl hydroxyethyl cel capability. Akid et al. [224] confirmed that the workability of fresh
lulose content at 25 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C. However, due to its insolubility at concrete reduced with the increase in waste steel fiber quantity. How
higher temperatures (60 ◦ C), the sample could not enhance the dynamic ever, the incorporation of class-F FA in concrete recovered the lost
viscosity. Gołaszewski [207] reported that the rheological behavior of workability. Tabatabaeian et al. [225] investigated the effects of hybrid
mortar involving high molecular weight polysaccharide powder and fibers (combination of hooked-end steel and polypropylene) on the
liquid-based VMAs was dependent on the type of cement and SP used. rheology of SCC and reported a reduction in workability in the J-ring, V-
Thus, it is necessary to know the interaction between VMA and SP as funnel, and slump test. Polypropylene fiber reduced more slump than
most of the time SP is used in today’s concreting works. Prakash and steel fiber due to its high-water absorption capacity. Gwon and Shin
Santhanam [208] confirmed that the polysaccharide-based VMA (welan [226] used cellulose microfibers (CMFs) having two different lengths
gum) was compatible with SNA and PCE-based SP. Hence, it is appearing viz. 5 mm and 0.4 mm and reported that both types of fibers increased
that several factors influence rheological behavior and the mechanisms ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. However, the increment was more for longer-length CMFs
of actions are different for different types of VMAs. However, they al than the shorter ones. Similarly, all other types of fibers such as cellulose
ways increase the rheological parameters and improve the segregation nanofiber, polymer fibers, glass fiber, carbon fiber, etc. also enhanced
resistance of concrete [200–210]. the rheological parameters [227–229]. The presence of fibers increases
Based on the available literature, it is apparent that among chemical the rheological parameters in concrete because the fibers interrupt the
admixtures, the shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRAs) [211–214] and flow of fine particles, absorb water, and increase the interfacial friction
corrosion-inhibiting admixtures (CRAs) [215–218] have little effect on between fibers and granulates [222–228].
the rheological properties of concrete. There is a scope for further
research on the rheological properties of concrete made up of various 4. Major application and importance of rheology to special
SRAs and CRAs. concretes
From the literature on chemical admixtures discussed in the previous
sections, the description of the ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ of each type of chemical Although, the rheological characterization applies to all types of
admixture is presented in Table 8. concretes, however, it is more important for some special concrete such
as SCC and 3D printing concrete. The following subsections describe the
3.5. Fibers importance of rheology for SCC and 3DPC.
Fibers are used to improve the flexural strength, ductility, and 4.1. Self-compacting concrete (SCC)
toughness of concrete, and mitigate shrinkage cracks [219,220]. There
are several types of fibers such as steel fibers, glass fibers, carbon fibers, SCC should have a low ‘τ0′ for easily pumpable/flowable and a
cellulose fibers, polypropylene fibers, nylon fibers, and natural fibers moderate ‘µ’ for fillable every part of formwork without segregation
(jute, coir, and bamboo), etc. used in different concreting works [230]. This is achieved by using more cementitious materials, a higher
[130,219–229]. Generally, fibers enhance the rheological properties of fraction of fine aggregates along with some chemical admixtures (such
as SP and VMA) [230–234]. Generally, the fresh properties of SCC are
Table 8
Description of rheological properties of different types of chemical admixtures. Table 9
Effect of various properties of fibers on the rheology of concrete [221,226].
Type of chemical Rheological properties
admixtures Properties of Rheological properties References
Shear yield stress (τ0) Plastic viscosity
fibers
(μ) Shear yield stress (τ0) Plastic
viscosity (μ)
WRs Decrease Marginally
decrease Volume Increases Increases [221]
Set accelerators Increase Increase fraction
Set retarders —— —— Aspect ratio Increases; however, the change is Marginally [221]
AEAs Depends on the types of AEAs and the Decrease less at a low aspect ratio and an increases
applied shear rate aspect ratio greater than 100
VMAs Increase Increase Diameter Marginally increases Marginally [221]
SRAs —— —— increases
CRAs —— —— Length Increases Increases [226]
12
4.2. 3D printing concrete (3DPC)
3D concrete printing is one of the additive manufacturing technique

