Article

Smart Crop Cultivation System Using Automated Agriculture

Monitoring Environment in the Context of
Bangladesh Agriculture
Md. Bayazid Rahman 1, Joy Dhon Chakma 1,*, Abdul Momin 2, Shahidul Islam 3, Md Ashraf Uddin 4
Md Aminul Islam 5 and Sunil Aryal 4

1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology,

Notre Dame University Bangladesh, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; [email protected]
2 Agricultural Engineering Technology, School of Agriculture, Tennessee Tech University, Cookeville, TN

38505, USA; [email protected]

3 Department of Agriculture, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Pine Bluff, AR 71601, USA;

[email protected]
4 School of Information Technology, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia;

[email protected] (M.A.U.); [email protected] (S.A.)

5 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh;

[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) is a transformative technology that is reshaping industries
and daily life, leading us towards a connected future that is full of possibilities and innovations. In
this paper, we present a robust framework for the application of Internet of Things (IoT) technology
in the agricultural sector in Bangladesh. The framework encompasses the integration of IoT, data
mining techniques, and cloud monitoring systems to enhance productivity, improve water manage-
ment, and provide real-time crop forecasting. We conducted rigorous experimentation on the frame-
work. We achieve an accuracy of 87.38% for the proposed model in predicting data harvest. Our
Citation: Rahman, M.B.;
Chakma, J.D.; Momin, A.; Islam, S.;
findings highlight the effectiveness and transparency of the framework, underscoring the signifi-
Uddin, M.A.; Islam, M.A.; Aryal, S. cant potential of the IoT in transforming agriculture and empowering farmers with data-driven de-
Smart Crop Cultivation System cision-making capabilities. The proposed framework might be very impactful in real-life agricul-
Using Automated Agriculture ture, especially for monsoon agriculture-based countries like Bangladesh.
Monitoring Environments in the
Context of Bangladesh Agriculture. Keywords: crop yield prediction; smart agriculture; decision tree classifier; crop monitoring;
Sensors 2023, 23, x. irrigation control
https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx

Academic Editor(s): Ivan Andonovic

Received: 20 June 2023

1. Introduction
Revised: 6 August 2023
Accepted: 15 August 2023 Bangladesh is called an agriculture-based country, and its economy mainly depends
Published: date on crops such as grains, vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, and tubers. About 50% of the popu-
lation of Bangladesh primarily depends on this agriculture-based sector, and more than
70% of the land is suitable for agricultural use [1]. Farmers often grow rice, jute, wheat,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
tea, legumes, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits in this country. The soil in Bangladesh is
Submitted for possible open access
ideal for growing a wide variety of crops. Although agriculture significantly contributes
publication under the terms and to Bangladesh’s economy, crop yields remain uncertain, and farmers have yet to fully
conditions of the Creative Commons commercialize their cultivated products due to their reliance on traditional methods.
Attribution (CC BY) license Bangladesh has a total land area of 14,570 km2, and 60% of this land is arable [2]. However,
(https://creativecommons.org/license with the population increasing at a rate of 1.37 percent per year, the amount of arable land
s/by/4.0/). is decreasing daily. Unchecked urbanization, industrialization, and human activity are
causing agricultural areas to disappear gradually. Nations with economies reliant on ag-

Sensors 2023, 23, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23

riculture should embrace modern technologies to enhance crop productivity and imple-
ment sustainable farming practices. Strengthening agricultural production systems is vital
to increasing income and ensuring food and nutrition security in underdeveloped nations
[3]. Bangladesh’s government has recently undertaken an initiative to embrace the IoT’s
fourth industrial revolution in the agriculture sector under its a2i program. A recent study
[4] suggests that the adoption of the fourth industrial IoT might potentially improve irri-
gation efficiency by up to 50% by the year 2030 [4].
IoT technologies are widely used in the agriculture sector in many developed coun-
tries to increase production and meet the demand for food supply in the market. IoT in
agriculture can reduce production costs and time by providing precision agriculture.
Farmers very often encounter financial losses resulting from unforeseen natural ca-
lamities. However, with access to advanced weather forecasts through IoT technology,
they might be able to avoid or mitigate these losses to a certain extent. By incorporating
IoT solutions, farmers can receive real-time weather forecasts and remotely monitor their
agricultural operations, which enables them to make informed decisions accordingly.
Similarly, our proposed framework can empower farmers to visualize sensor data, control
irrigation pumps, and optimize plant and water management practices for improved
productivity and resource efficiency. Many state-of-the-art projects combining IoT and
data mining techniques in the agriculture sector have been carried out to develop smart
agriculture infrastructure [5]. The application of IoT in agriculture has brought great rev-
olutionary changes to the agricultural environment by addressing multiple challenges
and examining different complexities [6]. Our research targets the adoption of an IoT
monitoring system for farmers to solve problems such as water crises, cost management,
and productivity issues [6,7].
However, advanced technology is usually, but not always, beneficial to humans.
There needs to be careful research on how to develop green technology for the survival of
humanity and the animal kingdom. We need to avoid developing destructive technology
that endangers people and the earth itself. Considering this issue, we developed an envi-
ronmentally friendly monitoring system that helps the farmer provide information about
the source and characteristics of the grain or product. In this system, we obtained data for
predicting crops’ transplanting and harvesting times from wireless sensors consisting of
IoT devices. This system facilitates monitoring and controlling the water supply on the
land automatically.
Our main contributions to the paper are as follows:
I. To the best of our knowledge, our work represents one of the first frameworks in-
cluding IoT and cloud monitoring systems in a monsoon climate, such as that found
in Bangladesh. Through our system framework, multiple forecasts can be made avail-
able to the farmers by evaluating the cloud-based data;
II. We propose two algorithms, where one, describes the procedure of collecting data
from sensors through our microcontroller and sending it to the cloud system, and the
other is designed to forecast crop planting and harvesting times with duration. Our
database system is developed as a web-based application to enable easy interaction
for end users, particularly farmers, with our proposed system. The stored data serves
as a valuable resource for automated decision-making in crop cultivation, particu-
larly in water control measures.
By integrating web applications, our system can facilitate the evaluation of data from
IoT devices in Bangladesh, providing farmers with clear insights into IoT device perfor-
mance. While Bangladesh’s environment and agricultural products might be unique,
neighboring Southeast Asian countries such as Bhutan, Nepal, India, and Myanmar can
adopt our suggested approach using their statistics. Moreover, with minor adjustments,
our flexible framework can be implemented in agriculture in any country.
Subsequent sections of this paper are arranged as follows: Section 2 explains the back-
ground. Section 3 discusses methodology, system design, and overview and presents how
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

