Ophiolite Genesis and Global Tectonics - Geochemical

Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.
org on January 6, 2013
Geological Society of America Bulletin
Ophiolite genesis and global tectonics: Geochemical and tectonic

fingerprinting of ancient oceanic lithosphere
Yildirim Dilek and Harald Furnes
Geological Society of America Bulletin 2011;123, no. 3-4;387-411

doi: 10.1130/B30446.1
Email alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new
articles cite this article
Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions/ to subscribe to Geological Society of
America Bulletin
Permission request click http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA
Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of
their employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further
requests to GSA, to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent
works and to make unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms
to further education and science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post
the abstracts only of their articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting
includes a reference to the article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the
presentation of diverse opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race,
citizenship, gender, religion, or political viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect
official positions of the Society.
Notes
© 2011 Geological Society of America

Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on January 6, 2013
INVITED REVIEW ARTICLE

Ophiolite genesis and global tectonics: Geochemical and
tectonic fingerprinting of ancient oceanic lithosphere
Yildirim Dilek1,† and Harald Furnes2

1
Department of Geology, Shideler Hall, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA, and Faculty of Earth Sciences, China University
of Geosciences at Wuhan, Wuhan 430074, Hubei Province, China
2
Department of Earth Science & Centre for Geobiology, University of Bergen, Bergen 5007, Norway
ABSTRACT lites that generally have mid-ocean-ridge son cycle) is well preserved in most orogenic
basalt (MORB) compositions. Subduction- belts. Magmatism during each of these phases
Ophiolites, and discussions on their origin related lithosphere and ophiolites develop produces spatially and temporally associated,
and significance in Earth’s history, have been during the closure of ocean basins, whereas mafic-ultramafic to highly evolved rock assem-
instrumental in the formulation, testing, and subduction-unrelated types evolve during blages. These rock units, which have varying in-
establishment of hypotheses and theories in rift drift and seafloor spreading. The peak ternal structures, geochemical affinities, and age
earth sciences. The definition, tectonic ori- times of ophiolite genesis and emplacement ranges, and originally formed in different geo-
gin, and emplacement mechanisms of ophio- in Earth history coincided with collisional dynamic settings, constitute discrete ophiolite
lites have been the subject of a dynamic and events leading to the construction of super- complexes and can become tectonically juxta-
continually evolving concept since the nine- continents, continental breakup, and plume- posed in collision zones (Dilek, 2003).
teenth century. Here, we present a review related supermagmatic events. Geochemical In the Penrose definition (Anonymous, 1972,
of these ideas as well as a new classification and tectonic fingerprinting of Phanerozoic p. 24), an ophiolite is described as a “distinctive
of ophiolites, incorporating the diversity in ophiolites within the framework of this new assemblage of mafic to ultramafic rocks” that
their structural architecture and geochemi- ophiolite classification is an effective tool for includes, from bottom to top, tectonized perido-
cal signatures that results from variations identification of the geodynamic settings of tites, cumulate peridotites, and pyroxenites over-
in petrological, geochemical, and tectonic oceanic crust formation in Earth history, and lain by layered gabbros, sheeted basaltic dikes,
processes during formation in different geo- it can be extended into Precambrian green- a volcanic sequence, and a sedimentary cover;
dynamic settings. We define ophiolites as stone belts in order to investigate the ways in an ophiolite may be incomplete, tectonically
suites of temporally and spatially associated which oceanic crust formed in the Archean. dismembered, or metamorphosed. This original
ultramafic to felsic rocks related to separate Penrose definition of ophiolites (Anonymous,
melting episodes and processes of magmatic INTRODUCTION 1972) is highly restrictive and does not reflect
differentiation in particular tectonic envi- the actual heterogeneity in ophiolite composition
ronments. Their geochemical characteris- Ophiolites represent fragments of upper and occurrence, and therefore a more determin-
tics, internal structure, and thickness vary mantle and oceanic crust (Dewey and Bird, istic approach to defining ophiolites and their ig-
with spreading rate, proximity to plumes or 1971; Coleman, 1977; Nicolas, 1989) that were neous evolution is needed. In this paper, we first
trenches, mantle temperature, mantle fertility, incorporated into continental margins during review the evolution of the ophiolite concept
and the availability of fluids. Subduction- continent-continent and arc-continent collisions before and after the formal Penrose definition,
related ophiolites include suprasubduction- (Dilek and Flower, 2003), ridge-trench inter- and we redefine an ophiolite in light of recent
zone and volcanic-arc types, the evolution of actions (Cloos, 1993; Lagabrielle et al., 2000), observations and diverse data sets from ophio-
which is governed by slab dehydration and and/or subduction-accretion events (Cawood lites worldwide. We outline the significance of
accompanying metasomatism of the mantle, et al., 2009). They are generally found along ophiolite pulses in Earth history within a global
melting of the subducting sediments, and suture zones in both collisional-type (i.e., Alpine, tectonic framework and introduce a new and
repeated episodes of partial melting of meta- Himalayan, Appalachian) and accretionary-type more comprehensive classification of ophiolites
somatized peridotites. Subduction-unrelated (i.e., North American Cordilleran) orogenic based on their distinctive internal structures, geo-
ophiolites include continental-margin, mid- belts (Fig. 1) that mark major boundaries be- chemical signatures, and regional tectonics. We
ocean-ridge (plume-proximal, plume-distal, tween amalgamated plates or accreted terranes then present petrogenetic models for the forma-
and trench-distal), and plume-type (plume- (Lister and Forster, 2009). The geological rec- tion of different types of ophiolites and discuss
proximal ridge and oceanic plateau) ophio- ord of the evolution of ocean basins from the the implications of this new ophiolite classifica-
rift-drift and seafloor spreading stages to the ini- tion for the origin of Precambrian oceanic crust,
†
E-mail: [email protected]. tiation of subduction and final closure (the Wil- particularly for some Archean greenstone belts.
GSA Bulletin; March/April 2011; v. 123; no. 3/4; p. 387–411; doi: 10.1130/B30446.1; 12 figures; 2 tables, Data Repository item 2011131.
For permission to copy, contact [email protected]

387
© 2011 Geological Society of America
Dilek and Furnes
mid-ocean-ridge
Indonesian belt (Cenozoic)

Western Pacific and Cordilleran belts
(Paleozoic-Tertiary)
Alpine - Himalayan belt
(Jurassic - Cretaceous)
Appalachian - Caledonian -
Hercynian - Uralian & Central
75
15°W 165°E
°
Asian belts (early Paleozoic)
Tasmanides (Paleozoic)
75°E
ch
Sunda Tren
Figure 1. Global distribution of major Phanerozoic orogenic belts and ophiolite age clusters on a north polar projection. Significant examples of
different ophiolite types with characteristic geochemistries are marked with symbols used in Figure 2. Modern mid-ocean ridges and subduction
zones (marked by trenches) where contemporary oceanic lithosphere has been produced are also depicted. The two major arc-trench rollback
systems, Izu-Bonin-Mariana and Tonga-Kermadec, are the sites of ophiolite and volcanic-arc generation, which undergo tectonic extension and
trenchward-migrating magmatic construction. The collision zone between the NW Australian passive margin and the Sunda arc-trench system
where the island of Timor has been emerging during the last ~5 m.y. represents the best modern analogue for ophiolite emplacement.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND tion of an ophiolite (Brongniart,1821) to include nite), gabbro, and diabase-spilite, in association
NEW DEFINITION OF OPHIOLITES a suite of magmatic rocks (ultramafic rocks, with deep-sea sedimentary rocks in the Medi-
gabbro, diabase, and volcanic rocks) occurring terranean mountain chains and interpreted the
Early Ideas and Evolving in the Apennines. Gustav Steinmann (1856– origin of these rocks as differentiated magmatic
Ophiolite Concept 1929) elevated the “ophiolite” term to a new units evolved on the ocean floor. He considered
concept by defining ophiolites as spatially as- these rock assemblages to have developed from
The term “ophiolite” was first used in 1813 sociated kindred rocks that originally formed as a consanguineous igneous process during the
by a French mineralogist, Alexandre Brongniart in situ intrusions in axial parts of geosynclines evolution of eugeosynclines. This interpretation
(1770–1847), in reference to serpentinites in (Steinmann, 1927). Steinmann emphasized the subsequently led to the widely known notion of
mélanges; he subsequently redefined his defini- common occurrence of peridotite (serpenti- the “Steinmann trinity.”
388 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Ophiolite genesis and global tectonics
Although Steinmann considered peridotite, ophiolite (Cyprus), connecting ophiolite genesis with high-temperature deformation fabrics,
gabbro, diabase, and volcanic rocks in ophio- to subduction-zone processes. fossil magma chambers in plutonic sequences,
lites as comagmatic in origin, his observation Hess discussed in his 1962 paper that the and the allochthonous nature of ophiolites by
that gabbroic and diabasic rocks were intru- main oceanic crustal layer (his layer 3) along the mid-1960s was instrumental in the formula-
sive bodies in the serpentinized peridotites is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was made largely of tion of the ophiolite model and the ophiolite–
an extremely important one because it differs serpentinite (his Fig. 2, p. 603; Hess 1962), and ocean crust analogy within the framework of
from the contemporary interpretation of the that the seismic velocity of this layer would be the new plate-tectonic theory. The ophiolite
“Penrose-type” ophiolite. It implies that, at least highly variable, depending on the magnitude suite became an ideal analogue to explain the
in the Apennine ophiolites, the gabbros and of serpentinization of the peridotite. He pro- seismic velocity structure of modern oceanic
volcanic rocks are younger than the peridotites. posed that the interface between the oceanic lithosphere, as more seismic data became avail-
Steinmann also correctly interpreted the ophio- crust (composed mainly of serpentinite) and able from modern ocean basins, particularly
lites in the Northern Apennines as thrust sheets the underlying peridotite with seismic veloci- from the Pacific Ocean. Combined with obser-
tectonically overlying the Tertiary sedimentary ties of 7.4 km/s represented the Moho discon- vations from the Troodos (Cyprus) and Semail
rocks in Tuscany (Steinmann, 1913). This inter- tinuity. Since he had interpreted serpentinites as (Oman) ophiolites in particular, the seismic
pretation led to the discovery of allochthonous hydrated peridotites, Hess described the Moho velocity structure of modern oceanic crust
nappe sequences in the Alpine-Apennine oro- beneath the Mid-Atlantic Ridge as an altera- and its inferred layer-cake pseudostratigraphy
genic system. tion front (phase transition) rather than a sharp came to be known as the “ophiolite model.”
Thayer (1967) discussed the significance boundary separating the igneous crust from the This analogy was confirmed at the first Penrose
of the consanguineous relationship between underlying mantle (his Fig. 7, p. 612). Although Conference on ophiolites in 1972 (Anonymous,
ultramafic and associated mafic rocks in we now know that oceanic crust is not made of 1972), whereby an ideal ophiolite sequence
alpine-type peridotites, which were defined by 70% serpentinite, marine geological and geo- was defined to have a layer-cake pseudostratig-
Benson (1926) earlier, and explained how the physical studies have documented that the slow- raphy complete with a sheeted dike complex
gabbro, diabase, and other leucocratic rocks in spreading oceanic crust along the Mid-Atlantic as a result of seafloor spreading. Ophiolites
alpine-type peridotites could have originated Ridge has a highly heterogeneous lithological were interpreted to have developed mainly at
from a single primary peridotitic magma. composition and thickness (Dick, 1989). For ex- ancient mid-ocean ridges through this model.
Jackson and Thayer (1972) subsequently dis- ample, thin-crust domains along the ridge axis In a uniformitarian approach, ophiolite geolo-
tinguished harzburgite-type versus lherzolite- (i.e., magma-poor segment ends) consist of tec- gists then started reconstructing the evolution
type alpine peridotites. In this subgrouping, the tonically uplifted ultramafic rocks with gabbroic of fossil oceanic lithosphere exposed on land
harzburgite-type alpine peridotites represent intrusions and a thin basaltic cover (Cannat as a product of paleo–mid-ocean ridges using
the uppermost oceanic mantle, whereas the et al., 1995). This nonuniform thickness and the ophiolite–ocean crust analogy (Gass, 1968;
less-depleted lherzolite-type alpine peridotites the heterogeneous lithostratigraphy of the Mid- Coleman, 1971; Moores and Vine, 1971; Cann,
correspond to the subcontinental mantle and/or Atlantic Ridge crust are remarkably similar to 2003, and references therein).
to the deeper oceanic mantle, where partial Steinmann’s description of the Ligurian ophiol- Geochemical studies challenged this view of
melting is much less intense. Recent studies of ites in the Apennines. It also largely corresponds a mid-ocean-ridge origin of ophiolites as early
ophiolites have shown that both harzburgite- to Hess’ characterization of oceanic crust devel- as the beginning of the 1970s, and suggested
and lherzolite-type peridotites may occur in oped at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This “Hess-type the association of magma evolution with sub-
ophiolites, and that they can be used to clas- crust” differs significantly from “Penrose-type” duction zones. Miyashiro (1973, p. 218) argued
sify ophiolite types and their inferred spread- oceanic crust in terms of its internal architec- that “about one-third of the analyzed rocks of
ing rates of formation in an oceanic setting ture, as discussed in the following. the lower pillow lavas and sheeted dike rocks
(Ishiwatari, 1985; Boudier and Nicolas, 1985; The Dutch geologist de Roever (1957) re- in the Troodos ophiolite follows a calc-alkalic
Nicolas and Boudier, 2003). interpreted the Steinmann trinity to result of trend,” suggesting that “the massif was cre-
In his classic paper published in Crust of the mantle melting, producing the basaltic rocks ated as a basaltic volcano in an island arc with
Earth (Geological Society of America Spe- on top and the residual ultramafic rocks at a relatively thin ocean-type crust rather than in
cial Paper 62), Hess (1955, p. 393) stated that the bottom. Subsequently, the Swiss petrolo- a mid-oceanic ridge.” This was the first formal
Steinmann’s ophiolite concept was confusing gist Vuagnat argued that the peridotite massifs proposal of a subduction-zone origin of the
because “it obscured critical relationships of in ophiolites were partial melting residues in Troodos “oceanic crust” that questioned the
its [ophiolite] various members to the tectonic the upper mantle (Vuagnat, 1964), because he “ruling hypothesis” of a mid-ocean-ridge setting
cycle.” Recognizing the importance of serpenti- thought that the overwhelming abundance of of ophiolite genesis. Miyashiro’s geochemical
nites and alpine-type peridotites in orogeny and ultramafic rocks in ophiolites compared to the argument on the island-arc origin of the Troodos
mountain-building episodes, he argued that ser- small volumetric occurrence of gabbroic rocks ophiolite would start a major paradigm shift in
pentinites and rocks of Steinmann’s trinity are could not simply be explained by differentiation the ophiolite concept in the wake of the plate-
common in island arcs and that “island arcs rep- of submarine outpourings of basaltic magma. It tectonic revolution. The subsequent scientific
resent an early stage in the development of an is important to note that these two papers by de exchange in the form of discussions and replies
alpine-type of mountain system” (p. 395). Hess Roever (1957) and (Vuagnat, 1964) mark in the to Miyashiro’s 1973 paper initiated a long-last-
was, therefore, advocating an island-arc origin literature the beginning of a significant shift in ing debate about the tectonic setting of ophio-
of mafic-ultramafic rock assemblages and ser- Steinmann’s “cogenetic” ophiolite concept and lite genesis. Pearce (1975) proposed a marginal
pentinized peridotites found in orogenic belts. of a new paradigm in oceanic crustal evolution. basin origin for the Troodos massif during the
This was nearly 20 yr before Miyashiro (1973) Recognition of extensional sheeted dike evolution of an incipient submarine island arc.
made the first formal and rather controversial complexes, the existence of a refractory mantle Findings from modern subduction-zone en-
call on the island-arc origin of the Troodos unit represented by harzburgitic peridotites vironments in the western Pacific prompted
Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 389