that has the capability of fabricating a pre-designed structural element
[235–251]. The toughest challenge of 3DPC is the selection of the right
kind of raw materials, the development of mixture proportion, and mix
design method [240]. Inappropriate mix design can lead to low build
ability (collapse or deformation) and cold joints (weak bonds between
layers) [235]. 3D printing concrete is a combination of cement, aggre
gates, mineral admixtures, chemical admixtures, fillers, and fibers.
Hence, the knowledge of the rheology of all those is vital in developing
the exact printable concrete mixes [241,245,246]. For 3DPC, the ma
terials should be thixotropic, which provides high-yield stress at rest and
low viscosity under applied pressure [241,244,251]. During pumping or
extrusion, the yield stress should be optimum and the plastic viscosity
should be low [240]. However, after printing the yield stress should be
high enough to sustain the self-weight of upper or subsequent layers.
This is achieved either by thixotropy recovery or by the setting-
hydration action. The structural build-up characterization is helpful in
this regard as it is measured by the evolution of static yield stress with
time [249,235]. It was also reported that the dynamic yield stress of
Fig. 13. Influence of various fibers on the rheological properties 3DPC should be low to prevent flow interruptions [237,241]. Hence, the
[130,220,221,223,226,228]. printability of 3DPC demands a balance of high static yield stress and
low dynamic yield stress as well as high thixotropy [237]. Nevertheless,
characterized using some empirical test methods as illustrated in Fig. 14. the setting time and hydration analysis also give an idea about the
However, none of these test methods are alone sufficient to confirm the structural build-up. However, the combination of all these character
flow behavior and stability as at least three to four combined test results izations can accurately control the printability, time gap of printing, and
are required to confirm the same [231]. On the other hand, a single buildability.
rheometer can characterize and control the flow behavior of SCC by Further, as illustrated in Fig. 15, there are some other fresh state
evaluating the rheological properties viz. shear yield stress (τ0), plastic characteristics such as viscosity recovery, extrudability, buildability,
viscosity (µ), and flocculation rate (Athix) [39,233]. and robustness, which are also controlled by rheological studies. Hence,
Pumpability, filling ability, compactibility, and segregation resis from the above discussions, it seems that rheology is the vital charac
tance can be characterized by yield stress and plastic viscosity [26]. terization for developing 3DPC mixes and its apprehension is advancing
Based on the flocculation rate, either non-thixotropic (Athix less than 0.1 the additive manufacturing technique day by day to produce on large
Pa/s) or thixotropic (Athix: 0.1–0.5 Pa/s), or highly thixotropic (Athix scales [235,243].
greater than 0.5 Pa/s) SCC can be produced as per the requirement to
control the pressure formwork, multi-layer casting, and stability [39]. 5. Conclusions
The pumping pressure can also be co-related with ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’, which
would be more straightforward in controlling SCC [232]. A detailed literature survey is carried out on the rheology of fresh
concrete made with different types of cement, aggregates, admixtures
Fig. 14. Fresh properties of SCC by empirical test methods and rheological approach.
13
Fig. 15. Various fresh stage characterization of 3DPC [29,242,248–251].
(mineral and chemical), and fibers. The effect of each of the constituents and high thixotropy. The structural built-up and viscosity recovery
on the rheological properties is analyzed critically. Based on the above are other important rheological characteristics used in 3DPC.
literature survey, the following critical observations are drawn:
6. Recommendations
• Shear yield stress (τ0) and plastic viscosity (µ) are the two most
important rheological properties, which are commonly used to Though lots of research works have been carried out to investigate
describe the rheological behavior of fresh concrete. Thixotropy is the rheology of fresh concrete; however, the following points enlist the
also another rheological property, which is a reversible process. future prospectives to explore the field of rheological science of modern
• With an increase in the coarse aggregate fraction, the value of ‘τ0′ and fresh concrete.
‘µ’ increases. The graded aggregate as compared to the single-sized
aggregate reduces both the above parameters. Larger size, flaky, • It is essential to establish the correlation between the theoretical
and elongated aggregates also influence both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. parameters derived from the rheometer and the conventional