the system has been implemented. This section also has two algorithms: (I) crop data gen-
eration and (II) harvesting and transplanting time forecasting. Section 4 reports all re-
search and analysis of result data by data mining focused on crop cultivation. Section 5
presents our discussion and future work on our research, and finally, we summarize the
conclusions in Section 5.

2. Related Work
Fan et al. [8] proposed a system framework for establishing an intelligent agriculture
platform using big data analysis and IoT sensor data via cloud technology. Andreas et al.
[9] provide a thorough review of big data analysis in agriculture, analyzing thirty-four
research papers to identify the current applications, challenges, and potential solutions.
Their work highlighted the increasing availability of big data sources, tools, and tech-
niques that can drive innovation and research for smarter farming practices, ultimately
contributing to sustainable agriculture and higher-quality food production. A system
structure was developed in the article [10] to improve the combination of big data and
artificial intelligence in agriculture, where data from IoT sensors was received and stored
in the cloud to monitor the farm. They created a control system based on data manage-
ment and node sensors in crop fields for smartphones and online applications. In the ar-
ticle [11], a system framework was created and built. The framework consisted of three
components: a control box, a web application, and a mobile application. Their method
was put in place to regulate crop irrigation and govern agricultural plots. The solenoid
valve switching procedure by the farmer is controlled by a smartphone app. A survey of
the literature was centered on studies and analyses of the application of IoT in modern
farming [12]. Their research and analysis showed how China can reduce human effort in
agriculture by relying on IoT technology. They presented some categories by analyzing
agricultural system development. By explaining the architecture and applications of cloud
technologies, the researchers in [13] focused on the importance of using IoT and cloud
computing in the agricultural sector. This layered architecture, in conjunction with Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, is used to automate planting and production.
Doshi et al. [14] proposed an IoT technology that generates messages from their applica-
tions to instruct farmers to suggest smart farming.
As surveyed in the scientific article [15], IoT has been used in a variety of investiga-
tions in recent years. They reviewed modern farm technology and explored a variety of
live monitoring systems for IoT-based applications and wireless sensor networks. They
also discussed well-known technologies that are continually pushing the IoT to improve.
They also listed some of the obstacles we may face when working in agriculture with IoT,
including hardware constraints, networking challenges, technical concerns, resource op-
timization, and mobility. This systematic review [16] delves into the integration of cutting-
edge technologies like predictive modeling algorithms, deep-learning-based sensing, and
big urban data in shaping immersive digital twin cities. By analyzing the recent literature,
the paper establishes the significance of virtual simulation tools, spatial cognition algo-
rithms, and multi-sensor fusion technology in developing sustainable urban governance
networks and data-driven smart city environments. The study provides valuable insights
into the role of the Internet of Things, digital twin modeling, and intelligent sensing de-
vices in building smarter and more connected urban infrastructures. The work proposed
by Nandan et al. [17] provides a literature review by illustrating how climate change af-
fects the agriculture and food security of the Barisal district in Bangladesh. Here, they
discussed the environmental condition of the Barisal district and the impact of rainfall,
drought, waterlogging, thunderstorms, excessive fog, and climate change on agriculture
production. The authors of [18] presented constructive research on the overall status of
technology-dependent agriculture in Bangladesh. A quality-aware autonomous infor-
mation system for agriculture services based on agriculture-related data was developed
in the article [19]. A literature review on the role of Internet of Things technologies in
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