Dilek and Furnes
researchers to consider more rigorously the formation of oceanic crust in different geo- ways by subduction, are part of the current as-
evolution of ophiolites in spreading environ- dynamic settings. sembly of a new supercontinent that has been
ments within the upper plate of subduction We define an ophiolite as an allochthonous taking place since the Paleogene.
zones (Hawkins, 1977, 2003; Pearce, 2003). fragment of upper-mantle and oceanic crustal Paleozoic ophiolites in the Appalachian-
This development, which came about as a col- rocks that is tectonically displaced from its pri- Caledonian orogenic belts (Fig. 1) developed
lective result of ophiolite studies on land and mary igneous origin of formation as a result of in the Iapetus Ocean and its seaways between
marine geological and geophysical investiga- plate convergence. Such a slice should include North America and Baltica-Avalonia (van Staal
tions in modern convergent margin settings a suite of, from bottom to top, peridotites and et al., 2009, and references therein). Ophiolites in
in the oceans, led to the definition of supra- ultramafic to felsic crustal intrusive and volcanic Iberia, central Europe, and northwestern Africa
subduction-zone ophiolites in the early 1980s rocks (with or without sheeted dikes) that can evolved in the Rheic Ocean between Baltica-
(Pearce et al., 1984). The forearc environment be geochronologically and petrogenetically re- Avalonia and Gondwana continental masses
of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc-trench system is lated; some of these units may be missing in in- (Nance et al., 2010; Murphy et al., 2010, and
today one of the best studied (through deep- complete ophiolites. Ophiolite emplacement is a references therein). The Paleozoic ophiolites
ocean drilling and submersible diving surveys) process that starts with displacement of oceanic in the Uralides and the Altaids in central Asia
and best understood modern suprasubduction lithosphere from its primary geodynamic en- are the remnants of the Pleionic Ocean, which
zones that we consider to be a contemporary vironment and ends with its incorporation into evolved between the Baltica–Eastern Europe and
suprasubduction-zone ophiolite factory (Fig. 1; mountain belts during orogenesis (Coleman, Kazakhstan-Siberian continental masses (Brown
Stern et al., 1989; Stern and Bloomer, 1992; 1971; Dewey, 1976; Searle and Cox, 1999; Gray et al., 2006; Windley et al., 2002; Xiao et al.,
Reagan et al., 2010; Dilek and Furnes, 2010). et al., 2000; Wakabayashi and Dilek, 2003). 2004). The Jurassic–Cretaceous ophiolites of the
Systematic petrological and geochemical in- Ophiolites are commonly emplaced on a passive Tethyan Ocean systems extend from the Betic-
vestigations of world ophiolites throughout the continental margin (buoyant crust) and island Rif and Pyrenees in the west through the Alpine-
1980s and 1990s demonstrated the significance arc or in an accretionary complex. The mag- Himalayan orogenic belts in the center to the
of subduction-zone–derived fluids and melting matic and structural architecture of an ophiolite Indonesian region in the east (Fig. 1; Hall, 1997;
history in development of ophiolitic magmas may reflect a product and complex interplay Pubellier et al., 2004; Bortolotti and Principi,
(Saunders and Tarney, 1984; Rautenschlein of successive melting episodes and processes of 2005). The Phanerozoic ophiolites in these col-
et al., 1985; Hébert and Laurent, 1990; Thy and magmatic differentiation, spreading rate and lisional orogenic belts (i.e., Appalachian, Caledo-
Xenophontos, 1991; Beccaluva et al., 1994; geometry, intra-oceanic faulting, and deforma- nides, Uralides, and Altaids in central Asia,
Bédard et al., 1998; Dilek et al., 1999; Shervais, tion associated with tectonic extension, prox- Betic-Rif and Pyrenees, Alpine-Himalayan) com-
2000; Dilek and Flower, 2003). Forearc, embry- imity to plumes or trenches, mantle temperature monly show mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB) to
onic arc, and backarc settings in suprasubduc- and fertility, and the availability of fluids during island-arc tholeiite (IAT) and boninitic geochem-
tion zones became the most widely accepted its primary igneous evolution. Some ophiolites ical affinities (Varfalvy et al., 1997; Bédard et al.,
tectonic environments of origin. are stratigraphically overlain by pelagic (chert 1998; Spadea and D’Antonio, 2006; Pagé
or limestone) and/or Fe-Mn–rich hydrother- et al., 2009). The ophiolites in the accretionary-
New Definition of Ophiolites mal sedimentary rocks and are underlain by type Western Pacific and Cordilleran orogenic
amphibolite-greenschist rocks related to their belts are slivers of abyssal peridotites and volcanic
The basic tenet of the 1972 Penrose defini- tectonic displacement and emplacement. ocean islands, seamounts, and mid-ocean-ridge
tion is that an ideal ophiolite has a layer-cake crust scraped off from downgoing plates, and
pseudostratigraphy with laterally persistent and OPHIOLITE PULSES AND they are commonly associated with accretionary
horizontal contacts. The Mohorovicic disconti- GLOBAL TECTONICS mélanges and high-pressure metamorphic rocks
nuity (Moho) is considered to be a petrologi- (Cloos, 1982; Wakabayashi, 1999; Ernst, 2005;
cal transition zone separating the crustal and The distribution of ophiolites in orogenic belts Ring, 2008; Hall, 2009; Cawood et al., 2009;
upper-mantle rocks that have a melt-residua shows spatial and temporal patterns (Fig. 1), Xiao et al., 2010).
genetic relationship. Studies since 1972 have and the clusters of ophiolites with particular age The principal ophiolite pulses during the last
demonstrated, however, that most ophiolites ranges in different orogenic belts mark clear 250 m.y. coincide with the emplacement of
have a dynamic evolution and display a later- pulses, reflecting peak times of ophiolite genesis plume-related large igneous provinces (LIPs)
ally discontinuous and vertically heterogeneous and emplacement in Earth history (Fig. 2). Some and giant dike swarms (Ernst et al., 1995; Yale
crustal architecture and varying geochemical of the main ophiolite pulses overlap in time with and Carpenter, 1998; Coffin and Eldholm, 2001)
characteristics due to multiple magmatic epi- major orogenic events that led to the construction and collectively mark supermagmatic events
sodes and different mantle sources during their of supercontinents. Examples include the Fama- in Earth history (Fig. 2). The enhanced large
igneous evolution. The fossil Moho also differs tinian (Fmt) and Caledonian (Cld; Baltica- Lau- igneous province formation and ophiolite gen-
in character in ophiolites; in some, it represents rentia collision) orogens in the early Paleozoic, eration in the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous are
a major tectonic discontinuity (i.e., detachment which collectively formed the Gondwana and particularly noteworthy (Vaughan and Scarrow,
fault), whereas in some others, it is an altera- Laurasia supercontinents, and the Appalachian- 2003). The evolution of the Tethyan and Carib-
tion front. However, in some ophiolites it is a Hercynian (Ap-Hy) and Altaid-Uralian (Al-Ur) bean ophiolites overlapped with the Cretaceous
nearly 1-km-thick transition zone reminiscent orogens later in the Paleozoic, which built the “superplume” event (120–80 Ma), which was
of the Moho in slow-spreading young oceanic Pangean supercontinent (Fig. 2; Moores et al., responsible for the formation of oceanic plateaus
lithosphere (Dick et al., 2006). The diversity in 2000). The sequential collisions of India (In-Eu) in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, high global sea
the architecture and geochemical fingerprints and Arabia (Ar-Eu) with Eurasia during the levels, and increased rates of seafloor spreading
observed in ophiolites reflects differences in Neogene, after the emplacement of Neotethyan (Larson, 1991). The Jurassic–Cretaceous peri-
igneous and tectonic processes involved in the ophiolites and elimination of the Neotethyan sea- Caribbean ophiolites (Fig. 1) include remnants

Number of major ophiolites
Central Asian ophiolites
Age (Ma)
Ng Pg Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian Carb. Devonian Sil. Ord. Camb.
Tertiary Mesozoic Paleozoic
Age (Ma)
Major events to which
ophiolites are related
Figure 2. Ophiolite pulses and the distribution of major orogenic belts with ophiolite occurrences during the Phanerozoic. A. Ophiolite
pulses and the geographic distribution of Phanerozoic ophiolites through time. B. Distribution of representative examples of major ophio-
lite types through time. C. Approximate time intervals for the lifespan of major supercontinents and their breakup, significant orogenic
events, and supermagmatic events represented by the emplacement of giant dike swarms and large igneous provinces (LIPs). The main
pulses of ophiolite generation coincide with plate movements leading to the closure of ocean basins and continental collisions, large mag-
matic events (with the production of large igneous provinces and giant dike swarms), and the breakup of supercontinents. Major orogenic
events are (from youngest to oldest): Ar-Eu—Arabia-Eurasia collision, In-Eu—India-Eurasia collision, Al-Ur—Altaid-Uralian orogenies of
Central Asia, Ap-Hy—Appalachian-Hercynian orogenies, Cld—Caledonian orogeny, Fmt—Famatinian orogeny, P-Af-Br—Pan-African–
Brasiliano orogenies. Ng—Neogene; Pg—Paleogene. For a list of different ophiolite types, see Table 1.

Dilek and Furnes
of proto-Caribbean oceanic crust and the Carib- trolled the development of different ophiolite continent transitions (OCT). Modern, in situ
bean–Colombian oceanic plateau (Kerr et al., types in different tectonic environments (Dilek, ocean-continent transitions include the Iberia
1998) and display a complex record of igneous 2003). We list representative examples of the and Red Sea–Western Arabia rifted margins
activity associated with continental rifting, sea- main ophiolite types, their ages, geographic lo- (Fig. 1). Some classic examples of continental
floor spreading, the construction of an oceanic cation, and related references in Table 1. These margin ophiolites include the Jurassic ophio-
plateau, and the development of island arcs ophiolite types are marked in Figures 1 and 2 lites in the Northern Apennines (Ligurian) and
(Giunta and Oliveri, 2009; Kerr et al., 2009). with different symbols, indicating formation in the western Alps (Caby, 1995; Rampone et al.,
The most prominent ophiolite pulse during the different tectonic environments, as explained in 2005; Manatschal and Müntener, 2009). These
Mesozoic coincided with the breakup of Pangea the following section. In Table 2, we also list ophiolites consist of exhumed, subcontinental
through discrete episodes of continental rifting and explain a series of abbreviations in refer- lithospheric mantle lherzolite directly overlain
during the Late Triassic and Jurassic (Fig. 2; ence to different ophiolite types and all the rel- by basaltic lavas and intruded by small gab-
Dalziel et al., 2000). evant geochemical terminology used in the next broic plutons and rare mafic dikes. The crustal
two sections and on the figures. rocks display normal (N) MORB geochemical
A NEW CLASSIFICATION signatures. Continental margin ophiolites cor-
OF OPHIOLITES Tectonic Settings of Ophiolite Types respond to the lherzolite-type (LOT) ophiolites
of Ishiwatari (1985) and Boudier and Nicolas
The main ophiolite pulses appear to be tem- Continental margin (CM) ophiolites form (1985) and are the products of low degrees of
porally and spatially linked to some first-order during the early stages of ocean basin evolution, melting of less-depleted subcontinental litho-
global tectonic and magmatic events. These following initial continental breakup. These spheric mantle and upwelling asthenosphere
global events and related mantle processes con- ophiolites are fragments of magma-poor, ocean- (Rampone et al., 2005).
TABLE 1. REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MAIN OPHIOLITE TYPES, THEIR GEOGRAPHIC

LOCATIONS, APPROXIMATE AGES, AND RELATED REFERENCES
Ophiolite Location Age (Ma) References
Continental margin type
1 Tihama Red Sea, Saudi Arabia 20 Coleman et al. (1972, 1977), Dilek et al. (2009)
2 Ligurian Italy 200 Rampone and Piccardo (2000), Muntener and Piccardo (2003)
Manatschale and Muntener (2009)
3 Ust-Belaya 1 NE Russia 310 Ishiwatari et at. (2003), Sokolov et al. (2003)
4 Ust-Belaya 2 NE Russia 320 Ishiwatari et at. (2003), Sokolov et al. (2003)
5 Nurali S Urals, Russia 410 Spadea et al. (2003)
Mid-ocean-ridge type
1A Macquarie Isl. SW Pacific 10 Kamentsky et al. (2000), Varne et al. (2000), Rivizzigno and Karson (2004)
1B Taitao S Chile 10 Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999), Lagabrielle et al. (2000),
Shibuya et al. (2007)
2 Khoy Iran 98-103 Ghazi and Hassanipak (2000), Hassanipak and Ghazi (2000)
Khalatbari-Jafari et al. (2004)
4 Masirah W Indian Ocean 150 Peters and Mercolli (1998), Peters (2000)
5 Horo Kanai Central Hokkaido, Japan 165–180 Ishiwatari et al. (2003)
6 Kuyul 1 NE Russia 190 Sokolov et al. (2003)
9 Nurali S Urals 405 Pertsev et al. (1997), Spadea et al. (2003)
Plume type
1A Loma de Hiero Venezuela 80 Giunta et al. (2002)
1B Bolivar SW Colombia 80 Nivia (1996)
2 Nicoya Costa Rica 89–95 Kerr et al. (1997a, 1997b), Sinton et al. (1997), Hauff et al. (2000)
3 Peri-Caribbean 1 Cuba, Puerto Rica, Hispaniola 105 Kerr et al. (1997a, 1997b), Giunta et al. (2006)
4 Peri-Caribbean 2 Cuba, Puerto Rica, Hispaniola 125 Kerr et al. (1997a, 1997b), Giunta et al. (2006)
5 Duarte Hispaniola 140 Lapierre et al. (1997, 1999), Giunta et al. (2006), Escuder Viruete et al. (2009)
6 Loma La Monja Hispaniola 155 Escuder Viruete et al. (2009)
7 Mino-Tamba 1 SW Japan 185 Ichiyama et al. (2008)
8 Mino-Tamba 2 SW Japan 200 Ichiyama et al. (2008)
Suprasubduction-zone type
1 Zambales Philippines 40–44 Yumul et al. (2000), Encarnacion (2004)
2 Antique Panay, Philippines 75–80 Dimalanta et al. (2006)
3A Troodos Cyprus 92–94 Batanova and Sobolev (2000), Dilek and Furnes (2009)
3B Semail Oman 92–95 Lippard et al. (1986), Hacker et al. (1996), Warren et al. (2005)
Dilek and Furnes (2009), Alabaster et al. (1982)
3C Kizildag Turkey 92–94 Tinkler et al. (1981), Erendil (1984), Bagci et al. (2005), Dilek et al. (1999)
Dilek and Thy (1998, 2009)
4 Xigaze Tibet, China 120–126 Aitchison et al. (2003), Malpas et al. (2003), Zhang et al. (2003)
5 Sabah Northern Borneo 135–140 Rangin et al. (1990), Müller (1991)
6A Mirdita Albania 160 Beccaluva et al. (1994), Bortolotti et al. (2002), Saccani and Photiades (2005)
Dilek et al. (2007, 2008)
6B Pindos Greece 160 Capedri et al. (1980), Saccani and Photiades (2005), Dilek and Furnes (2009)
7 Cape Povorotny Far East Asia 230–250 Sokolov et al. (2003)
8 Yakuno SW Japan 270–280 Ishiwatari (1985), Ichiyama and Ishiwatari (2004)
(continued)