• The use of recycled aggregate in concrete increases both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ workability test parameters for a wide range of concrete in presence
with the increase in replacement percentage due to the presence of of various aggregates, admixtures (mineral and chemical), and fiber.
adhered mortar. The rheological properties of concrete involving • There is a need of detail investigations of the rheological behavior of
lightweight aggregates depend on the surface morphology. Whereas, special types of cement such as composite cement, superfine or ul
the heavyweight aggregate increases both rheological parameters. trafine cement, magnesium phosphate cement, foamed cement, cal
• Among mineral admixtures, the values of ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ decrease for cium sulfoaluminate cement, high alumina cement, sulfate-resisting
class-F FA (due to the spherical shape and the ball-bearing effect of cement, etc. because of the future prospect of these advanced
the particles) and GGBS (due to less chemical activity of the com materials.
ponents as compared to OPC and smooth surface of grains). • The rheology of RCAs-based concrete needs to be explored more to
Conversely, ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ increase for class-C FA due to irregular and develop some dependable models, which would be beneficial to in
cellular particles. The use of SF increases ‘τ0′ due to its high fineness crease the utilization of C&D waste. The rheology of several light
or microparticles, which consume water. Whereas, ‘µ’ decreases weight aggregate-based concrete needs to be investigated since their
marginally for lower (10–15%) replacement. The MK decreases both use is increasing in high-rise buildings to reduce the self-weight of
‘τ0′ and ‘µ’ due to increases in packing density for lower replacement structures.
levels and then increase. • Extensive rheological investigation of concrete involving SCBA and
• Among chemical admixtures, the use of SPs significantly decreases SSA is sought as their utilization can fulfill some extent future de
‘τ0′ and marginally decreases ‘µ’ because of the dispersion effect. mand for pozzolanic materials.
Whilst, set accelerators and VMAs increase ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. The rheo • There is further scope for a detailed investigation of the rheological
logical behavior of concrete involving AEAs depends on its types and properties of concrete involving the use of various set retarders,
the applied shear rate. SRAs, and CRAs.
• The use of all types of fibers increases ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. Further, any in • Recent advancements are on SCC and 3DPC. Development of reliable
crease in volume fraction, aspect ratio, diameter, and length of fibers empirical formulas among pumping pressure, yield stress, viscosity,
increases both ‘τ0′ and ‘µ’. and time with the variation of height, diameter, and length of pipe
• Production of SCC using the rheological approach can be more sci for SCC involving various cement, aggregates, admixtures, and fibers
entific and cost-effective. SCC should have lower ‘τ0′ to flow easily are sought to easily control the flow behavior. The development of a
and moderate ‘µ’ to fill easily and prevent segregation. The pressure design chart for required rheological parameters is also essential for
formwork, multi-layer casting, and stability of SCC can also be large-scale field production.
controlled by rheological studies.
• The hardest task of 3DPC is the development of accurate mixture Declaration of interests
proportions and mix design methods. The printability of 3DPC de
mands a balance of high static yield stress, low dynamic yield stress, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
14
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Construction and Building Materials 392 (2023) 132007

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

Rheology of Concrete: Critical Review, recent Advancements, and

1. Introduction including the aggregates and admixtures, it is also possible to achieve

Table 1 The Bingham, H-B, modified Bingham, and Roussel’s thixotropy

3. Effect of concrete ingredients on concrete rheology

The rheological properties are different for different types of avail­

PPC Decreases* Marginally decreases*

*Detailed trends are discussed in the mineral admixtures section

Volume Increases Increases

CaO 3.5–33.0 30.0–50.0 0.3–0.5 0.02–1.2 52.0–57.0 0.5–3.0 1.0–12.0

Fig. 4. Influence of FA on the rheological properties of concrete

Ling et al. [138] found that when FA is substituted by MK in the paste

3.3.8. LC3 system

4.2. 3D printing concrete (3DPC)

3D concrete printing is one of the additive manufacturing technique

Fig. 15. Various fresh stage characterization of 3DPC [29,242,248–251].

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The rheological properties are different for different types of avail