agriculture that explored the varied effects of IoT in agriculture, the benefits and draw-
backs of IoT devices, and the application layer required for farming in current technology
was introduced in article [20]. The authors of [21] suggested a smart agriculture system
design that enhanced a smart farming system for effective management and control of
agricultural greenhouses through IoT and data mining technology to increase production
in agriculture. They employed IoT technology to collect a large amount of environmental
information from grain greenhouses and used advanced algorithms to pick relatively fa-
vorable data as a clustering method for environmental reference data.
Thomas et al. [22] addressed the various systems, frameworks, and multiple sources
for smart farming. They emphasized the utilization of cloud computing and big data tech-
nology in the development of existing agricultural event systems. An alert system was
proposed in [23] that presents a system framework capable of controlling the amount of
water passing through IoT devices in agriculture. Said et al. [24] proposed a method to
determine the minimum amount of irrigation and the maximum amount of water used
on the plants through an intelligent irrigation plan. By keeping an eye on the water posi-
tion and irrigation schedule of the tomato crop in extremely dry climate conditions, this
approach sought to investigate the efficacy of the Intelligent Irrigation System (IIS) related
to Water Use Efficiency (WE) and Irrigation Water Use Efficiency (IWU) and determine
its viability.
The authors of [25] discussed a proposed framework that aims to balance energy ef-
ficiency and security in precision agriculture. The framework uses hashing as the only
form of advanced encryption, which adds an extra layer of security to the public channel.
Unlike existing management systems, this proposed method does not store public keys.
By allowing on-field sensors to not be directly connected to the sink node, the proposed
system provides significant residual energy savings. Compared to the current aggregation
strategy, the suggested scheme results in about 35% more alive nodes and 32% greater
retention of residual energy. The authors of [26] proposed a trust management approach
for ensuring the security of smart agriculture in the cloud-based Internet of Agriculture
Things (IoAT). The authors suggest that the integration of cloud computing with the IoAT
can significantly improve the efficiency of agriculture, but it also poses security challenges
such as data privacy, integrity, and authenticity. The AgriTrust approach (a trust manage-
ment mechanism that substitutes for conventional cryptography methods) consists of
three main components: a trust model, a trust evaluation mechanism, and a trust manage-
ment mechanism. The trust model defines the trustworthiness of entities in the IoAT, such
as devices, sensors, and cloud servers. The trust evaluation mechanism is used to evaluate
the trustworthiness of entities based on their past behavior and feedback from other enti-
ties. The authors of [27] propose an IoT-based WSN framework that provides an efficient
and secure solution for smart agriculture applications. The proposed scheme’s use of a
hierarchical architecture, data aggregation and compression techniques, and secure data
transfer protocols can significantly improve the efficiency and security of smart agricul-
ture applications. The proposed framework consists of three tiers: the sensor layer, the
intermediate layer, and the application layer. Additionally, they have proposed a secure
data transfer protocol that makes use of Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and the Ad-
vanced Encryption Standard (AES) to ensure the security of the data transmitted between
the sensor and the application layer.

3. The Proposed Framework

We have implemented our real-time cloud-based web and mobile applications inte-
grated with IoT sensors. We have also analyzed our previously collected agricultural data
using different data mining techniques.
Next, we have described IoT sensors for our real-time application, followed by a dis-
cussion about our analytical approach for previously collected raw data. Finally, we have
described the operations of our application for providing real-time decisions based on
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

analyzed data. Figure 1 shows an overview of our overall proposed approach. Figures 7
and 8 show the real-time cloud-based web and mobile application features.

Figure 1. Overview of our proposed system.

In many precision agriculture studies, algorithms are trained and tested using pub-
licly available datasets, which might not accurately represent real-world scenarios due to
varying soil and weather conditions across countries. To address this concern, we develop
our precision agriculture algorithms using a dataset collected from IoT devices deployed
in actual crop fields. This ensures a more realistic and relevant evaluation of our approach.
We present the detailed steps involved in our algorithms designed for precision in Algo-
rithms 1 and 2.
Commented [M1]: We moved Algorithm 1 after
Algorithm 1: Obtain data from DHT 11, the soil moisture sensor, and control irrigation first citation, please confirm.

Pseudo Code: Commented [J2R1]: We believe that placing these

Initialize global variables: algorithms in a chapter or two between "3.2.1.
Crop Data Generation" and "3.2.2. Harvesting and
soil_moisture_threshold (integer): threshold value for soil moisture level, set to an appropriate value (e.g., 50);
wifi_connected (boolean): flag to indicate if the WiFi connection is successful, initialized to false; Transplanting Time Forecasting"—or both—will

water_pump_status (boolean): flag to indicate the status of the water pump (ON/OFF), initialized to false; make them more accessible to readers and more

temperature (float): variable to store the temperature reading from the sensor, initialized to 0.0; representative. The arrangement of two

humidity (float): variable to store the humidity reading from the sensor, initialized to 0.0; algorithms would be ideal. We request that it be
amended moving forward and returned to its
Function wifi_setup():
rightful place.
implement WiFi connection setup through ssid, password;
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23

Function read_soil_moisture_sensor():
Initialize moisture (integer) to 0;
Implement reading data from the soil moisture sensor and store it in the ‘sms_data’ variable;
//sms = soil moisture sensor
Return sms_data.
Function read_temp_hum_sensor():
Initialize temperature and humidity (float) to 0.0.
Implement reading data from the temperature and humidity sensors and store them in the ‘temp_data’ and
‘hum_data’ variables.
Return (data is passed by reference).
Function control_water_pump (on: boolean):
Implement control of the water pump based on the ‘on’ parameter (turn on if ‘true’, turn off if ‘false’).
Return true if successful, false otherwise.
Function irrigation_control():
Call wifi_setup() to set up a WiFi connection.
Check if the WiFi connection is successful:
if true:
Call read_soil_moisture_sensor() to obtain soil moisture data.
Call read_temp_hum_sensor() to obtain temperature and humidity data.
Send data to the cloud.