Mid-ocean-ridge (MOR) ophiolites may form collision (Anma et al., 2009). Mid-ocean-ridge tending, embryonic backarc to forearc environ-
at plume-proximal (e.g., Iceland) and plume- ophiolites, in general, correspond to class II and ments (BA-FA), forearc settings (FA), and both
distal mid-ocean ridges, trench-proximal mid- III types in Miyashiro’s (1975) classification of oceanic and continental backarc basins (OBA
ocean ridges, or trench-distal backarc spreading ophiolites based on the presence of tholeiitic and CBA, respectively; Table 2). The Rocas
ridges (Table 2). They generally have a Penrose- and alkaline volcanic rocks. Verdes ophiolites in southern Chile are the best
type structural architecture (particularly at the Plume-type (P) ophiolites may form close to examples of suprasubduction-zone continental
centers of ridge segments) and show N-MORB plume-proximal spreading ridges and as part backarc basin ophiolites (Saunders et al., 1979;
(e.g., Argolis-Pindos in Greece), enriched of oceanic plateaus (e.g., Caribbean Plateau; Stern and de Wit, 2003). Suprasubduction-zone
(E) MORB (e.g., Macquarie Island), and/or Kerr et al., 2009). They have thick plutonic ophiolites commonly have a Penrose-type struc-
contaminated (C) MORB geochemical affini- and volcanic sequences (Coffin and Eldholm, tural architecture and may show a MORB–IAT–
ties. N-MORB and E-MORB ophiolites have 2001; Kerr et al., 2009), and show depleted boninitic geochemical sequence of igneous
compositions that are more depleted and more (D-MORB) to enriched (E-MORB) trace- activity. Suprasubduction-zone forearc ophio-
enriched, respectively, than primitive mantle– element patterns (Pearce, 2008). lites result from oceanic crust generation dur-
derived magmas (Pearce, 2008). C-MORB Suprasubduction-zone (SSZ) ophiolites (e.g., ing the closure of ocean basins and mark major
ophiolites are crustally contaminated. The Mirdita, Albania; Samail, Oman; Troodos, subduction initiation events (Casey and Dewey,
Taitao ophiolite in Chile (Fig. 1), which formed Cyprus; Fig. 1) form in the extending upper 1984; Dilek and Furnes, 2010; Pearce and Rob-
at a trench-proximal Chile Rise (Karsten et al., plates of subduction zones, as in the modern inson, 2010). The age range among their vari-
1996), is a type example of C-MORB ophio- Izu-Bonin-Mariana and Tonga-Kermadec arc- ous ophiolitic subunits is commonly less than
lite. It was emplaced into the South American trench rollback systems (Fig. 1; Hawkins, 2003; 10 m.y. (Dilek and Furnes, 2009). They cor-
continental margin as a result of a ridge-trench Reagan et al., 2010). They may evolve in ex- respond to the class I ophiolites of Miyashiro
TABLE 1. REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MAIN OPHIOLITE TYPES, THEIR GEOGRAPHIC

LOCATIONS, APPROXIMATE AGES, AND RELATED REFERENCES (continued)
Ophiolite Location Age (Ma) References
Suprasubduction-zone type (continued)
9 Magnitogorsk 1 S Urals, Russia 385–400 Spadea and Scarrow (2000), Spadea et al. (2003)
Spadea and D’Antonio (2006)
10 Baimak-Buribai SW Urals, Russia 420 Spadea and Scarrow (2000)
11A Trinity 1 California, USA 440 Brouxel et al. (1989), Metcalf et al. (2000)
11B Solund-Stavfjord SW Norway 440 Furnes et al. (1982); Pedersen (1986), Dunning and Pedersen (1988)
Pedersen and Furnes (1991), Furnes et al. (1990, 2003, 2006)
12 Kudi-Kunlun NW China 460–470 Wang et al. (2001, 2002), Yang et al. (1996)
13A Thetford Mines Canada 479 Hebert and Laurent (1989), Page et al. (2009), Schroetter et al. (2003)
13B Bay of Islands Canada 484 Casey et al. (1985), Suhr (1992), Bedard and Hebert (1996)
Varfalvy et al. (1997), Kurth-Velz et al. (2004)
13C Betts Cove Canada 489 Coish et al. (1982), Bedard et al. (1998), Bedard (1999)
14A Karmøy SW Norway 474–493 Furnes et al. (1980), Pedersen (1986), Dunning and Pedersen (1988)
Pedersen and Hertogen (1990), Pedersen and Furnes (1991)
14B Gulfjellet SW Norway 489 Furnes et al. (1982), Dunning and Pedersen (1988), Heskestad et al. (1994)
14C Leka NW Norway 497 Prestvik (1974), Pedersen (1986), Dunning and Pedersen (1988)
Pedersen and Furnes (1991), Furnes et al. (1988, 1992)
15 Lachlan SE Australia, Tasmania 495–510 Spaggiari et al. (2003, 2004)
Volcanic-arc type
1 Itogon Philippines 30 Encarnacion (2004)
2A Coast Range and California, USA 140 Shervais et al. (2004)
Great Valley 1
2B Zedong 1 Tibet, China 127–140 Malpas et al. (2003)
3A Coast Range and California, USA 155 Shervais et al. (2004), Hopson et al. (2008)
Great Valley 2
3B Zedong 2 Tibet, China 155–162 Malpas et al. (2003)
4A Smartville California, USA 155–165 Saleeby et al. (1989), Dilek et al. (1990, 1991)
4B Josephine Oregon and California, USA 162–164 Saleeby et al. (1982), Harper and Wright (1984), Harper et al. (1994)
Harper (2003a, 2003b)
5 D’Aguilar 1 E Australia 360 Spaggiari et al. (2003, 2004)
6A D’Aguilar 2 E Australia 380 Spaggiari et al. (2003, 2004)
6B Magnitgorsk 2 S Urals, Russia 370 Spadea et al. (2003)
7A Magnitgorsk 3 S Urals, Russia 385 Spadea et al. (2003)
7B Trinity 2 California, USA 385 Brouxel et al. (1989), Metcalf et al. (2000)
Accretionary type
1 Mineoka Central Japan 25 Hirano et al. (2003), Takahashi et al. (2003), Ogawa and Takahashi (2004)
2 Tokoro Japan 60 Taira et al. (1988), Isozaki (1996)
3 Peri-Caribbean 3 Hispaniola, Guatemala,
Aruba-Curacao, Central Cuba 88–90 Donnelly (1989), Kerr et al. (1997b), Sinton et al. (1998)
4 Tamba Japan 135 Nakae (2000), Koizumi and Ishiwatari (2006)
5 Solonker 1 Central Asia 240 Xiao et al. (2003), Chen et al. (2009)
6 Solonker 2 Central Asia 250 Xiao et al. (2003), Chen et al. (2009)
7 Ganychalan 1 NE Russia 420 Sokolov et al. (2003)
11 Ganychalan 5 NE Russia 500 Sokolov et al. (2003v

394
TABLE 2. OPHIOLITE/OCEANIC CRUST TYPES, THEIR LOCATIONS, AND REFERENCES TO DATA SOURCES, AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT AND THE FIGURES
No. No. No. No.
anal. anal. anal. anal.
Ophiolite/oceanic crust type Abbreviations Location Bowen Multi V/Ti Th-Yb-Nb Reference to data sources
Continental margin CM Internal Ligurides,Italy 27 2 Ottonello et al. (1984), Rampone et al. (1998)
External Ligurides, Italy 26 11 26 19 Vannucci et al. (1993), Montanini et al. (2008)
North Apennine, Italy 39 39 Ferrara et al. (1976)
Corsica 13 13 Beccaluva et al. (1977)
Mid-ocean ridge MOR
Plume-proximal mid-ocean ridge MOR PP Iceland 119 37 67 39 Sigvaldason (1974), Hemond et al. (1993)
Plume-distal mid-ocean ridge MOR PD Macquarie Island 12 12 12 12 Kamentsky et al. (2000)
Trench-proximal mid-ocean ridge MOR TP Taitao Peninsula, S. Chile 31 31 31 9 Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999)
Normal mid-ocean ridge basalt NMORB
Depleted (in the incompatible elements) DMORB
mid-ocean-ridge basalt
Enriched (in the incompatible elements) EMORB
mid-ocean-ridge basalt
Crustally contaminated mid-ocean-ridge basalt CMORB
Transitional mid-ocean-ridge basalt TMORB
Plume P Gorgona Island, Colombia 10 10 Kerr et al. (1996a)
Western Colombia 85 19 84 23 Kerr et al. (1997a)
Jamaica 17 17 17 17 Hastie et al. (2008)
Curacao, Caribbean Sea 84 11 19 19 Klaver (1987), Kerr et al. (1996b)
Ocean-island basalt OIB
Dilek and Furnes
Suprasubduction zone SSZ

Backarc to forearc SSZ BA-FA Albania 113 46 102 45 Dilek et al. (2008)
Cyprus 56 Rautenschlein et al. (1985), Auclair and Ludden (1987),
Taylor (1990)
Turkey 61 40 61 25 Dilek and Thy (1998, 2009)
Oman 134 15 113 57 Lippard et al. (1986), Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003)
Forearc SSZ FA Newfoundland 47 22 47 23 Bedard (1999)
Oceanic backarc SSZ OBA Western Norway 802 802 Furnes et al. (2006, and references therein)
Continental backarc SSZ CBA Southern Chile 67 Elthon (1979), Saunders et al. (1979), Stern and Elthon (1979),
Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Stern (1980)
Volcanic arc VA Luzon, Philippines 53 39 Evans et al. (1991), Yumul et al. (2000)
North Cascades, 6 6 6 Metzger et al. (2002)
Washington, USA
Northwestern California, 93 22 93 40 Harper (1984), Harper et al. (1988, 2003a, 2003b)
USA
Sierra Nevada, California, 4 Dilek et al. (1991)
USA
Total number of analyses 1902 283 1581 336
(1975) and harzburgite-type (HOT) ophiolites in our ophiolite classification and geochemical- the suprasubduction-zone backarc- to forearc-
of Ishiwatari (1985) and Boudier and Nicolas tectonic fingerprinting is presented in the GSA type ophiolites, whereas the suprasubduction-
(1985), which are the products of high degrees Data Repository.1 zone forearc-type ophiolites show invariably
of melting of depleted, harzburgitic mantle. Since lavas and dikes in ophiolites are, in gen- low TiO2 (Fig. 3B). The largest spread in
Both suprasubduction-zone oceanic backarc eral, subject to various degrees of hydrothermal MgO is exhibited by the subduction-unrelated
basin and continental backarc basin ophiolites alteration and greenschist- to amphibolites-facies plume-type ophiolites (Fig. 3A). In MORB-
form as a result of seafloor spreading in “ensi- metamorphism in intra-oceanic conditions, it normalized multi-element diagrams, the con-
matic” and “ensialic” settings (respectively). is important to use elements that are relatively tinental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and plume
Volcanic-arc (VA) ophiolites form in ensi- stable during such processes in order for us to ophiolites display flat patterns between V and
matic arc settings (e.g., the Philippines, SE Asia; determine their primary geochemical composi- Zr, and an increase toward the most incompati-
Sierra Nevada, California). They have a poly- tions. Several studies have been carried out on ble elements (i.e., Ba, Rb, Cs; Fig. 4A). In the
genetic crustal architecture with a deformed, the element behavior of magmatic rocks that same multi-element diagrams, the patterns of
older oceanic basement, mafic lower crust were variably altered and metamorphosed. In the suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc
composed of gabbroic plutons and hypabys- general, the mobility of an element relates to ophiolites display much larger variability; they
sal intrusions, moderately to well-developed the water-rock interactions during reaction (e.g., are generally enriched in the most incompati-
dioritic-tonalitic middle crust, andesitic to rhyo- Bickle and Teagle, 1992). Low-temperature ex- ble, nonconservative elements (Cs, Rb, Th) and
litic extrusive rocks and dikes (locally sheeted) perimental studies of reaction between basalt show generally negative Ta and Nb and positive
forming the upper crust, and volcaniclastic and seawater have demonstrated minor leaching Pb and Sr anomalies (Fig. 4B).
cover (locally subaerial). These crustal units of Fe and Si and enrichment of Na and Mg; on In a Ti-V discrimination diagram (Shervais,
display tholeiitic to calc-alkaline geochemi- the other hand, Al, Ti, and P are the least mobile 1982), the continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge,
cal signatures. Volcanic-arc ophiolites differ elements, and Ca is variably depleted (Scott and and plume ophiolites straddle the field defined
from suprasubduction-zone ophiolites based on Hajash, 1976; Seyfried et al., 1978). The trace by the ratios between 20 and 50, typical of
their thicker and more fully developed arc crust elements Y, Zr, Nb, V, Cr, Co, Ni, rare earth ele- mid-ocean-ridge basalts (Fig. 5A), whereas the
with calc-alkaline compositions. The age range ments (REEs), Th, and Ta are generally rela- suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc ophio-
among various ophiolitic subunits in volcanic- tively immobile (Coish, 1977; Hellman et al., lites show a wider scatter of Ti/V ratios between
arc ophiolites can be longer than 20–30 m.y. 1979; Shervais, 1982; Seyfried and Mottl, 1982; <10 and >50 (Fig. 5B). However, the subtypes
(Dilek et al., 1991). Dickin and Jones, 1983; Dungan et al., 1983; of both the subduction-related and subduction-
Accretionary-type ophiolites, occurring in Mottl, 1983; Staudigel and Hart, 1983; Seyfried unrelated ophiolites demonstrate pronounced
subduction-accretion complexes of active mar- et al., 1988; Gillis and Thompson, 1993). A differences in their Ti-V distributions. For the
gins, contain fragments of any of the previ- study on the behavior of transition metals (Ti, V, subduction-unrelated types, the Ti-V data of the
ously outlined ophiolite types and are locally Ni, Cr, Co, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn) and Mg in metabasic lavas and dikes for the plume subtype hardly
associated with pelagic-hemipelagic sedimen- rocks suggests relatively little mobility dur- overlap with those of the continental margin
tary rocks and trench-fill sediments that may ing medium to high degrees of metamorphism and mid-ocean-ridge trench-proximal subtypes
have been deposited on them prior to and after (Nicollet and Andriambololona, 1980). During (Fig. 5A). Similarly, for the subduction-related
their incorporation into the accretionary prism. hydrothermal alteration of basaltic pillow lavas, ophiolite types, the mafic lavas and dikes of
These ophiolites may have diverse lithologi- Ba shows variable alteration trends (Humphris the suprasubduction-zone forearc subtype ex-
cal assemblages, metamorphic grades, styles and Thompson, 1978), and Pb becomes mod- clusively plot in the boninite field and do not
of deformation, and chemical affinities with no erately to strongly depleted (Teagle and Alt, overlap with those of the suprasubduction-zone
genetic links between them, since they consist 2004). Alteration (palagonitization) of the glass oceanic backarc basin subtype (Fig. 5B). By far,
of tectonic slices of oceanic rocks scraped off rind of pillow lavas results in enrichment of K, the suprasubduction-zone backarc to forearc
from downgoing plates (e.g., Mineoka ophiolite Rb, and Cs, particularly the latter two (Hart, subtype shows the largest range in the Ti-V dia-
in central Japan; Ogawa and Takahashi, 2004). 1969; Staudigel and Hart, 1983). Therefore, we gram (Fig. 5B). This dispersion of Ti/V ratios
They become progressively younger in age paid particular attention in constructing the geo- is a result of a large geochemical range from
structurally downward within subduction-accre- chemical diagrams presented here to use those boninite and island-arc tholeiite to MORB mag-
tion complexes. We do not treat these ophiolites elements that are relatively stable during hydro- mas that occur in subduction-influenced igne-
separately in our discussion here because they thermal alteration. ous systems (Shervais, 1982; Dilek et al., 2007;
do not show a distinctive lithological construc- In Bowen diagrams (Fig. 3) demonstrating Dilek and Furnes, 2009).
tion, and hence they lack a unique geochemical the compositional variability in upper-crustal In the Nb/Yb versus Th/Yb diagram (Pearce,
fingerprint. units (lavas and dikes), the subduction-related 2008), the lavas and dikes of the continental
suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc ophio- margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and plume ophiolites
Geochemical Fingerprinting lites show larger variability in SiO2 and TiO2 at plot within the mantle array (Fig. 6A), whereas
of Ophiolite Types given MgO contents than the subduction-unre- those of the suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-
lated continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and arc ophiolites show a significant shift away from
We use a selection of diagrams to character- plume ophiolites. The highest variability with this mantle array, toward the subduction-related
ize the geochemical signatures of some well- respect to these two elements is represented by Mariana arc field (Fig. 6B). These five elements
preserved examples of the types of ophiolites (Ti, V, Th, Yb, Nb), which we have used in dis-
1
distinguished here. These diagrams are based on GSA Data Repository item 2011131, Data source criminating possible tectonic settings of ophio-
for geochemistry and tectonics of different ophio-
an extensive database (compiled from our own lite types used in Tables 1 and 2, and for Figures
litic magma generation, are most immobile
analytical work and the extant literature) that is 3–6, is available at http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/ during metamorphism and alteration; therefore,
summarized in Table 2. The literature we used ft2011.htm or by request to [email protected]. they are most reliable as proxies to differentiate