Check if soil moisture is below the threshold:

if true:
Call control_water_pump (true) to turn on the water pump.
Set ‘water_pump_status’ to true.
else:
Call control_water_pump (false) to turn off the water pump.
Set ‘water_pump_status’ to false.
else:
Send status that Wifi not connected
Commented [M3]: We moved Algorithm 2 after
Call the ‘irrigation_control()’ function to start the irrigation control process.
first citation, please confirm.
End of the Algorithm.
Commented [J4R3]: We believe that placing these
algorithms in a chapter or two between "3.2.1.
Algorithm 2: Forecasting of crop harvesting, transplanting crops with duration, and crop analysis
Crop Data Generation" and "3.2.2. Harvesting and
Pseudo Code:
Transplanting Time Forecasting"—or both—will
Initialization make them more accessible to readers and more
Initialize the temperature, humidity, and moisture variables to 0; representative. The arrangement of two
Initialize the pump_status variable to “OFF”; algorithms would be ideal. We request that it be
Obtain the current month and store it in the current_month variable; amended moving forward and returned to its
rightful place.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

Function server_setup()
Connect to the server with the provided credentials (server_name, user_name, and password);
Function GetFieldData()
Fetch data from the Cloud URL for retrieving SensorData to the microcontroller;
Extract temperature, humidity, moisture, and pump_status data from the fetched data;
Function CropsData()
Call the “GetFieldData” function.
If the field data is retrieved successfully (not null):
Loop through each row in the field data;
Perform the necessary processing or analysis on the SensorData;
Output “SensorData” for each row (or perform specific actions based on the data);
If the field data is null, output “No result”;
Function CropAnalysisModule()
Check if the current month matches the month obtained from the “getCurrentMonth()” function and if the
temperature and moisture match the data obtained from the “CropsData” function;

If the conditions are met:

Perform a database query to retrieve training data records based on the current_month, temperature, and
moisture;

If the query result is not null:

Loop through each row in the query result;
Check if the current month, temperature, and moisture match the values in the query result;
Output “CropName, transplant_duration” and “CropName, harvest_duration” for matching data;
If the query result is null, output “No result”;
If the conditions are not met, output “No result”;
End of the Algorithm.

3.1. Design and Overview of the System

In this section, we demonstrate the functionalities of our system, which consists of
IoT devices, cloud databases, and websites or mobile apps. In this framework, we send
data from the farm to the web application or smart phone through the data management
controller named NodeMCU. An open-source electronic platform called NodeMCU is
built around the ESP8266 Wi-Fi system-on-chip (SoC) [28,29]. This enables the simple de-
velopment of Internet of Things (IoT) projects by coupling a microcontroller unit (MCU)
with integrated Wi-Fi capabilities. The design and implementation overview of this sys-
tem is divided into three components: hardware, web/mobile applications, and cloud da-
tabases, as shown in Figure 2.
Commented [M5]: Figure 12 is appear before
With reference to Figures 2 and 3, the initial component was created as a control box.
This control box transmits data from sensors and manages IoT devices. The control box Figures 4-11. Please ensure that the first citation of
includes an automated water pump regulator, a DHT 11 (Temperature and Humidity Sen- each figure appears in numerical order.
sor Device Model) sensor, a NodeMCU, and a soil moisture sensor. A program input is
provided to the NodeMCU through which we collect data from IoT sensors and send it Commented [J6R5]: Sometimes situational and
from the control box to the cloud database connected to the web and mobile applications. structural considerations have brought the figures
A real-time scenario of this control box setup is exhibited in Figure 12. to the fore. We request to keep it as it is.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

Figure 2. Overview of the system.

Figure 3. A block diagram of the circuit.

Then the second component is the web application http://smart-farming.com.bd/ (ac-

cessed on 8 January 2023) that is represented by Figures 2 and 4. Mobile applications also
have similar configurations as web applications. The mobile application was developed
by MIT App Inventor Web as a dummy mobile application that has not yet been published
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

anywhere. MIT App Inventor (https://appinventor.mit.edu/) is a web-based visual devel-

opment environment that allows users to create mobile applications for Android devices
without requiring extensive programming knowledge. It provides a graphical interface
where users can drag and drop components, define their behavior using blocks, and build
fully functional apps. The cloud database, which is the third and final component, is cru-
cial in maintaining the data gathered and organizing the data from the database on the
application. The node of the first component in Figure 2 sends the data from the
NodeMCU to the cloud through the API (Application Programming Interface) and stores
it in our third component’s cloud database. Farmers can check the old data and analyze
their own farmland to see what kind of crop can be produced.

Figure 4. An overview of web and mobile applications.

This whole system consists of seven parts, as shown in Figure 5, which are: (i) phys-
ical layer: in the physical layer, our physical devices like wireless sensors, solenoid bulbs,
relay modules, analog signal modules, and power sources exist; (ii) link layer: in the link
layer, we have used the Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) network as the coordinator sensor node,
which connects the devices of the encapsulation layer with the devices of the physical
layer; (iii) encapsulation layer: in this layer, we use a NodeMCU device that is able to
communicate with IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) in the network security system; (iv)
middleware layer: through this layer, we acquire the data taken from the agriculture land
and environment and send it to the configuration layer; (v) configuration layer: the con-
figuration layer basically collects and analyzes the raw acquired data and sends the data
to its destination in the configuration layer; (vi) management layer: This layer combines
previously acquired data with newly analyzed data, which gives results. On the basis of
that result, the prediction report and other information are managed; and (vii) application
layer: by presenting the data in an organized manner to the end user or farmers through
the application layer, the farmers today can decide what to do next.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23

Figure 5. An architectural overview of the system.

3.2. System Implementation

The proposed approach transmits temperature and humidity information using
DHT11 and soil moisture sensor devices to the cloud database via a web or mobile appli-
cation using a microcontroller named NodeMCU integrated with an ESP 8266 module.
We utilized a NodeMCU that uses a lot less electricity. The NodeMCU web server also
uses 60% less power with a latency of 1 ms [30]. Additionally, the remaining sensors and
equipment employed in the physical layer are extremely energy-efficient. They do not
consume a lot of electricity. The solenoid valve or irrigation pump is automatically turned
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23

on and off depending on the soil moisture sensor data. Additionally, this on-off status is
immediately sent to our application by NodeMCU. If the amount of water in the soil de-
creases, then the solenoid valve opens automatically, and if the amount of water in the
soil becomes balanced according to the program set in the microcontroller NodeMCU,
then the solenoid valve automatically shuts off. The application automatically analyzes
the data from the cloud database and provides monthly crop harvesting and planting in-
formation. In the context of Bangladesh, according to our study, almost all the crops have
a planting time of about 3 months [31]. This mobile or web application has crop calendars
[32] so that the farmers can know about their crop planting, lifting, fertilizer application,
and water quantity properly. At present, about 33 types of crop data have been collected
in our cloud database. A few of the top scientific publications included in Table 1 are con-
trasted with some of the features included in our proposed system for farmers.

Table 1. Comparison of our system framework features with other published research papers.

Our Proposed S. Wolfert, L. Muangprathub, Jash Doshi,

Liu, Shubo et al.
Feature System Ge et al. [10] Jirapond et al. [11] Tirthkumar Patel
[12] Article
Framework Article Article et al. [13] Article
Web application Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Mobile application Yes No Yes Yes No
Real-time data collection Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Real-time weather forecast Yes No No No No
Weekly (5 days) weather
Yes No No No No
forecast
Intelligent live system
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
monitoring
Real-time data management Yes No Yes No Yes
Crop data management Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Manual data analysis Yes No No No Yes
Live crop transplanting
Yes No No No No
prediction on a month basis
Live crop harvesting
prediction on a monthly Yes No No No No
basis
Crop transplanting to
harvest time: an informative Yes No No No No
calendar

3.2.1. Crop Data Generation

We collect sensor data from IoT sensor devices through the ESP8266 NodeMCU and
send it to the cloud, as shown in Algorithm 1. We set up an internet connection through
wireless technology using the wifi_setup() module. To do this, it is essential to know the
Service Set Identifier (SSID) and Password of the wireless router to connect the cloud appli-
cation with the NodeMCU microcontroller. The read_soil_moisture_sensor() function and
the read_temp_hum_sensor() function collect soil moisture, temperature, and humidity
data and send them to the cloud. The irrigation_control() functions mainly work to ensure
the correct amount of water. This basically ensures the amount of water is precisely con-
trolled through irrigation bulbs or water pumps if the amount of moisture in the soil is
low. This function is conditioned in such a way that if the sms_data obtains less moisture
in the soil, it will automatically release water from the water pump, and if the moisture
level is at the correct level, then the water pump will automatically stop.
The algorithm aims to maintain optimal soil moisture for enhanced crop yield. This
is intelligently set based on soil moisture levels and weather conditions. Our algorithm
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

aids in conserving water resources by intelligently adjusting irrigation in the crop field.
The algorithm combines advanced sensing technology with intelligent water control tech-
niques, making it a promising solution for precision agriculture. Our algorithm can po-
tentially address water scarcity challenges and enhance agricultural productivity.