Dilek and Furnes
Figure 3. Bowen diagrams show-

A1. Subduction-unrelated A2. Subduction-unrelated
ing the relationships between
MgO-SiO2 and MgO-TiO2 for Cont. margin Cont. margin
subduction-unrelated ophiolites 70 3 Plume
Plume
(i.e., continental margin, plume,
MOR (PP) MOR (PP)
and mid-ocean-ridge types)
(A1 and A2), and subduction- MOR (PD) MOR (PD)
related ophiolites (i.e., volcanic- MOR (TP) MOR (TP)
SiO2 (wt. %)
arc and suprasubduction-zone
TiO2 (wt. %)
[SSZ] types) (B1 and B2). The 60 2
mid-ocean-ridge type (MOR)
is subdivided into three sub-
types, i.e., plume-proximal (PP),
plume-distal (PD), and trench-
proximal (TP). The supra-
subduction-zone type (SSZ) is 50 1
subdivided into four subtypes,
i.e., backarc to forearc (BA-FA),
forearc (FA), oceanic backarc
(OBA), and continental backarc
(CBA). Data sources (listed in
the GSA Data Repository [see 40 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
text footnote 1]): Continental MgO (wt. %) MgO (wt. %)
margin type—Ferrara et al.
(1976), Beccaluva et al. (1977),
Ottonello et al. (1984), Vannucci B1. Subduction-related B2. Subduction-related
et al. (1993), Rampone et al.
Volc. arc Volc. arc
(1998), Montanini et al. (2008).
70 SSZ (BA-FA) 3 SSZ (BA-FA)
Plume type—Kerr et al. (1996a,
1996b, 1997), Hastie et al. (2008). SSZ (FA) SSZ (FA)
Mid-ocean-ridge types, includ- SSZ (OBA) SSZ (OBA)
ing PP subtype—Sigvaldason SSZ (CBA) SSZ (CBA)
(1974), Hemond et al. (1993);
SiO2 (wt. %)
TiO2(wt. %)
PD subtype—Kamenetsky et al. 60 2
(2000); TP subtype—Le Moigne
et al. (1996), Guivel et al.
(1999). Volcanic-arc type—
Yumul et al. (2000), Evans et al.
(1991), Metzger et al. (2002),
Harper (1984), Harper (2003a, 50 1
2003b), Harper et al. (1988),
Dilek et al. (1991). Supra-
subduction-zone types, includ-
ing BA-FA subtype—Dilek et al.
(2008), Lippard et al. (1986),
Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard 40 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
et al. (2003), Auclair and Lud-
MgO (wt. %) MgO (wt. %)
den (1987), Rautenschlein et al.
(1985), Taylor (1990), Dilek and Thy (1998, 2009), Y. Dilek (personal observation, 1998). FA subtype—Bédard (1999); oceanic backarc basin-
subtype—Furnes et al. (2006, and references therein); and continental backarc basin-subtype—Saunders et al. (1979), Stern and Elthon (1979),
Stern (1979, 1980), Elthon (1979).
between subduction-related and other magmas major groups, one related to or least influenced Pearce and Robinson, 2010), in a forearc set-
(Shervais, 1982; Pearce, 2008), particularly by subduction-zone processes and the other un- ting (e.g., Betts Cove, Canada—Bédard, 1999),
when utilized together with other informative related to subduction zones. The suprasubduc- and as a volcanic arc (e.g., Smartville, Califor-
geochemical techniques and field-oriented re- tion-zone ophiolites that formed in backarc and nia—Dilek et al., 1991) display the most pro-
gional tectonic constraints. incipient arc–forearc tectonic environments nounced variations in geochemical patterns. On
Geochemical characterization of different (e.g., Mirdita, Albania—Dilek et al., 2007, the other hand, trench-distal backarc ophiolites
types of ophiolites allows us to distinguish two 2008; Troodos, Cyprus—Robinson et al., 2003; that formed in oceanic or continental settings,

100
A. Subduction-unrelated Cont. margin
Plume
MOR (PP)
10 MOR (PD)
Rock/MORB
MOR (TP)
0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta Nb K La Ce Pb Pr Sr P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Ti Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu V Sc Co Cr Ni
100
B. Subduction-related SSZ (BA-FA)
SSZ (FA)
SSZ (OBA)
10 Volc. arc (MORB-like)
Rock/MORB
Volc. arc (IAT-bon)
0.1
Figure 4. Mid-ocean-ridge-basalt (MORB)–normalized multi-element diagrams, showing average values for subduction-unrelated (A) and
subduction-related (B) ophiolites. IAT—island-arc tholeiite; bon—boninite. Different types and subtypes of ophiolites are explained in
Figure 3. Normalizing values (in ppm) are: Cs (0.007), Rb (0.56), Ba (6.3), Th (0.12), U (0.047), Ta (0.13), Nb (2.33), K (1079), La (2.5), Ce
(7.5), Pb (0.3), Pr (1.32), Sr (90), P (314), Nd (7.3), Zr (74), Hf (2.05), Sm (2.63), Eu (1.02), Gd (3.68), Ti (7614), Tb (0.67), Dy (4.55), Y (28),
Ho (1.01), Er (2.97), Tm (0.456), Yb (3.05), Lu (0.455), V (300), Sc (40), Co (40), Cr (275), and Ni (100). The elements have been placed in
order of their relative incompatibility with spinel-lherzolite mantle (after Pearce and Parkinson, 1993). Data sources (listed in the GSA Data
Repository [see text footnote 1]): Continental margin type—Montanini et al. (2008); plume type—Kerr et al. (1996b, 1997), Hastie et al.
(2008); mid-ocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal subtype—Hemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtype—Kamenetsky et al. (2000);
trench-proximal subtype—Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanic-arc type—Harper (2003b); suprasubduction-zone types,
including BA-FA subtype—Dilek et al. (2008), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal observation, 1998); FA subtype—Bédard (1999);
and oceanic backarc basin subtype—H. Furnes (personal observation, 1997).
e.g., the Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite in West PETROGENESIS OF OPHIOLITE limited partial melting of subcontinental mantle
Norway (Furnes et al., 2006) and the Rocas TYPES IN DIFFERENT TECTONIC lherzolite (Fig. 8A) and upwelling astheno-
Verdes ophiolites in the southernmost Andes, SETTINGS sphere in response to lithospheric extension and
Chile (Saunders et al., 1979; Stern and De Wit, continental rifting (Fig. 7A1; Rampone et al.,
2003), show weaker geochemical evidence of Figure 7 depicts the petrogenesis of subduc- 2005; Piccardo et al., 2009). Multiple intrusions
subduction. The groups of ophiolites that are tion-related and subduction-unrelated types of of MORB-type magma form small olivine gab-
entirely unrelated to subduction processes are ophiolites in different tectonic settings. The petro- bro pods and dikes (Fig. 8A) and cause basaltic
the continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and genesis of a subduction-unrelated continental eruptions on the seafloor (Figs. 7A2 and 8B).
plume ophiolites. margin ophiolite involves slow exhumation and Extensional tectonics and associated faulting

Dilek and Furnes
A. Subduction-unrelated than magmas generated from primitive mantle.

600 10 20 30
Locally, melts derived from incompatible-
element–enriched mantle sources may segre-
gate and rise to form off-axis intrusions and to
feed near-ridge, E-MORB lavas. Studies of core
samples from modern ocean ridges have shown
400
that variations in rates of magma supply and the
V
thermal structure beneath the spreading axis con-

trol the mode of magmatic accretion and the ar-
50 chitecture of oceanic crust produced. A low and
200
Cont. marg.
Plume episodic supply of magma to a slow-spreading
MOR (PP) ridge creates a “cold” environment in which ex-
MOR (PD) tensional faulting and crustal attenuation accom-
MOR (TP)
Boninite pany seafloor spreading. Amagmatic extension
0 can result in exhumation of serpentinized upper-
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 mantle peridotite on the seafloor, and highly
Ti (ppm) thinned lower crust and sheeted dikes (Fig. 7A2;
Cannat et al., 1995; Dick et al., 2006). On the
B. Subduction-related other hand, a voluminous supply of magma and
600 the existence of a crustal melt lens at shallow
depth (Fig. 7A1) beneath fast-spreading ridges
create a “hot”’ environment, in which continuous
magma emplacement keeps pace with seafloor
spreading. Contemporaneous extension and dik-
400
ing produce Penrose-type oceanic crust under-
lain by a <1-km-thick transitional Moho (TZ in
V
Fig. 7A2). Intermediate-spreading oceanic crust

is similar in structure, but it may have a com-
200 SSZ (BA-FA) paratively thinner volcanic sequence with more
SSZ (FA) pillowed lava flows and a thicker sheeted dike
SSZ (OBA) complex (Fig. 7A2; Dilek, 1998).
Volc. arc Plume ophiolites form at plume-proximal
Boninite
0 oceanic ridges or as oceanic plateaus when
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 batches of basaltic and picritic magma origi-
Ti (ppm) nating in a plume head are repeatedly added
to preexisting oceanic crust (Fig. 7A1; Coffin
Figure 5. Geochemical data from the subduction-unrelated (A) and subduction-related (B)
and Eldholm, 2001). Lavas range in compo-
ophiolite types and their subtypes (see Fig. 3 for explanation) plotted in Ti-V discrimi-
sition from N-MORB, through T-MORB, to
nation diagrams (after Shervais, 1982). Data sources (listed in the GSA Data Repository
E-MORB. High mantle potential temperatures
[see text footnote 1]): Continental margin type—Vannucci et al. (1993), Ferrara et al.
associated with the plume head result in the
(1976), Montanini et al. (2008), Beccaluva et al. (1977); plume type—Kerr et al. (1996a,
highest degree of melting (Pearce, 2008; Hastie
1996b, 1997), Hastie et al. (2008); mid-ocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal sub-
and Kerr, 2010). Therefore, we can potentially
type—Sigvaldason (1974), Hemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtype—Kamenetsky et al.
differentiate plume ophiolites from ophiolites
(2000); trench-proximal subtype—Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanic-
with MORB geochemical affinities by higher
arc type—Evans et al. (1991), Metzger et al. (2002), Harper (1984), Harper (2003a, 2003b),
Mg contents (Figs. 3A1 and 3A2), resulting
Harper et al. (1988); suprasubduction-zone types, including BA-FA subtype—Dilek et al.
from higher degrees of melting, as well as by
(2008), Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal
their internal structure and distinctive volcanic
observation, 1998); FA subtype—Bédard (1999); oceanic backarc basin-subtype—Furnes
stratigraphy (Fig. 7A2). Typically, a plume-
et al. (2006, and references therein). Typical Ti/V ratios in C1 and C2 are: 10–20 for island
related ophiolite is characterized by massive
arc; 20–50 for MORB; 20–30 for mixed mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB) and island arc,
basaltic lava flows with subordinate pillowed
and 1–50 for backarc basins. The boninite field is drawn on the basis of the geochemical
flows, the occurrence of picritic basalts, and
data from Crawford (1989).
minor sedimentary deposits, all intruded by gab-
broic plutons and sills and locally by ultramafic
sills (Fig. 7A2; Kerr et al., 1998; Coffin and Eld-
and shearing may cause tectonic brecciation of zone (Fig. 7A1). Magma injection into a narrow, holm, 2001). Pillow breccias, hyaloclastites, and
the lavas (Fig. 8C). ~250-m-wide region (Rubin and Sinton, 2007) subordinate sedimentary rocks (chert, shale, and
Oceanic crust formation at oceanic spreading above the melt lens causes crustal accretion via limestone) are locally intercalated with basaltic
axes involves decompression melting of uprising diking and eruption on the seafloor along the lava flows at higher stratigraphic levels.
asthenosphere and focused upward ascent of the ridge axis. Lavas and dikes have compositions The genesis of suprasubduction-zone ophio-
melt into a melt lens and associated crystal mush more depleted in incompatible trace elements lites involves the initiation of subduction, followed

10
A. Subduction-unrelated
Cont. crust
1
Mariana
arc-basin
Th/Yb
0.1
Cont. marg.
Plume
MOR (PP)
MOR (PD)
MOR (TP)
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Nb/Yb
10
B. Subduction-related
Cont. crust
1 OIB
Mariana
arc-basin
Th/Yb
E-MORB
0.1 SSZ (BA-FA)
SSZ (FA)
SSZ (OBA)
N-MORB
Volc. arc
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Nb/Yb
Figure 6. Geochemical data from the subduction-unrelated (A) and subduction-related (B) ophiolite types and
their subtypes (see Fig. 3 for explanation) plotted in Nb/Yb-Th/Yb discrimination diagram (after Pearce, 2008).
OIB—ocean-island basalt; E- and N-MORB—enriched and normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt. Data sources (listed
in the GSA Data Repository [see text footnote 1]): Continental margin type—Vannucci et al. (1993), Rampone
et al. (1998), Montanini et al. (2008); plume type—Klaver (1987), Kerr et al. (1997), Hastie et al. (2008); mid-
ocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal subtype—Hemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtype—Kamenetsky
et al. (2000); trench-proximal subtype—Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanic-arc type: Metzger
et al. (2002), Harper (2003a, 2003b); suprasubduction-zone types, including BA-FA subtype—Dilek et al. (2008),
Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal observation, 1998); FA sub-
type—Bédard (1999); oceanic backarc basin subtype—H. Furnes (personal observation, 1997)
by rapid slab rollback leading to extension and sitions (Figs. 8D–8F). Fluids derived from the episodes of partial melting of metasomatized
seafloor spreading in the upper plate (Fig. 7B1). subducted slab have little influence on melt peridotites, and mixing of highly enriched
In the subduction initiation stage, magma is first evolution at this early stage. The subsequent liquids from the lower fertile source with re-
produced by decompressional melting of deep phases of melting are strongly influenced by fractory melts in the melt column beneath the
and fertile lherzolitic mantle and produces the slab dehydration and related mantle metasoma- extending protoarc-forearc region (Fig. 7B1).
earliest crustal units with MORB-like compo- tism, melting of subducting sediments, repeated Melt aggregation, mixing, and differentiation