3.2.2. Harvesting and Transplanting Time Forecasting

In our Algorithm 2, we take the data from the physical device sensors, present the
real-time data to the farmers, compare the real-time data with the already collected train-
ing data (examined by data mining), and present the analysis to the farmers by dividing
the crop planting and harvesting data into two parts. The server_setup() function is im-
plemented for cloud server connections. Gate_field_data() and cross_data() functions col-
lect data from physical devices and show real-time data to farmers. The crop_analysis()
module shows farmers a real-time forecast of what crops can be planted and harvested in
the current month and by when. By comparing our already collected crop data with the
data we are obtaining in real time, the output is shown to the farmers.
With the Crop_Analysis_Module, the farmer himself will be able to know the time of
transplanting and harvesting by analyzing the algorithm with the month, temperature,
and humidity as input.
Unlike traditional methods, which rely on simple data processing, this algorithm lev-
erages historical crop data and machine-learning models to enable data-driven decision-
making and achieve more accurate and efficient crop analysis. After pre-processing data
from sensors with trained models, the algorithm offers insights into crop health, growth
anomalies, and optimal crop management strategies. This innovative approach represents
a significant advancement in the field of precision agriculture, enabling farmers to make
informed decisions that maximize yields and resource utilization while reducing environ-
mental impact.

3.2.3. Data Analysis

This subsection demonstrates how we have performed the work of data analysis.
Figure 6 shows the processing steps of data analysis.

Figure 6. Flowchart of the data analysis step.

Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23

Figure 7. A cloud application that presents district-based (1) daily real-time weather, (2) weather
forecasts up to 5 days, (3) farmers own profiles, and (4) real monitoring field data.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

Figure 8. (1,2) real-time crop forecasts on planting and harvesting, (3) analyzing crop transplant and
harvest time by inputting real-time data, (4) farmers can save their crop information, and (5) gath-
ering knowledge from the crop calendar [32].
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

I. Pre-processing
The quality of the data determines the quality of the knowledge; hence, this is a cru-
cial phase in the knowledge discovery process. Since the data for temperature and humid-
ity are numerically large and the data for each row is different, we normalize them by the
following formula [33]:
(𝑋−𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑋𝑛𝑒𝑤 =
(𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
, (1)

where X = the collection of observed values found in X, Xmin = the minimum value in X, and Xmax
= the highest value in X.
II. Clustering
The process of grouping abstract items into several categories is called clustering.
When N items are divided into a number of clusters using K-Means clustering, each object
is a part of the cluster that is closest to the cluster’s centroid. This method highlights the
maximum possible differences between the different k clusters.
After normalization, we go to the second step and run the dataset using the K-Means
cluster algorithm. In our experiments, we have used k values from 1 to 9 empirically to
find out the closet centroid using elbow methods. The following step with the selected
cluster k will be taken after extracting the value of each centroid using formula (ii) to de-
termine the value of the most ideal k value using the elbow method and our class attribute.
The Sum of Squared Error (SOSE) in Equation (2) and Incorrectly Clustered Instances (ICI)
in Equation (3) of each cluster were covered in Section 4.4 (Data curation and result).
The Sum of Squared Error (SOSE) is expressed as:
̃𝑗 )2 ;
𝑆𝑂𝑆𝐸 = ∑𝑗 ∑𝑖 (𝑌𝑖𝑗 − 𝑌 (2)
where Y represents the observed values, 𝑌̌ represents the predicted values, and this is the mean of
the values of Y.
To identify incorrectly clustered instances using K-Means, it can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑖 < 𝑑𝑗 , for 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑗 ≠ 𝑖; (3)
where dj is the distance between a data point and its assigned centroid and is greater than or equal
to 𝑑𝑖 , or if the distance between a data point and the centroid of another cluster is greater than or
equal to 𝑑𝑗 , then the data point is deemed to be erroneously clustered.
The K-Means cluster formula is given in Equation (4) [34–36]:
𝑗
𝐽 = ∑𝑘𝑗=1 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ∥ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑗 ∥2 ; (4)
where J = the objective K-Means cluster function, n = the number of instances, k = the number of
𝑗
clusters, and ||𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑗 ||2 = the Euclidian distance function.

4. Experimental Setup and Result Discussion

4.1. Datasets
Based on crop transplantation data from the yearbook of Agriculture Statistics Bang-
ladesh 2020 [31], we have collected a total of 241 instances of harvesting time data, temper-
ature data, and crop transplanting time data and fed them into training to build our
model. After then, we gathered information about the crop season based on information
about the time of crop transplanting from the Bangladesh Crop Season Article [37]. “Sea-
son” attribute is maintained as a class feature or attribute in our dataset, which includes a
total of 10 features. The data is then pre-processed and assembled into a comprehensive
data collection. This dataset includes data on 48 crops from the Kharif-II season, 22 crops
from the Rabi season, and 33 crops from the Kharif-I season. Kharif (mid-November to
mid-March) and Robi (mid-November to mid-March) are the two distinct monsoon agri-
cultural seasons in Bangladesh. Kharif-I (mid-March to mid-July) and Kharif-II (mid-Au-
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

gust to mid-October) are further divisions of the Kharif season (mid-July to mid-Novem-
ber). Winter vegetables, wheat, potatoes, legumes, oilseeds, and boro rice are among the
rabi crops. Summer vegetables, jute, Aus and Aman rice, and other crops are typical of
the Kharif season. This collection contains information on a total of 103 distinct Bangla-
deshi crops. Our datasets are available through the cloud-based Mendeley Data repository
[38].

4.2. Real-Time Data Acquisition Module

In our implementation, both web applications and mobile applications work in the
same way, which will make the user feel comfortable. To make it more user-friendly, we
have multilingual support, namely Bengali and English language interfaces, and a voice-
over command option. Our work is available on the cloud as a website.

4.3. Real-Time Forecasting

These elements allow the user to easily update and analyze farmers’ land infor-
mation. With these components, they will be able to check, update, and analyze real-time
data and previous records. Through this web and mobile application, they will obtain
accurate instructions on which crops can be planted and harvested in which month. Via
our technology, farmers will also be able to examine real-time information about their
fields, including the temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and operation of the automatic
irrigation pump.

4.4. Data Curation and Results

We ascertain the Sum of Squared Error (SOSE) and Incorrectly Clustered Instances
(ICI) of each cluster. Table 2 shows the result of the Sum of Squared Error (SOSE) and
incorrectly clustered instances (ICI) for each cluster.

Table 2. SOSE and ICI results for each cluster.

Cluster
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Cluster 7 Cluster 8 Cluster 9
Number
SOSE 429.81 411.61 386.19 354.58 330.87 322.56 314.86 300.43 296.14
ICI 56 49 54 65 68 72 74 77 80

A graphical representation of SOSE and ISI for each cluster is shown in Figure 9a,b.
From Figure 9a, it can be seen that the SOSE of each cluster from cluster 3 to 6 is between
300 and 390. On the other hand, in the ICI of Figure 9b for each cluster, a sharp increase is
visualized from cluster 3 to 4, followed by a steady increment. Additionally, since we are
working on the dataset based on the season, we also have three common attributes for the
season, which are Kharif-I, Robi, and Kharif-II. Therefore, we decide to keep k = 3 as our
clustering parameter for our dataset.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

Figure 9. (a) Line chart of the SOSE of each cluster. (b) Clustered column chart of the ICI of each
cluster.

4.5. Data Modeling

From the prepared information, knowledge is derived at this stage. Data modeling
and discovery typically employ clever techniques to find patterns in the data. Classifica-
tion, grouping, relationships, and other analysis techniques are available. To verify the
correctness of the data, we run the clustered dataset through the Decision Tree (DT), Naive
Bayes (NB), Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) classification
algorithms. We have used K-fold cross-validation [39,40] with the parameter K = 15. Fig-
ure 10 shows the graphical representation of correctly classified instances by DT, NB,
MLP, and KNN classifiers.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

88
86
Correctly Classified instances

84
82
80
78
76
74
Decesion Naïve Multilayer KNN
Tree Bayes Perceptro
n
Correctly Classified
87.3786 79.6117 86.4078 79.6117
instances (%)

Figure 10. Accuracy comparison of DT, NB, MLP, and KNN classifiers.

From Figure 10, we can observe that the output of the correctly classified instance of
the DT classifier is higher than that of other classifiers. So, we use the DT classifier on our
cluster dataset for the final analysis. The results of our final correctly classified accuracy
analysis are 87.3786%, as shown in Table 3 and Figure 11, through detailed accuracy by
class and a confusion matrix of 103 instances. Precision measures the certainty of positive
predictions. A value close to high (1) is considered a good precision score. Since the value
of precision in Table 3 is almost close to one, we can conclude that our dataset has a good
precision score. Similarly, as the recall score and F-measure score mentioned in Table 3
are close to high (1), we consider that the score of our dataset is very good.

Table 3. Details of performance measurement matrices.

TP Rate FP Rate Precision Recall F-Measure ROC Area Class

0.971 0.087 0.846 0.971 0.904 0.974 Kharif 1
0.727 0.062 0.762 0.727 0.744 0.922 Rabi
0.894 0.018 0.977 0.894 0.933 0.971 Kharif 2
TP Rate = True Positive Rate, FP Rate = False Positive Rate, F-Measure = F1 Score or F Score, ROC
Area = Receiver Operating Characteristic Area.

4.6. Empirical Setup

This subsection discusses a practical consensus on how our work can be used in ag-
riculture in the agricultural region of Bangladesh. If we consider Figures 12 and 13 as a
test area, we can see how we have applied IoT technology and how we are sending data
to the application through that IoT technology. As we can see in Figures 12 and 13, there
is a control box with a Wi-Fi sensor connected to the NodeMCU, and with that control
box, there are multiple wireless sensor networks, such as temperature, humidity, and soil
moisture sensors, installed on agricultural land.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure 11. Accuracy results of DT classifiers.

Figure 12. Real-time situation of a test area with a real example.

Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23

Figure 13. Real-time situation of a test area as a cartoon vector illustration.

The NodeMCU is also connected to a water pump. The data from all these wireless
sensors and the status of the water pump are sent to our cloud database via the NodeMCU
API of the control box. The real-time data is shown to the farmers via the application from
the cloud database. We selected a test area as a testbed that is 42.75 square feet in size
(length 9.5 feet and width 4.5 feet) so that our structure may be used experimentally. We
set up various sensors on the ground in this test area along with the control box, the spe-
cifics of which are displayed in Table 4. We transplanted 16 to 17 eggplant seedlings in
our testbed and took the experimental data. Our testbed soil is a non-calcareous, dark gray
floodplain soil. We experimentally collected 15 days of real-time data from the testbed in
August and September 2020. When a vast region is involved, the parameters listed in Ta-
ble 4 can be expanded by mesh connections. However, caution must be exercised to pre-
vent rain and extremely hot or cold weather from harming the gadgets.