Dilek and Furnes
can take place at many levels within this melt ophiolites thus consist of an older oceanic litho- of plate convergence, whereas the magma sup-
column, and repeated melting of the hydrated spheric foundation overlain by a mature arc ply is related to the temperature profile and the
mantle leaves behind a highly depleted, olivine- suite, complete with gabbroic plutons and mas- abundance and nature of fluids in the mantle
and orthopyroxene-rich source. This subarc- sive diabase in the mafic lower crust, dioritic to wedge, the age and lithological makeup of the
forearc melting column produces island-arc tonalitic middle crust, and andesitic to rhyolitic subducting slab, and the history and extent of
tholeiite magma that is emplaced into and forms lavas, dike intrusions, and pyroclastic and vol- melting in the mantle source (Kincaid and Hall,
lavas overlying crustal units with MORB-like caniclastic rocks in the upper crust (Fig. 7B2). 2003; Robinson et al., 2008). It is rare for the
compositions. Rising temperatures in the mantle The construction of a volcanic arc is a result of balance between spreading and magma supply
wedge, triggered by increased asthenospheric prolonged subduction (~20–40 m.y.) not termi- rates to be maintained in a suprasubduction-
diapirism and lateral flow of hot mantle (the nated by colliding continental blocks, as is the zone setting of oceanic crust formation. In the
slab edge effect of Pearce and Robinson, 2010) case in the evolutionary history of suprasubduc- absence of this balance, a sheeted dike com-
and further influx of slab-derived fluids result tion-zone ophiolites (Dilek and Flower, 2003). plex will not form fully, or even at all, and may
in shallow partial melting of the ultrarefractory Sheeted dikes (Figs. 8I–8J) are tabular intru- instead be replaced by magmatic inflation and
peridotites (harzburgites), forming Mg- and sions of magma flowing laterally and vertically the emplacement of plutons, underplating the
silica-rich, hydrous, boninitic melts. Replace- along fractures produced by spreading-related extrusive sequence (where the rate of magma
ment of the primary olivine by orthopyroxene tensile stresses, and they form along a narrow supply exceeds the spreading rate), or by
(opx) grains in the peridotites and the pres- axial zone beneath central rifts along ocean amagmatic tectonic attenuation of the oceanic
ence of hydrous minerals (i.e., amphibole), as ridges and above subduction zones. The exis- crust (where the spreading rate exceeds the
observed in most of the suprasubduction-zone tence of sheeted dikes in ophiolites is conven- rate of magma supply). This phenomenon may
ophiolites, indicate that the orthopyroxenite tionally interpreted as strong evidence for the explain the scarcity of sheeted dike complexes
forms by the reaction of the preexisting olivine origin of ancient oceanic crust now exposed on in nearly 90% of the world ophiolites (Robin-
with these boninitic melts (Umino and Kushiro, land by seafloor spreading (Gass, 1990; Moores son et al., 2008), and should be considered in
1989; Dilek and Morishita, 2009; Morishita and Vine, 1971) and is generally regarded as an interpretations of the architecture of putative
et al., 2010). The orthopyroxenite thus repre- essential component of an ophiolite. However, ancient oceanic crust, particularly in Archean
sents a reaction product between the migrating the generation of a sheeted dike complex re- greenstone belts.
melt and the host peridotite in the upper mantle, quires a delicate balance between the rates of Continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and
whereas the harzburgite is the residual, depleted spreading and magma supply for a sustained plume ophiolites may show pronounced varia-
peridotite of the partial melt that produced the period such that sufficient melt is produced to tions in trace-element abundances, particularly
orthopyroxenite (Fig. 8G). It is likely, therefore, keep pace with extension in the rift zone (Rob- for the most incompatible elements, which may
that geochemical features of boninitic melts are inson et al., 2008). In the upper plates of sub- be related to both different degrees of melting and
acquired as a result of interaction of migrating duction zones, the extension is a consequence mantle fertility, but which do not define any partic-
melts with depleted peridotites in the mantle of the rate of slab rollback exceeding the rate ular geochemical evolutionary trend (Fig. 7A3).
wedge (Varfalvy et al., 1997). The harzburgite-
dunite-orthopyroxenite suite in the upper-mantle
peridotites of suprasubduction-zone ophiolites
are melting residues and melt migration path-
ways in the mantle wedge during the incipient Figure 7 (on following page). Tectonic settings and processes of subduction-unrelated
stage of arc construction. Boninitic dikes and (A1) and subduction-related (B1) ophiolite types, columnar sections depicting simplified
lavas commonly represent the youngest rock structural architecture of the ophiolite types (A2–B2), and generalized changes in element
units crosscutting and overlying the earlier- concentration during their evolution (A3–B3). Note that the scale varies from the crust to
formed igneous suites in suprasubduction-zone the mantle in B1. Panels A3 and B3: For subduction-unrelated types (continental margin
forearc ophiolites (Figs. 8H and 8K–8L). Supra- [CM], mid-ocean-ridge [MOR], and plume [P]), there is no distinct, regular change with
subduction-zone ophiolites hence generally time. There may be large (for the most incompatible elements) to moderate (less incom-
display a characteristic, sequential evolution of patible to compatible elements) changes in the element concentrations, as indicated by the
MORB to island-arc tholeiite to boninitic igne- vertical arrows. For the subduction-related ophiolites, there is a distinct element change
ous activity, which manifests itself in a vertically from the youngest to the oldest components of the ophiolites. The blank horizontal arrows
and laterally well-developed chemostratigraphy pointing in opposite directions in B3 indicate that the compositions of mid-ocean-ridge ba-
(Fig. 7B2; Dilek and Furnes, 2009), as also salt (MORB)–like to island-arc tholeiite (IAT) to boninitic may change to lower or higher
observed in the modern Izu-Bonin-Mariana contents of the elements indicated. Abbreviations: A1 (CM-type): U. Crust—upper crust;
forearc system (Reagan et al., 2010). L. Crust—lower crust; Serp. perid.—serpentinized peridotite; A1 (P-type): Cont.—con-
The initial stage of construction of a volcanic- tinent; B1: MORB—mid-ocean-ridge basalt; IAT—island-arc tholeiite; BON—boninite.
arc ophiolite involves basic magma. With A2 (CM type): Serpt. perd.—serpentinized peridotite; Serp. breccia—serpentinized
continued subduction and infiltration of arc breccia; P—pillow lava; Lhz—lherzolite; Ol-gabbro—olivine gabbro; A2 (MOR type):
magmas, the hydrated mafic crust is partially Interm.—intermediate; Neovolc.—neovolcanic; TZ—transition zone; M—Moho; DF—de-
melted to form tonalitic magmas, and this to- tachment fault. A2 (P type): Gb—gabbroic to komatiitic intrusions; ultr. sill—ultramafic
nalitic crust grows in thickness as the volcanic sill; picr. bas.—picritic basalt; plw breccia—pillow breccia. B2 (suprasubduction-zone
arc matures (Fig. 7B1). Residual mafic crust type): MORB, IAT, BON; same as in B1; And.—andesitic lava; Trndj. N—trondhjemite
can be transformed into peridotitic restite, and intrusions. B2 (volcanic-arc type): Rhy.—rhyolite; And. lava—andesitic lava; Gran./ton.—
consequently the Moho becomes a fossil melt- granite/tonalite plutons; Gb—gabbro; Di—diorite; DM—depleted mantle; L, M, and
ing front (Tatsumi et al., 2008). Volcanic-arc HREE—light, middle, and heavy rare earth elements.

A1 Subduction - unrelated ocean crust B1 Subduction - related ocean crust

Continental margin (CM) type Suprasubduction - Zone (SSZ) type
Postrift
Synrift sediments
20 km
0 0
Depth (km)
10 10
20 20 120 km
Subcontinental 30
30
Asthenosphere
40 40
100 50 0 50 100 km
Mid-ocean ridge (MOR) type

Shallow
intrusion nonconservative
V olcanic arc (VA) type

Depth
Backarc
10
km
Plume (P) type 300°C fluid flow

Partial
melt. 600°C
zone
120 km 900°C
1200°C
0 0
100 100
1000 1000
Depth
(km)
2000 2000
4000 4000
A2 B2
CM type MOR type P type SSZ type VA type
Sea level (SL) SL volcaniclastic/
SL SL Time pyroclastic rocks
Serpt. Serp. breccia/ Fast Interm. Slow SL
perd. Chert Rhy.
ophicalcite Neovolc. plw breccia picr. bas. MORB-like IAT Bon.
zone And.
P massive andesite dacite lava
lava
dikes DF sheeted Gran./ ton.
dikes Basalt
Gb Gb lava
P
Gb young ultr. sill Undifferentiated
M pluton Gb
Ol-gabbro Ocean Crust
TZ Di
Subcontinental Gb
Depleted mantle Depleted mantle Trndj
mantle (Lhz) DM DM
0.5 Plume source Strongly
Depleted mantle depleted mantle
km 0.5 km 0.5 km 0.3 km 15 km 1 km 10 km
A3 CM - MOR - P types B3 SSZ - VA types

10 m.y.
Figure 7.

Dilek and Furnes
Lherzolite
Olv-gabbro
dikes
A B
D1
Pillow lava D2
D1
D2
Layered
gabbro
C D
Gabbro
Dikes
Dike
E F
Figure 8 (on this and following page). Field photos from continental margin and various suprasubduction-zone ophiolites, depicting their in-
ternal structure and the crosscutting relationships of different ophiolitic subunits. (A) Lherzolitic peridotites of the Jurassic In-Zecca ophio-
lite (continental margin type) in the Ligurian ophiolites (eastern Corsica) intruded by irregular olivine gabbro dikes and veins. (B) Pillow
lavas with normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt (N-MORB) geochemical affinities, resting directly on serpentinized peridotites of the In-Zecca
ophiolite. (C) Tectonically brecciated pillow lavas (in B), showing cataclastic shearing in and around the pillow-shaped flows. (D) Layered
gabbro rock in the 493 Ma Karmøy ophiolite (suprasubduction-zone backarc to forearc [BA-FA] type) in western Norway intruded by ba-
saltic dikes (D1) with MORB affinities that are in turn crosscut by boninitic dikes (D2). (E) Sheeted dike–gabbro transition zone (Karmøy
ophiolite), where leucocratic gabbros and basaltic dikes show mutually intrusive relationships in a Penrose-type crustal pseudostratig-
raphy. (F) Pillow lavas with island-arc tholeiite (IAT) geochemical affinities in the Karmøy ophiolite crosscut by an island-arc tholeiite dike.

Mylonitic gabbro
Orthopyroxenite
dikes & veins
Boninitic
sill
Cpx-Harzburgite
G H I
Boninitic
lava
D3 D2
Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

D1
J K L
Figure 8 (continued). (G) Clinopyroxene porphyroclast-bearing harzburgite in the Middle Jurassic (165 Ma) Eastern Mirdita ophiolite of
Albania (suprasubduction-zone BA-FA type), crosscut by networks of orthopyroxenite dikes, dikelets, and veins. These intrusions repre-
sent boninitic melt channels that migrated upward into the refractory harzburgite (see Dilek and Morishita, 2009; Morishita et al., 2010).
(H) Plastically deformed layered gabbros in the 92 Ma Kizildag ophiolite in southern Turkey (suprasubduction-zone FA type), intruded by
a boninitic sill and a dikelet. (I–J) Sheeted dike swarms (moderately to vertically dipping) in the Kizildag ophiolite. (K) Basaltic andesite
dikes (D1) with an island-arc tholeiite affinity, intruded by plagiogranite dikes (D2), which are in turn crosscut by a late-stage boninitic dike
(D3). (L) Boninitic lavas (“sakalavites”) in the Kizildag ophiolite. See Dilek and Thy (2009) for details.
403
Dilek and Furnes
Suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc ophio- incompatible elements in the magmas produced. Jormua Complex is reminiscent of that seen in
lites show a characteristic geochemical evo- (2) The mantle melt source becomes enriched in slow-spreading oceanic crust and in continental
lution. In the early stages of their formation, highly incompatible, nonconservative elements margin ophiolites (Peltonen et al., 1996, 2003).
magmas are MORB-like, but during repeated (particularly Cs, Rb, Ba, Th, U) transported in
episodes of melting, their mantle source be- subduction-derived fluids and/or felsic melts. Summary
comes progressively depleted in the most In the Bowen diagrams (MgO-TiO2), the
incompatible elements. The geochemical evolu- Application to Precambrian younger Garbenschiefer amphibolites of the Isua
tion of suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc Greenstone Belts supracrustal belt plot exclusively in the field
ophiolitic magmas is characterized by low abun- of subduction-related ophiolites, whereas the un-
dances of incompatible elements (Cs, Rb, Ba, U, We have selected three Precambrian green- differentiated amphibolites plot both in the
Ta Nb, and light [L] REEs) in basaltic andesites, stone belts ranging in age from Paleoprotero- subduction-related and subduction-unrelated
andesites, and dacites, which commonly occur zoic (Jormua, Finland) to Neoarchean (Wawa, fields (Fig. 9A). The Wawa and Jormua meta-
in the upper parts of their extrusive sequences, Canada) and Paleoarchean (Isua, Greenland), basalts plot predominantly in the fields of plume
and in young crosscutting dikes in sheeted dike for the purpose of comparing the published geo- and continental margin types of the subduction-
complexes. With repeated melting, the residual chemical data for the volcanic and subvolcanic unrelated ophiolites, respectively (Figs. 9B and
mantle source is progressively enriched in oli- rocks of these sequences with the Phanerozoic 9C). In the multi-element diagrams, the undif-
vine and orthopyroxene, the principal hosts of ophiolite types as classified herein. ferentiated amphibolites of Isua plot within the
compatible elements such as Ni, Co, Cr, and Sc. field of subduction-related ophiolites and display
At a later stage in the magmatic evolution Isua Supracrustal Belt their characteristic features, such as positive Pb
of suprasubduction-zone ophiolites, there is a The mafic-ultramafic units of the ca. 3.8 Ga anomalies, negative Nb and Ta anomalies, and
change from depletion to enrichment in incom- Isua supracrustal belt in Greenland occur in two strong enrichment of Ba and Th. On the other
patible element contents in the younger igneous major tectonostratigraphic units, namely the un- hand, the Garbenschiefer amphibolites show
rocks relative to MORB; the more incompatible differentiated amphibolites (UA) and Garben- strong depletion of the middle (M) REEs, a typi-
an element is, the more pronounced its enrich- schiefer amphibolites (GA) (e.g., Nutman et al., cal feature of boninites (Fig. 10A). The Wawa
ment becomes in many suprasubduction-zone 1984, 1997; Rosing et al., 1996; Komiya et al., and Jormua metabasalts plot within the field
ophiolite lavas. This phenomenon suggests that 1999; Furnes et al., 2007, 2009). The undifferen- defined by the subduction-unrelated ophiolites
the mantle source undergoes enrichment of tiated amphibolites unit contains all major litho- and display the same features of flat to moder-
highly mobile elements during or before the ex- logical units of a typical Penrose-type, complete ately enriched patterns as the incompatibility
traction of MORB-like magmas from it. It is the ophiolite sequence, whereas the Garbenschiefer of the elements increase (Figs. 10B and 10C).
nonconservative, highly incompatible elements, amphibolites unit is composed dominantly of In the Ti-V discrimination diagram, the Isua
Cs, Rb, Th, and U, that show the most pro- volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks that are com- data plot in two distinct fields, with the Garben-
nounced change from depletion to enrichment monly found in immature island arcs. schiefer amphibolites exclusively in the boninite
during the late-stage evolution (Fig. 7B3); the field (Ti/V < 10), whereas the undifferentiated
other highly incompatible but conservative ele- Wawa Greenstone Belts amphibolites have Ti/V ratios of 20–30 (Fig.
ments, such as Ta and Nb, remain depleted (e.g., The 2.7 Ga Wawa greenstone belt of the 11A) in the mixed MORB and island-arc fields
Pearce and Parkinson, 1993). Pb and Sr seem to Superior Province in Canada consists of Al- (Shervais, 1982). The volcanic and dike rocks of
be enriched at an earlier stage than the other non- undepleted and Al-depleted komatiites and the Wawa and Jormua sequences, on the other
conservative incompatible elements, and these Mg- and Fe-tholeiites (Polat et al., 1998, 1999). hand, plot entirely within the plume and conti-
elements, particularly Pb, increase in concentra- Compositionally, these mafic volcanic and nental margin types, respectively, of subduction-
tion from the island-arc tholeiite magmatic stage plutonic rocks are comparable to Phanerozoic unrelated ophiolites (Figs. 11B and 11C). In
to the final boninite activity (Fig. 7B3). ocean plateau basalts that subsequently were the Nb/Yb-Th/Yb discrimination diagram, all
Enrichment of the source mantle in slab- tectonically imbricated with primitive arc ba- the Isua data plot in the subduction-related field
derived, nonconservative elements is a com- salts (Polat et al., 1998, 1999). (Fig. 12A), whereas the Wawa and Jormua data
plex process that may involve fluids released plot in the subduction-unrelated field (Fig2.
from altered oceanic crust and its sedimentary Jormua Complex 12B and 12C). The Wawa data define a large
cover and felsic magmas generated by partial The 1.95 Ga (Peltonen et al., 1996) mafic to spread between N-MORB and oceanic-island
melting of subducted sediments (Pearce and ultramafic rocks of the Jormua Complex (JC) basalt (though mostly between N-MORB and
Parkinson, 1993; Hawkesworth et al., 1997; occur in the central part of an early Protero- E-MORB), while the Jormua data cluster tightly
Macdonald et al., 2000; Elburg et al., 2002). zoic (2.3–1.92 Ga) metasedimentary sequence around E-MORB (Figs. 12B and 12C).
Thus, during the generation of subduction- that is surrounded by Archean basement rocks The geochemical character of the metavol-
related ophiolites, two dominant, contempora- in northeastern Finland (Kontinen, 1987; canic and intrusive rocks of the three selected
neous processes operate to continuously modify Peltonen et al., 1996). The Jormua Complex Precambrian greenstone belts indicates that they
the source region and are responsible for the includes pillow lavas and volcanic breccias, originated in different tectonic environments.
typical trace-element patterns of the magmas a sheeted dike complex, mafic cumulates, and Thus, compared with the geochemical evolu-
produced: (1) Repeated episodes of partial melt- upper-mantle peridotites, and it is tectonically tion of Phanerozoic ophiolites, the Paleoarchean
ing progressively deplete the mantle source in disrupted into several blocks. The thickness of Isua rocks most likely represent a supra-
incompatible elements and enrich it in compat- the Jormua Complex varies, and in places the subduction-zone forearc basin subtype ophio-
ible elements. Inhomogeneities in the mantle lava sequence rests directly upon the upper- lite, as suggested by Furnes et al. (2009). The
source and variable degrees of partial melting mantle rocks, typical of the Ligurian ophiolites Neoarchean Wawa greenstone belt, on the other
could also result in variable concentrations of in the Apennines. The crustal architecture of the hand, is more akin to the structural and geo-

3.5
A. Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga)
3
TiO2 (wt%)
2.5
Garbenschiefer amphibolites
2 Undifferentiated amphibolites
Subduction-related
1.5
Subduction-unrelated
1
0.5
0
Figure 9. Bowen diagrams show-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ing relationships between MgO MgO (wt%)
and TiO2 for three Precam-
3.5
brian greenstone belts: (A) Isua,
B. Wawa, Canada (2.7 Ga)
Greenland (3.8 Ga), (B) Wawa, 3
Canada (2.7 Ga), and (C) Jor-
mua, Finland (1.95 Ga). The data
TiO2 (wt%)
2.5 Wawa greenstone

sources to the enveloping lines
2 Subduction-unrelated
for the subduction-related and
subduction-unrelated ophiolites, Plume
1.5
as well as plume (B) and conti-
nental margin (C) subtypes, are 1
given in Figure 3. Data sources:
Isua, Greenland—Polat et al. 0.5
(2002), Polat and Hofmann
0
(2003), Komiya et al. (2004),
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Furnes et al. (2007, 2009); Wawa, MgO (wt%)
Canada—Polat et al. (1999); Jor-
mua, Finland—Kontinen (1987), 3.5
Peltonen et al. (1996). C. Jormua, Finland (1.95 Ga)
3
Jormua
TiO2 (wt%)
2.5
Subduction-related
2
1.5 Cont. margin
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
MgO (wt%)
chemical character of plume-type ophiolites, in tonic environments during the Wilson cycle imity to plumes or trenches, rates and geometry
agreement with the interpretations of Polat et al. evolution of ancient ocean basins from rift-drift of spreading, mantle temperatures and fertility,
(1999). The early Proterozoic Jormua Complex and seafloor spreading stages to subduction ini- and the availability of fluids in the tectonic set-
resembles, both structurally and geochemically, tiation and closure phases. Mafic-ultramafic to ting of formation during their primary igneous
continental margin–type ophiolites, consistent felsic rock assemblages that originally formed evolution. Ophiolites are broadly subgrouped
with the interpretations of Peltonen et al. (2003). in different tectonic settings may eventually be- into subduction-related and subduction-
come nested in collision zones, forming distinct unrelated types. Subduction-related ophiolites
CONCLUSIONS ophiolite complexes with significant diversity include suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc
in their structural architecture, geochemical types, whereas those unrelated to subduction
Ophiolites are diverse in their internal struc- fingerprints, and emplacement mechanisms. zones include continental margin, mid-ocean-
ture, geochemical makeup, and emplacement Differences in the magmatic and structural ridge (plume-distal and trench-distal), and
mechanisms, and they form in different tec- architecture of ophiolites result from their prox- plume-type ophiolites.

Dilek and Furnes
1000
A. Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga) Undiff. amph.
Garbensch. amph.
100 Subduction-related (max)
Subduction-related (min)
Rock/MORB
10
0.1
0.01
1000
B. Wawa, Canada (2.7 Ga) Subduction-unrelated (max)
Subduction-unrelated (min)
100
Rock/MORB
10
0.1
0.01
1000
C. Jormua, Finland (1.95 Ga) Subduction-unrelated (max)
Subduction-unrelated (min)
100
Rock/MORB
10
0.1
0.01
Figure 10.

Figure 10 (on previous page). Mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB)–normalized multi-element diagrams for the mafic lavas and dikes of
the Precambrian greenstone belts in Isua (Greenland), Wawa (Canada), and Jormua (Finland). Normalizing values and the data for
drawing the maximum and minimum envelopes for subduction-related and subduction-unrelated ophiolites are provided in Figure 4.
Data sources: Isua, Greenland—Polat et al. (2002), Polat and Hofmann (2003), Furnes et al. (2009); Wawa, Canada—Polat et al. (1999);
Jormua, Finland—Peltonen et al. (1996).
A. Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga)

600 30
10 20
400
V
Boninite
200 Subduction-related
50 Garbensch. amph.
Undiff. amph.
0
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Ti (ppm)
B. Wawa, Canada (2.7 Ga)

600
400
V
200
Boninite
Subduction-related
Wawa
0
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Ti (ppm)
C. Jormua, Finland (1.95 Ga)

600
400
V
Boninite
200 Subduction-related
Cont. margin
Jormua
0
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Ti (ppm)
Figure 11. Geochemical data of mafic lavas and dikes from the Precambrian greenstone belts in Isua
(Greenland), Wawa (Canada), and Jormua (Finland) plotted in Ti-V discriminant diagrams. Data
sources for the enveloped fields for subduction-related and subduction-unrelated ophiolites are given
in Figure 5. Data sources: Isua, Greenland—Polat et al. (2002), Polat and Hofmann (2003), Furnes
et al. (2007, 2009); Wawa, Canada—Polat et al. (1999); Jormua, Finland—Kontinen (1987), Peltonen
et al. (1996).

Dilek and Furnes
10
Subduction-unrelated A. Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga)
Subduction-related
1 Garbensch. amph.
OIB
Undiff. amph.
Th/Yb
E-MORB
0.1
N-MORB
0.01
Figure 12. Geochemical data of 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
mafic lavas and dikes from the Nb/Yb
Precambrian greenstone belts
in Isua (Greenland), Wawa 10
(Canada), and Jormua (Fin- B. Wawa, Canada (2.7 Ga)
land) plotted in Nb/Yb-Th/Yb
discriminant diagrams. Data
sources for the enveloped fields 1
for subduction-related and sub-
Th/Yb
duction-unrelated ophiolites, as
well as further information for
these diagrams, are given in Fig- 0.1
ure 6. Data sources: Isua, Green-
land—Polat et al. (2002), Polat Subduction-related
and Hofmann (2003), Furnes Wawa greenstone
et al. (2009); Wawa, Canada— 0.01
Polat et al. (1999); Jormua, 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Nb/Yb
Finland—Peltonen et al. (1996).
E- and N-MORB—enriched and 10
normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt; C. Jormua, Finland (1.95 Ga)
OIB—ocean-island basalt.
1
Th/Yb
0.1
Subduction-related
Jormua
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Nb/Yb
Characterizing ophiolites by their lithological of the ophiolite classification presented here generously supported by grants from the National
assemblage, internal architecture, and chemical may provide a new conceptual framework to Science Foundation, North Atlantic Treaty Organi-
zation (NATO) Science Program, Miami University,
compositions facilitates the identification of the examine potential vestiges of Proterozoic and and the Norwegian Research Council over the years,
specific tectonic setting of ophiolite generation, Archean oceanic lithosphere. We can then use which we gratefully acknowledge. We wish to thank
which in turn helps us to deduce the processes this delineation to better understand the nature our colleagues Z. Garfunkel, G. Harper, R. Hébert,
by which these oceanic rocks were incorporated of tectonic processes and heat production and E.M. Moores, A. Polat, J. Pearce, R. Pedersen,
M. Pubellier, P.T. Robinson, J. Shervais, R. Stern,
into continental margins. This new classification dissipation during the Archean. P. Thy, and J. Wakabayashi for stimulating discus-
of ophiolites provides an effective template for sions on various aspects of ophiolites. J. Bédard,
examining the nature of cogenetic relationships ACKNOWLEDGMENTS B. Murphy, and A. Polat provided objective and
between the various parts of ophiolite sequences insightful reviews of the manuscript, for which we
Constructive and thorough comments on ear- are grateful. We thank Editor Brendan Murphy for
and for determining the nature of ancient tec- lier versions by Robert Gregory, Brian Robins, inviting us to write this review article for the GSA
tonic settings in which the ophiolites formed, and Paul Robinson helped us improve the paper. Bulletin and for his editorial assistance in all stages
particularly for Archean Earth. The application Our work on ophiolites around the world has been during the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES CITED Cloos, M., 1982, Flow mélanges: Numerical modelling and Eastern Mirdita ophiolite, Albania: The Island Arc, v. 18,
geologic constraints on their origin in the Franciscan p. 551–554, doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1738.2009.00692.x.
Anma, R., Armstrong, R., Orihashi, Y., Ike, S.-I., Shin, subduction complex: Geological Society of America Dilek, Y., and Thy, P., 2009, Island arc tholeiite to boninitic
K.-C., Kon, Y., Komiya, T., Ota, T., Kagashima, S.-I., Bulletin, v. 93, p. 330–345, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606 melt evolution of the Cretaceous Kizildag (Turkey)
Shibuya, T., Yamamoto, S., Veloso, E.E., Fanning, M., (1982)93<330:FMNMAG>2.0.CO;2. ophiolite: Model for multi-stage early arc-forearc mag-
and Hervé, F., 2009, Are the Taitao granites formed Cloos, M., 1993, Lithosphere buoyancy and collisional matism in Tethyan subduction factories: Lithos, v. 113,
due to subduction of the Chile Ridge?: Lithos, v. 113, orogenesis: Subduction of oceanic plateaus, conti- p. 68–87, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.05.044.
p. 246–258, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.05.018. nental margins, island arcs, spreading ridges, and Dilek, Y., Thy, P., and Moores, E.M., 1991, Episodic dike in-
Anonymous, 1972, Penrose field conference on Ophiolites: seamounts: Geological Society of America Bulletin, trusions in the northwestern Sierra Nevada, California:
Geotimes, v. 17, p. 24–25. v. 105, p. 715–737, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1993)105 Implications for multistage evolution of a Jurassic arc ter-
Beccaluva, L., Coltorti, M., Premti, I., Saccani, E., Siena, F., <0715:LBACOS>2.3.CO;2. rane: Geology, v. 19, p. 180–184, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613
and Zeda, O., 1994, Mid-ocean ridge and supra-sub- Coffin, M.F., and Eldholm, O., 2001, Large igneous prov- (1991)019<0180:EDIITN>2.3.CO;2.
duction affinities in the ophiolitic belts from Albania: inces: Progenitors of some ophiolites? in Ernst, R.E., Dilek, Y., Thy, P., Hacker, B., and Grundvig, S., 1999, Struc-
Ofioliti, v. 19, p. 77–96. and Buchan, K.L., eds., Mantle Plumes: Their Identi- ture and petrology of Tauride ophiolites and mafic
Bédard, J.H., 1999, Petrogenesis of boninites from the fication through Time: Geological Society of America dike intrusions (Turkey): Implications for the Neo-
Betts Cove ophiolite, Newfoundland, Canada: Iden- Special Paper 352, p. 59–70. Tethyan ocean: Geological Society of America Bul-
tification of subducted source components: Journal Coish, R.A., 1977, Ocean floor metamorphism in the Betts letin, v. 111, p. 1192–1216, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606
of Petrology, v. 40, p. 1853–1889, doi: 10.1093/ Cove ophiolite, Newfoundland: Contributions to Min- (1999)111<1192:SAPOTO>2.3.CO;2.
petrology/40.12.1853. eralogy and Petrology, v. 60, p. 255–270, doi: 10.1007/ Dilek, Y., Furnes, H., and Shallo, M., 2007, Suprasubduc-
Bédard, J.H., Lauziere, K., Tremblay, A., and Sangster, A., BF01166800. tion zone ophiolite formation along the periphery of
1998, Evidence for forearc seafloor-spreading from the Coleman, R.G., 1971, Plate tectonic emplacement of upper Mesozoic Gondwana: Gondwana Research, v. 11,
Betts Cove ophiolite, Newfoundland: Oceanic crust of mantle peridotites along continental edges: Journal p. 453–475, doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2007.01.005.
boninitic affinity: Tectonophysics, v. 284, p. 233–245, of Geophysical Research, v. 76, p. 1212–1222, doi: Dilek, Y., Furnes, H., and Shallo, M., 2008, Geochem-
doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(97)00182-0. 10.1029/JB076i005p01212. istry of the Jurassic Mirdita ophiolite (Albania) and
Benson, W.N., 1926, The Tectonic Conditions Accompa- Coleman, R.G., 1977, Ophiolites: New York, Springer- the MORB to SSZ evolution of a marginal basin
nying the Intrusion of Basic and Ultrabasic Igneous Verlag, 220 p. oceanic crust: Lithos, v. 100, p. 174–209, doi: 10.1016/
Rocks: Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Crawford, A.J., 1989, Boninites and Related Rocks: Lon- j.lithos.2007.06.026.
Volume XIX, First Memoir, 90 p. don, Unwin and Hyman, 496 p. Dungan, M.A., Vance, J.A., and Blanchard, D.P., 1983, Geo-
Bickle, M.J., and Teagle, D.A.H., 1992, Strontium altera- Dalziel, I.W.D., Lawver, L.A., and Murphy, J.B., 2000, chemistry of the Shuksan greenschists and blueschists,
tion in the Troodos ophiolite: Implications for fluid Plumes, orogenesis, and supercontinental fragmen- North Cascades, Washington: Variably fractionated
fluxes and geochemical transport in mid-ocean ridge tation: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 178, metabasalts of oceanic affinity: Contributions to Min-
hydrothermal systems: Earth and Planetary Science p. 1–11, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00061-3. eralogy and Petrology, v. 82, p. 131–146, doi: 10.1007/
Letters, v. 113, p. 219–237, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X de Roever, W.P., 1957, Sind die alpintypen Peridotimassen BF01166608.
(92)90221-G. vielleicht tektonisch verfrachtete Buruchstücke der Elburg, M.A., van Bergen, M., Hogewerfe, J., Foden, J.,
Bortolotti, V., and Principi, G., 2005, Tethyan ophiolites and Peritotschale?: Geologische Rundschau, v. 46, p. 137– Vroon, P., Zulkarnain, I., and Nasution, A., 2002, Geo-
Pangea break-up: The Island Arc, v. 14, p. 442–470, 146, doi: 10.1007/BF01802890. chemical trends across an arc-continent collision zone:
doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00478.x. Dewey, J.F., 1976, Ophiolite obduction: Tectonophysics, Magma sources and slab-wedge transfer processes
Boudier, F., and Nicolas, A., 1985, Harzburgite and lherzo- v. 31, p. 93–120, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(76)90169-4. below the Pantar Strait volcanoes, Indonesia: Geochi-
lite subtypes in ophiolitic and oceanic environments: Dewey, J.F., and Bird, J.M., 1971, The origin and emplace- mica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 66, p. 2771–2789, doi:
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 76, p. 84–92, ment of the ophiolite suite: Appalachian ophiolites 10.1016/S0016-7037(02)00868-2.
doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(85)90150-5. in Newfoundland: Journal of Geophysical Research, Ernst, R.E., Head, J.W., Parfitt, E., Grosfils, E., and Wilson,
Brongniart, A., 1821, Sur le gisement ou position relative v. 76, p. 3179–3206, doi: 10.1029/JB076i014p03179. L., 1995, Giant radiating dyke swarms on Earth and
des ophiolites, euphotides, jaspes, etc. dans quelques Dick, H.J.B., 1989, Abyssal peridotites, very slow-spreading Venus: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 39, p. 1–58, doi:
parties des Apennins: Annales des Mines, Paris, v. 6, ridges and ocean ridge magmatism, in Saunders, A.D., 10.1016/0012-8252(95)00017-5.
p. 177–238. and Norris, M.J., eds., Magmatism in the Ocean Basins: Ernst, W.G., 2005, Alpine and Pacific styles of Phanerozoic
Brown, D., Spadea, P., Puchkov, V., Alvarez-Marron, J., Geological Society of London Special Publication 42, mountain building: Subduction-zone petrogenesis of
Herrington, R., Willner, A.P., Hetzel, R., Gorozhanina, p. 71–105. continental crust: Terra Nova, v. 17, p. 165–188, doi:
Y., and Juhlin, C., 2006, Arc-continent collision in the Dick, H.J.B., Natland, J.H., and Ildefonse, B., 2006, Past 10.1111/j.1365-3121.2005.00604.x.
Southern Urals: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 79, p. 261– and future impact of deep drilling in the oceanic crust Furnes, H., Hellevang, B., Hellevang, H., and Robins, B.,
287, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.08.003. and mantle: Oceanography (Washington, D.C.), v. 19, 2006, Evolution of lavas in the Late Ordovician/Early
Caby, R., 1995, Plastic deformation of gabbros in a slow- p. 72–80. Silurian Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite complex, West
spreading Mesozoic ridge: Example of the Mont- Dickin, A.P., and Jones, N.W., 1983, Relative element mobil- Norway: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 7,
genevre ophiolite, Western Alps, in Vissers, R.L.M., ity during hydrothermal alteration of a basic sill, Isle of no. 8, doi: 10.1029/2005GC001154.
and Nicolas, A., eds., Mantle and Lower Crust Exposed Skye, NW Scotland: Contributions to Mineralogy and Furnes, H., de Wit, M., Staudigel, H., Rosing, M., and
in Oceanic Ridges and in Ophiolites: Dordrecht, Neth- Petrology, v. 82, p. 147–153, doi: 10.1007/BF01166609. Muehlanbachs, K., 2007, A vestige of Earth’s oldest
erlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Petrology and Dilek, Y., 1998, Structure and tectonics of intermediate- ophiolite: Science, v. 315, p. 1704–1707, doi: 10.1126/
Structural Geology Series, v. 6, p. 123–145. spread oceanic crust drilled at DSDP/ODP Sites 504B– science.1139170.
Cann, J.R., 2003, The Troodos ophiolite and the upper ocean 896A, Costa Rica Rift, in Cramp, A., McLeod, C.J., Furnes, H., Rosing, M., Dilek, Y., and de Wit, M., 2009, Isua
crust; a reciprocal traffic in scientific concepts, in Lee, S.V., and Jones, E.J.W., eds., Geological Evolu- supracrustal belt (Greenland)—A vestige of a 3.8 Ga
Dilek, Y., and Newcomb, S., eds., Ophiolite Concept tion of Ocean Basins: Results from the Ocean Drilling suprasubduction zone ophiolite, and the implications
and the Evolution of Geological Thought: Geological Program: Geological Society of London Special Publi- for Archean geology: Lithos, v. 113, p. 115–132, doi:
Society of America Special Paper 373, p. 309–321. cation 131, p. 179–197. 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.03.043.
Cannat, M., Mével, C., Maia, M., Deplus, C., Durand, C., Dilek, Y., 2003, Ophiolite concept and its evolution, in Gass, I.G., 1968, Is the Troodos massif of Cyprus a fragment
Gente, P., Agrinier, P., Belarouchi, A., Dubuisson, Dilek, Y., and Newcomb, S., eds., Ophiolite Concept of Mesozoic ocean floor?: Nature, v. 220, p. 39–42,
G., Humler, E., and Reynolds, J., 1995, Thin crust, and the Evolution of Geological Thought: Geological doi: 10.1038/220039a0.
ultramafic exposures, and rugged faulting patterns Society of America Special Paper 373, p. 1–16. Gass, I.G., 1990, Ophiolites and oceanic lithosphere, in
at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (22°–24°N): Geology, Dilek, Y., and Flower, M.F.J., 2003, Arc-trench roll-back and Malpas, J., Moores, E.M., Panayiotou, A, and Xeno-
v. 23, p. 49–52, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023 forearc accretion: 2. A model template for ophiolites phontos, C., eds., Ophiolites, Oceanic Crustal Ana-
<0049:TCUEAR>2.3.CO;2. in Albania, Cyprus, and Oman in Dilek, Y. and Robin- logues, Proceedings of the Symposium “Troodos 1987”:
Casey, J.F., and Dewey, J.F., 1984, Initiation of subduction son, P.T. eds., Ophiolites in Earth History: Geological Nicosia, Cyprus, The Geological Survey Department,
zones along transform and accreting plate boundaries, Society of London Special Publication 218, p. 43–68. p. 1–10.
triple junction evolution and spreading centres—Impli- Dilek, Y., and Furnes, H., 2009, Structure and geochemistry Gillis, K.M., and Thompson, G., 1993, Metabasalts from
cations for ophiolitic geology and obduction, in Gass, of Tethyan ophiolites and their petrogenesis in sub- the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: New insight into hydrother-
I.G., Lippard, S.J., and Shelton, A.W., eds., Ophiolites duction rollback systems: Lithos, v. 113, p. 1–20, doi: mal systems in slow-spreading crust: Contributions
and Oceanic Lithosphere: Geological Society of Lon- 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.04.022. to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 113, p. 502–523, doi:
don Special Publication 13, p. 269–290. Dilek, Y., and Furnes, H., 2010, Spontaneous subduction ini- 10.1007/BF00698319.
Cawood, P.A., Kröner, A., Collins, W.J., Kusky, T.M., tiation and forearc magmatism as revealed by Phanero- Giunta, G., and Oliveri, E., 2009, Some remarks on the
Mooney, W.D., and Windley, B.F., 2009, Accretion- zoic suprasubduction zone ophiolites: Geological Caribbean plate kinematics: Facts and remaining prob-
ary orogens through Earth history in : Cawood, P.A. Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 42, lems, in James, K.H., Lorente, M.A., and Pindell, J.L.,
and Kröner, A. (Eds.), Earth Accretionary Systems in no. 5, p. 575. eds., The Origin and Evolution of the Caribbean Plate:
Space and Time, Geological Society of London Special Dilek, Y., and Morishita, T., 2009, Melt migration and upper Geological Society of London Special Publication 328,
Publication 318, p. 1–36. mantle evolution during incipient arc construction: Jurassic p. 57–75.