Table 4. Deployment parameters.

Parameters Units Remarks

10 GPIO, every GPIO can be PWM with LUA
NodeMCU 01
Script
Relay Module 02 5 V DC
Solenoid Bulb 02 12 V
Probe Analog Signal 01
DHT 11 01 3.3 V to 5 V
Sensing Probe 06 LM393 with 3.3 V to 5 V
Power Unit 01 01 3.3 V to 5 V
Power Unit 02 02 12 V
Wooden Box (Control Box) 01 11.5 inch * 5.5 inch
Wire with male-female plug 01 H 2.54 mm

5. Discussion and Future Work

Our system framework is fundamentally centered around IoT, with IoT-enabled de-
vices playing a crucial role in every aspect of our research work. Our proposed framework
has been designed for farmers, and many useful features have been included. In addition,
data analysis has been performed in a specific pattern through data mining techniques to
make accurate predictions for farmers to plant and harvest crops by automatically ana-
lyzing the data. As a result, farmers can easily visualize the sensor data, make better use
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 23

of plant management, and avoid wastage of both time and water due to automatic water
management. Farmers will also receive daily and weekly weather forecasts based on the
location of their agricultural land. As a result, by being vigilant in advance, the farmer can
establish an appropriate strategy for harvesting the crop. Our application has a crop cal-
endar with accurate information on 30 to 33 species of crops, detailing what farmers can
do to plant, produce, harvest, and much more. As a result, they can use this calendar to
work on planting or any other crop-related information without having to wait for the
agricultural officer. The ability for farmers to save details about their planted crops in our
program is one of the most intriguing aspects. As a result, the farmer will be informed
automatically by our system during harvesting the crop. Basically, several physical layer
properties and associated layer features have been covered in the proposed section of our
research effort. Additionally, we demonstrate our proposed framework pattern for anal-
ysis through data mining in the performance analysis section. Although a good deal of
the literature is focused on the agriculture monitoring system, there are not many auto-
mated agricultural monitoring, forecasting, or system architectures with several features
that we incorporate in our system. Our framework is one of the most feature-rich moni-
toring systems for agriculture in Bangladesh. In addition, we created a new dataset [15]
that will help researchers do further investigations from the perspective of Bangladesh
agriculture in the future. We carried out our experiments on an experimental prototype
based on Agriculture Statistics Bangladesh 2020 [5] data. Our experimental results can be
applied in real-life situations to monitor agriculture.
One of the challenges in this work is to collect data on crop yield, planting, and season
information in Bangladesh. More data can be collected in the future, and the data model
and data analysis can be further improved. If the Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
(MQTT) protocol can be added to our proposed system, it will become a more optimized
system. However, we have introduced a cloud-based application instead of the MQTT
protocol by providing a web-based application suitable for end users. In our framework,
we have used a NodeMCU with an ESP8266 as the microcontroller unit in the control box,
which is completely dependent on the Wi-Fi network. If we could use the mentioned mi-
crocontroller through the GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) network instead of an-
other microcontroller, then it would be more useful to farmers in remote areas who do not
have the technology to use smart phones or smart networks. While numerical data can be
presented or transmitted without the integration of IoT devices, such a system may not
effectively address real-world problems and provide comprehensive solutions. Addition-
ally, the improvement of our physical gadgets’ outward structures is essential to keeping
them functional and active for an extended period of time.

6. Conclusions
The proposed method holds the potential to benefit farmers, agricultural resource
managers, researchers focusing on Bangladesh agriculture, and individuals interested in
engaging with the country’s agricultural industry in the future. In this work, we collected
data from various sources and created a dataset for our model. We analyzed the dataset
in three steps: data pre-processing (data quality check and normalization), clustering to
select an appropriate cluster dataset, and running various algorithms on the selected clus-
ter for final data analysis. Our model achieved an accuracy of 87.3786%. Additionally, we
included a crop informative calendar feature, providing farmers with crucial information
about crop cultivation from sowing to harvesting. This work might inspire other research-
ers to explore and expand such a real-time monitoring system further. Such a system can
help farmers predict the optimum time to plant their crops. Our work might bring im-
pactful success to the agriculture environment in Bangladesh.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.B.R., J.D.C., S.I. and M.A.I.; Methodology, M.B.R.,
J.D.C., S.I. and M.A.U.; Validation, S.I., M.A.U. and M.A.I.; Formal analysis, M.B.R., A.M., S.I., M.A.I.
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 23

and S.A.; Data curation, M.B.R, J.D.C, A.M. and S.A.; Writing – original draft, J.D.C.; Writing – re-
view & editing, M.B.R., A.M., M.A.U and S.A.; Supervision, M.B.R.; Project administration, J.D.C.;
Funding acquisition, S.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manu-
script.
Funding: This research was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture – National
Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA) grant number GR019237 and the APC was funded
by The Principal Investigator (PI): Prof. Shahidul Islam.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: On request, we might provide the data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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