Dilek and Furnes
Gray, D.R., Gregory, R.T., and Miller, J., 2000, A new struc- physics, v. 292, p. 173–188, doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951 plications for Paleozoic plate reconstructions: Lithos,
tural profile along the Muscat-Ibra transect, Oman: Im- (98)00067-5. doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2010.09.014.
plications for emplacement of the Samail ophiolite, in Kerr, A.C., Pearson, D.G., and Nowell, G.M., 2009, Magma Nance, R.D., Gutiérrez-Alonso, G., Keppie, J.D., Linnemann,
Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust: New Insights from Field source evolution beneath the Caribbean oceanic pla- U., Murphy, J.B., Quesada, C., Strachan, R.A., and
Studies and the Ocean Drilling Program: Geological teau: New insights from elemental and Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf Woodcock, N., 2010, Evolution of the Rheic Ocean:
Society of America Special Paper 349, p. 513–523. isotopic studies of ODP Leg 165 Site 1001 basalts, Gondwana Research, v. 17, p. 194–222, doi: 10.1016/
Hall, R., 1997, Cenozoic plate tectonic reconstructions of SE in James, K.H., Lorente, M.A., and Pindell, J.L., eds., j.gr.2009.08.001.
Asia in Fraser, A.J., Matthews, S.J., and Murphy, R.W., The Origin and Evolution of the Caribbean Plate: Geo- Nicolas, A., 1989, Structure of Ophiolites and Dynamics
eds., Petroleum Geology of Southeast Asia: Geological logical Society of London Special Publication 328, of Oceanic Lithosphere: Dordrecht, the Netherlands,
Society of London Special Publication 126, p. 11–23. p. 809–827. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 367 p.
Hall, R., 2009, The Eurasian SE Asian margin as a modern Kincaid, C., and Hall, P.S., 2003, Role of backarc spread- Nicolas, A., and Boudier, F., 2003, Where ophiolites come
example of an accretionary orogen, in Cawood, P.A., ing in circulation and melting at subduction zones: from and what they tell us, in Dilek, Y., and Newcomb,
and Kröner, A., eds., Earth Accretionary Systems in Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 108, p. 2240, doi: S., eds., Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geo-
Space and Time: Geological Society of London Special 10.1029/2001JB001174. logical Thought: Geological Society of America Spe-
Publication 318, p. 351–372. Komiya, T., Maruyama, S., Masuda, T., Nohda, S., Hayashi, cial Paper 373, p. 137–152.
Hart, S.R., 1969, K, Rb, Cs contents and K/Rb, K/Cs ratios M., and Okamoto, K., 1999, Plate tectonics at 3.8–3.7 Nicollet, C., and Andriambololona, D.R., 1980, Distribu-
of fresh and altered submarine basalts: Earth and Plan- Ga: Field evidence from the Isua accretionary com- tion of transition elements in crustal metabasic igneous
etary Science Letters, v. 6, p. 295–303, doi: 10.1016/ plex, southern West Greenland: The Journal of Geol- rocks: Chemical Geology, v. 28, p. 79–90, doi: 10.1016/
0012-821X(69)90171-X. ogy, v. 107, p. 515–554, doi: 10.1086/314371. 0009-2541(80)90037-6.
Hastie, A.R., and Kerr, A.C., 2010, Mantle plume or slab Komiya, T., Maruyama, S., Hirata, T., Yurimoto, H., Nutman, A.P., Allaart, J.H., Bridgwater, D., Dimroth, E.,
window?: Physical and geochemical constraints on and Nohda, S., 2004, Geochemistry of the oldest and Rosing, M., 1984, Stratigraphic and geochemical
the origin of the Caribbean oceanic plateau: Earth- MORB and OIB in the Isua supracrustal belt, south- evidence for the depositional environment of the Early
Science Reviews, v. 98, p. 283–293, doi: 10.1016/ ern West Greenland: Implications for the composi- Archean Isua supracrustal belt, southern West Green-
j.earscirev.2009.11.001. tion and temperature of Early Archean upper mantle: land: Precambrian Research, v. 25, no. 4, p. 365–396,
Hawkesworth, C.T., Turner, S.P., McDermott, P., Peate, The Island Arc, v. 13, no. 1, p. 47–72, doi: 10.1111/ doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(84)90010-X.
D.W., and van Calsteren, P., 1997, U-Th isotopes in j.1440-1738.2003.00416.x. Nutman, A.P., Bennett, V.C., Friend, C.R.L., and Rosing,
arc magmas: Implications for element transfer from Kontinen, A., 1987, An early Proterozoic ophiolite—The M.T., 1997, ~ 3710 and ≥ 3790 Ma volcanic sequences
the subducted crust: Science, v. 276, p. 551–555, doi: Jormua mafic-ultramafic complex, northeastern Fin- in the Isua (Greenland) supracrustal belt; structural and
10.1126/science.276.5312.551. land: Precambrian Research, v. 35, p. 313–341, doi: Nd isotope implications: Chemical Geology, v. 141,
Hawkins, J.W., 1977, Petrological and geochemical charac- 10.1016/0301-9268(87)90061-1. no. 3–4, p. 271–287, doi: 10.1016/S0009-2541(97)
teristics of marginal basin basalts, in Talwani, M., and Lagabrielle, Y., Guivel, C., Maury, R., Bourgois, J., Four- 00084-3.
Pitman, W.C., III, eds., Island Arcs, Deep Sea Trenches cade, S., and Martin, H., 2000, Magmatic-tectonic Ogawa, Y., and Takahashi, A., 2004, Seafloor spreading,
and Back Arc Basins, Volume 1: Washington, D.C., effects of high thermal regime at the site of active obduction and triple junction tectonics of the Mineoka
American Geophysical Union, p. 355–365. ridge subduction: The Chile triple junction model: ophiolite, central Japan: Tectonophysics, v. 392,
Hawkins, J.W., 2003, Geology of supra-subduction zones— Tectonophysics, v. 326, p. 255–268, doi: 10.1016/ p. 131–141, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2004.08.007.
Implications for the origin of ophiolites, in Dilek, Y., S0040-1951(00)00124-4. Pagé, P., Bédard, J.H., and Tremblay, A., 2009, Geochemical
and Newcomb, S., eds., Ophiolite Concept and the Larson, R.L., 1991, Latest pulse of Earth: Evidence for a mid- variations in a depleted fore-arc mantle: The Ordovi-
Evolution of Geological Thought: Geological Society Cretaceous superplume: Geology, v. 19, p. 547–550, cian Thetford Mines ophiolite: Lithos, v. 113, p. 21–47,
of America Special Paper 373, p. 227–268. doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0547:LPOEEF> doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.03.030.
Hébert, R., and Laurent, R., 1990, Mineral chemistry of the 2.3.CO;2. Pearce, J.A., 1975, Basalt geochemistry used to investigate
plutonic section of the Troodos ophiolite: New con- Lister, G., and Forster, M., 2009, Tectonic mode switches past tectonic environments on Cyprus: Tectonophysics,
straints for genesis of arc-related ophiolites, in Malpas, and the nature of orogenesis: Lithos, v. 113, p. 274– v. 25, p. 41–67, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(75)90010-4.
J., Moores, E.M., Panayiotou, A., and Xenophontos, 291, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2008.10.024. Pearce, J.A., 2003, Supra-subduction zone ophiolites: The
C., eds., Ophiolites, Oceanic Crustal Analogues, Pro- Macdonald, R., Hawkesworth, C.J., and Heath, E., 2000, search for modern analogues, in Dilek, Y., and New-
ceedings of the Symposium “Troodos 1987”: Nicosia, The Lesser Antilles volcanic chain: A study of arc comb, S., eds., Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution
Cyprus, The Geological Survey Department, p. 149–163. magmatism: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 49, p. 1–76, of Geological Thought: Geological Society of America
Hellman, P.L., Smith, R.E., and Henderson, P., 1979, The doi: 10.1016/S0012-8252(99)00069-0. Special Paper 373, p. 269–293.
mobility of the rare earth elements: Evidence and Manatschal, G., and Müntener, O., 2009, A type sequence Pearce, J.A., 2008, Geochemical fingerprinting of oceanic
implications from selected terrains affected by burial across an ancient magma-poor ocean-continent transi- basalts with applications to ophiolite classification and
metamorphism: Contributions to Mineralogy and tion: The example of the western Alpine Tethys ophio- the search for Archean oceanic crust: Lithos, v. 100,
Petrology, v. 71, p. 23–44, doi: 10.1007/BF00371879. lites: Tectonophysics, v. 473, p. 4–19, doi: 10.1016/ p. 14–48, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2007.06.016.
Hess, H.H., 1955, Serpentines, orogeny and epeirogeny, in j.tecto.2008.07.021. Pearce, J.A., and Parkinson, I.J., 1993, Trace element models
Poldevaart, A., ed., Crust of the Earth (A Symposium): Miyashiro, A., 1973, The Troodos complex was probably for mantle melting: Application to volcanic arc petro-
New York, Geological Society of America Special formed in an island arc: Earth and Planetary Science genesis, in Prichard, H.M., Alabaster, T., Harris,
Paper 62, p. 391–408. Letters, v. 19, p. 218–224, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X N.B.W., and Neary, C.R., eds., Magmatic Processes
Hess, H.H., 1962, History of ocean basins, in Engel, A.E.J., (73)90118-0. and Plate Tectonics: Geological Society of London
James, H.L., and Leonard, B.F., eds., Petrologic Stud- Miyashiro, A., 1975, Classification, characteristics, and Special Publication 76, p. 373–403.
ies: A Volume in Honor of A.F. Buddington: New York, origin of ophiolites: The Journal of Geology, v. 83, Pearce, J.A., and Robinson, P.T., 2010, The Troodos ophio-
Geological Society of America, p. 599–620. p. 249–281, doi: 10.1086/628085. litic complex probably formed in a subduction ini-
Humphris, S.E., and Thompson, G., 1978, Trace element Moores, E.M., and Vine, F.J., 1971, The Troodos massif, tiation, slab edge setting: Gondwana Research, v. 18,
mobility during hydrothermal alteration of oceanic Cyprus, and other ophiolites as oceanic crust: Evalua- p. 60–81, doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2009.12.003.
basalts: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 42, tion and implications: Philosophical Transactions of Pearce, J.A., Lippard, S.J., and Roberts, S., 1984, Charac-
p. 127–136, doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(78)90222-3. the Royal Society of London, v. 268A, p. 443–466. teristics and tectonic significance of supra-subduction
Ishiwatari, A., 1985, Alpine ophiolites: Product of low- Moores, E.M., Kellogg, L., and Dilek, Y., 2000, Tethyan zone ophiolites, in Kokelaar, B.P., and Howells, M.F.,
degree mantle melting in a Mesozoic transcurrent rift ophiolites, mantle convection, and tectonic “historical eds., Marginal Basin Geology: Volcanic and Associ-
zone: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 76, p. 93– contingency”: A resolution of the “ophiolite conun- ated Sedimentary and Tectonic Processes in Modern
108, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(85)90151-7. drum,” in Dilek, Y., Moores, E.M., Elthon, D., and and Ancient Marginal Basins: Geological Society of
Jackson, E.D., and Thayer, T.P., 1972, Some criteria for dis- Nicolas, A., eds., Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust: New London Special Publication 16, p. 77–94.
tinguishing between stratiform, concentric and alpine Insights from Field Studies and Ocean Drilling Pro- Peltonen, P., Kontinen, A., and Huhma, H., 1996, Petrol-
peridotite-gabbro complexes, in 24th International gram: Geological Society of America Special Paper ogy and geochemistry of metabasalts from the 1.95 Ga
Geological Congress, Montreal, Proceedings, Section 349, p. 3–12. Jormua ophiolite, northeastern Finland: The Journal of
2, p. 289–296. Morishita, T., Dilek, Y., Shallo, M., Tamura, A., and Arai, S., Geology, v. 37, p. 1359–1383.
Karsten, J.L., Klein, E.M., and Sherman, S.B., 1996, Sub- 2010, Insight into the uppermost mantle section of a Peltonen, P., Mänttäri, I., Huhma, H., and Kontinen, A., 2003,
duction zone geochemical characteristics in ocean maturing arc: The Eastern Mirdita ophiolite, Albania: Archean zircons from the mantle: The Jormua ophio-
ridge basalts from the southern Chile Ridge: Impli- Lithos (in press) doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2010.10.003. lite revisited: Geology, v. 31, p. 645–648, doi: 10.1130/
cations of modern ridge subduction systems for the Mottl, M.D., 1983, Metabasalt, axial hot springs, and structure 0091-7613(2003)031<0645:AZFTMT>2.0.CO;2.
Archean: Lithos, v. 37, p. 143–161, doi: 10.1016/ of hydrothermal systems at mid-ocean ridges: Geologi- Piccardo, G.B., Vannucci, R., and Guarnieri, L., 2009, Evo-
0024-4937(95)00034-8. cal Society of America Bulletin, v. 94, p. 161–180, doi: lution of the lithospheric mantle in an extensional set-
Kerr, A.C., Tarney, J., Nivia, A., Mariner, G.F., and Saun- 10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<161:MAHSAT>2.0.CO;2. ting: Insights from ophiolitic peridotites: Lithosphere,
ders, A.D., 1998, The internal structure of oceanic pla- Murphy, J.B., Cousens, B.L., Braid, J.A., Strachan, R.A., v. 1, no. 2, p. 81–87, doi: 10.1130/L30.1.
teaus: Inferences from obducted Cretaceous terranes Dostal, J., Keppie, J.D., and Nance, R.D., 2010, Highly Polat, A., and Hofmann, A.W., 2003, Alteration and geo-
in western Colombia and the Caribbean: Tectono- depleted oceanic lithosphere in the Rheic Ocean: Im- chemical patterns in the 3.7–3.8 Ga Isua greenstone

belt, West Greenland: Precambrian Research, v. 126, ous rocks from southern Chile: Geological Society Thayer, T.P., 1967, Chemical and structural relations in
p. 197–218, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(03)00095-0. of America Bulletin, v. 90, p. 237–258, doi: 10.1130/ ultramafic and feldspathic rocks in Alpine intrusive
Polat, A., Kerrich, R., and Wyman, D.A., 1998, The Late 0016-7606(1979)90<237:GOMMBF>2.0.CO;2. complexes, in Wyllie, P.J, ed., Ultramafic and Related
Archean Schreiber-Hemlo and White River–Dayohes- Scott, R.B., and Hajash, A., Jr., 1976, Initial submarine al- Rocks: John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 222–238.
sarah greenstone belts, Superior Province: Collages of teration of basaltic pillow lavas: A microprobe study: Thy, P., and Xenophontos, C., 1991, Crystallization orders
oceanic plateaus, oceanic arcs, and subduction-accre- American Journal of Science, v. 276, p. 480–501, doi: and phase chemistry of glassy lavas from the pillow se-
tion complexes: Tectonophysics, v. 289, p. 295–326, 10.2475/ajs.276.4.480. quences, Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus: Journal of Petrol-
doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00002-X. Searle, M., and Cox, J., 1999, Tectonic setting, origin and ogy, v. 32, p. 403–428.
Polat, A., Kerrish, R., and Wyman, D.A., 1999, Geochemical obduction of the Oman ophiolite: Geological Society Umino, S., and Kushiro, I., 1989, Experimental studies
diversity in oceanic komatiites and basalts from the Late of America Bulletin, v. 111, p. 104–122, doi: 10.1130/ on boninite petrogenesis, in Crawford, A.J., ed.,
Archean Wawa greenstone belts, Superior Province, 0016-7606(1999)111<0104:TSOAOO>2.3.CO;2. Boninites and Related Rocks: London, Unwin Hyman,
Canada: Trace element and Nd isotope evidence for a Seyfried, W.E., and Mottl, M., 1982, Hydrothermal altera- p. 89–111.
heterogeneous mantle: Precambrian Research, v. 94, tion of basalt by seawater under seawater-dominated van Staal, C.R., Whalen, J.B., Valverde-Vaquero, P., Zago-
p. 139–173, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(98)00110-7. conditions: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 46, revski, A., and Rogers, N., 2009, Pre-Carboniferous,
Polat, A., Hofmann, A.W., and Rosing, M., 2002, Boninite- p. 985–1002, doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(82)90054-0. episodic accretion-related, orogenesis along the Lau-
like volcanic rocks in the 3.7–3.8 Ga Isua greenstone Seyfried, W.E., Mottl, M., and Bischoff, J.L., 1978, Sea- rentian margin of the Northern Appalachians, in Mur-
belt, West Greenland: Geochemical evidence for water/basalt effects on the chemistry and mineralogy of phy, J.B., Keppie, J.D., and Hynes, A.J., eds., Ancient
intra-oceanic subduction zone processes in the Earth: spilites from the ocean floor: Nature, v. 275, p. 211–213, Orogens and Modern Analogues: Geological Society
Chemical Geology, v. 184, p. 231–254, doi: 10.1016/ doi: 10.1038/275211a0. of London Special Publication 327, p. 271–316.
S0009-2541(01)00363-1. Seyfried, W.E., Berndt, M.E., and Seewald, J.S., 1988, Hydro- Varfalvy, V., Hévert, R., Bédard, J.H., and Lafleche, M.R.,
Pubellier, M., Monnier, C., Maury, R., and Tamayo, R., thermal alteration processes at mid-ocean ridges: Con- 1997, Petrology and geochemistry of pyroxenite dykes
2004, Plate kinematics, origin and tectonic emplace- straints from diabase alteration experiments, hot-spring in upper mantle peridotites of the North Arm Mountain
ment of supra-subduction ophiolites in SE Asia: Tec- fluids and composition of the oceanic crust: Canadian Massif, Bay of Islands ophiolite, Newfoundland: Im-
tonophysics, v. 392, no. 1–4, p. 9–36, doi: 10.1016/ Mineralogist, v. 26, p. 787–804. plications for the genesis of boninitic and related mag-
j.tecto.2004.04.028. Shervais, J.W., 1982, Ti-V plots and the petrogenesis of mas: Canadian Mineralogist, v. 35, p. 543–570.
Rampone, E., Romairone, A., Abouchami, W., Piccardo, modern and ophiolite lavas: Earth and Planetary Science Vaughan, A.P.M., and Scarrow, J.H., 2003, Ophiolite obduc-
G.B., and Hofmann, A.W., 2005, Chronology, petrol- Letters, v. 59, p. 101–118, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X tion pulses as a proxy indicator of superplume events?:
ogy, and isotope geochemistry of the Erro-Tobbio (82)90120-0. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 213, p. 407–
peridotites (Ligurian Alps, Italy): Records of late Shervais, J.W., 2001, Birth, death, and resurrection: The life 416, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00330-3.
Palaeozoic lithospheric extension: Journal of Petrol- cycle of suprasubduction zone ophiolites: Geochem- Vuagnat, M., 1964, Remarques sur la trilogie serpentinites-
ogy, v. 46, p. 799–827, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egi001. istry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 2, paper number gabbros-diabases dans le bassin de le Méditerranée
Rautenschlein, M., Jenner, G.A., Hertogen, J., Hofmann, 2000GC000080. occidentale: Geologische Rundschau, v. 53, p. 336–
A.W., Kerrich, R., Schmincke, H.-U., and White, Spadea, P., and D’Antonio, M., 2006, Initiation and evolution 358, doi: 10.1007/BF02040755.
W.M., 1985, Isotopic and trace element composition of intra-oceanic subduction in the Uralides: Geochemi- Wakabayashi, J., 1999, Subduction and the rock record:
of volcanic glasses from Akaki canyon, Cyprus: Im- cal and isotopic constraints from Devonian oceanic Concepts developed in the Franciscan Complex, Cali-
plications for the origin of Troodos ophiolite: Earth rocks of the Southern Urals, Russia: The Island Arc, fornia, in Moores, E.M., Sloan, D., and Stout, D.L.,
and Planetary Science Letters, v. 75, p. 369–383, doi: v. 15, p. 7–25, doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1738.2006.00514.x. eds., Classic Cordilleran Concepts: A View from Cali-
10.1016/0012-821X(85)90180-3. Staudigel, H., and Hart, R., 1983, Alteration of basaltic fornia: Geological Society of America Special Paper
Reagan, M.K., Ishizuka, O., Stern, R.J., Kelley, K.A., Ohara, glass: Mechanism and significance for the oceanic 338, p. 123–133.
Y., Blichert-Toft, J., Bloomer, S.H., Cash, J., Fryer, P., crust-seawater budget: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Wakabayashi, J., and Dilek, Y., 2003, What constitutes
Hanan, B.B., Hickey-Vargas, R., Ishii, T., Kimura, Acta, v. 47, p. 337–350, doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(83) “emplacement” of an ophiolite?: Mechanisms and
J.-I., Peate, D.W., Rowe, M.C., and Woods, M., 2010, 90257-0. relationship to subduction initiation and formation of
Fore-arc basalts and subduction initiation in the Izu- Steinmann, G., 1913, Über Tiefenabsätze des Oberjura im metamorphic soles, in Dilek, Y. and Robinson, P.T.,
Bonin-Mariana system: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Apennin: Geologische Rundschau, v. 4, p. 572–575, eds., Ophiolites in Earth History: Geological Society
Geosystems, v. 11, no. 3, doi: 10.1029/2009GC002871. doi: 10.1007/BF01776526. of London Special Publication 218, p. 427–448.
Ring, U., 2008, Deformation and exhumation at convergent Steinmann, G., 1927. Die ophiolitischen Zonen in den Windley, B.F., Kröner, A., Guo, J., Qu, G., Li, Y., and Zhang,
margins: The Franciscan subduction complex: Geo- Mediterranean Kettengebirgen: Compte Rendu, XIVe C., 2002, Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic geology of the
logical Society of America Special Paper 445, p. 1–61. Congres Géologique International, 1926, Madrid, Altai orogen, NW China: New zircon age data and
Robinson, P.T., Malpas, J., and Xenophontos, C., 2003, The Graficas Reunidas, v. 2, p. 637–667. tectonic evolution: The Journal of Geology, v. 110,
Troodos massif of Cyprus: Its role in the evolution of Stern, C., and de Wit, M.J., 2003, Rocas Verdes ophiolites, p. 719–737, doi: 10.1086/342866.
the ophiolite concept, in Dilek, Y., and Newcomb, S., southernmost South America: Remnants of progres- Xiao, W., Windley, B.F., Badarch, G., Sun, S., Li, J., Qin, K.,
eds., Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geologi- sive stages of development of oceanic-type crust in and Wang, Z., 2004, Palaeozoic accretionary and con-
cal Thought: Geological Society of America Special a continental margin back-arc basin, in Dilek, Y. and vergent tectonics of the southern Altaids: Implications
Paper 373, p. 295–308. Robinson, P.T., eds., Ophiolites in Earth History: Geo- for the growth of Central Asia: Journal of the Geologi-
Robinson, P.T., Malpas, J., Dilek, Y., and Zhou, M.-F., 2008, logical Society of London Special Publication 218, cal Society of London, v. 161, p. 339–342.
The significance of sheeted dike complexes in ophio- p. 665–683. Xiao, W., Huang, B., Han, C., Sun, S., and Li, J., 2010, A
lites: GSA Today, v. 18, no. 11, p. 4–10, doi: 10.1130/ Stern, R.J., and Bloomer, S.H., 1992, Subduction zone in- review of the western part of the Altaids: A key to un-
GSATG22A.1. fancy: Examples from the Eocene Izu-Bonin-Mariana derstanding the architecture of accretionary orogens:
Rosing, M.T., Rose, N.M., Bridgwater, D., and Thomsen, and Jurassic California arcs: Geological Society of Gondwana Research, v. 18, p. 253–273, doi: 10.1016/
H.S., 1996, Earliest part of Earth’s stratigraphic record: America Bulletin, v. 104, p. 1621–1636, doi: 10.1130/ j.gr.2010.01.007.
A reappraisal of the >3.7 Ga Isua (Greenland) supra- 0016-7606(1992)104<1621:SZIEFT>2.3.CO;2. Yale, L.B., and Carpenter, S.J., 1998, Large igneous prov-
crustal sequence: Geology, v. 24, no. 1, p. 43–46, doi: Stern, R.J., Bloomer, S.H., Lin, P.-N., and Smoot, N.C., 1989, inces and giant dike swarms: Proxies for supercon-
10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0043:EPOESS>2.3.CO;2. Submarine arc volcanism in the southern Mariana Arc tinent cyclicity and mantle convection: Earth and
Rubin, K.H., and Sinton, J.M., 2007, Inferences on mid-ocean as an ophiolite analogue: Tectonophysics, v. 168, Planetary Science Letters, v. 163, p. 109–122, doi:
ridge thermal and magmatic structure from MORB p. 151–170, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(89)90374-0. 10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00179-4.
compositions: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Tatsumi, Y., Shukuno, H., Tani, K., Takahashi, N., Kodaira,
v. 260, p. 257–276, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.05.035. S., and Kogiso, T., 2008, Structure and growth of the SCIENCE EDITOR: B. MURPHY
Saunders, A.D., and Tarney, J., 1984, Geochemical charac- Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc crust: 2. Role of crust-mantle
teristics of basaltic volcanism within back-arc basins, transformation and the transparent Moho in arc crust
ASSOCIATE EDITOR: J. BÉDARD
in Kokelaar, B.P., and Howells, M.F., eds., Marginal evolution: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 113,
Basin Geology: Volcanic and Associated Sedimentary doi: 10.1029/2007JB005121.
and Tectonic Processes in Modern And Ancient Mar- Teagle, D.A.H., and Alt, J.C., 2004, Hydrothermal altera- MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 15 NOVEMBER 2010
ginal Basins: Geological Society of London Special tion of basalts beneath the Bent Hill massive sulfide REVISED MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 14 DECEMBER 2010
Publication 16, p. 59–76. deposit, Middle Valley, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Economic MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED 15 DECEMBER 2010
Saunders, A.D., Tarney, J., Stern, C.R., and Dalziel, I.W.D., Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic
1979, Geochemistry of Mesozoic basin floor igne- Geologists, v. 99, p. 561–584, doi: 10.2113/99.3.561. Printed in the USA

Ophiolite Genesis and Global Tectonics - Geochemical

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ophiolite Genesis and Global Tectonics - Geochemical

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ophiolite Genesis and Global Tectonics - Geochemical

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.

org on January 6, 2013

Geological Society of America Bulletin

Ophiolite genesis and global tectonics: Geochemical and tectonic

Geological Society of America Bulletin 2011;123, no. 3-4;387-411

© 2011 Geological Society of America

INVITED REVIEW ARTICLE

Yildirim Dilek1,† and Harald Furnes2

For permission to copy, contact [email protected]

Indonesian belt (Cenozoic)

388 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 389

390 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Central Asian ophiolites

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 391

TABLE 1. REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MAIN OPHIOLITE TYPES, THEIR GEOGRAPHIC

392 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

TABLE 1. REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MAIN OPHIOLITE TYPES, THEIR GEOGRAPHIC

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 393

Suprasubduction zone SSZ

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 395

Figure 3. Bowen diagrams show-

396 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Volc. arc (IAT-bon)

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 397

A. Subduction-unrelated than magmas generated from primitive mantle.

thermal structure beneath the spreading axis con-

Fig. 7A2). Intermediate-spreading oceanic crust

398 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 399

400 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

A1 Subduction - unrelated ocean crust B1 Subduction - related ocean crust

Mid-ocean ridge (MOR) type

V olcanic arc (VA) type

Plume (P) type 300°C fluid flow

A3 CM - MOR - P types B3 SSZ - VA types

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 401

402 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

404 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

2.5 Wawa greenstone

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 405

406 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

A. Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga)

B. Wawa, Canada (2.7 Ga)

C. Jormua, Finland (1.95 Ga)

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 407

Polat et al. (1999); Jormua, 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

408 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 409

410 Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011

Geological Society of America Bulletin, March/April 2011 411

You might also like