energies

Article
Effects of Different Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Rates on
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Biodiesel–Diesel
Blended Fuel Based on an Improved Chemical Mechanism
Huiqiong Huang 1 , Jie Tian 1 , Jiangtao Li 1 and Dongli Tan 2, *

1 School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology,
Liuzhou 545006, China; [email protected] (H.H.); [email protected] (J.T.);
[email protected] (J.L.)
2 Guangxi Key Laboratory of Automobile Components and Vehicle Technology, Liuzhou 545006, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper studies the effects of different exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates (0%, 5%, 10%,
and 15%) on the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of a biodiesel–diesel (20%
biodiesel + 80% diesel) blended fuel engine. This paper mainly analyzes the effects on engine cylinder
temperature, cylinder pressure, brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake-specific fuel consumption
(BSFC), NOx emissions, carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, and soot
emissions. Firstly, a 3D-CFD model was established by using CONVERGE software, combined with
an improved chemical kinetic mechanism including 98 species and 314 reactions, and the accuracy
of the simulation model was verified by experimental results. Secondly, the effects of different EGR
rates on the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of biodiesel–diesel blended fuel
Citation: Huang, H.; Tian, J.; Li, J.;
were studied. The results showed that with the increase in the EGR rate, the cylinder pressure and
Tan, D. Effects of Different Exhaust
cylinder temperature in the cylinder decreased. When the EGR rate was 15%, the maximum cylinder
Gas Recirculation (EGR) Rates on
Combustion and Emission
temperature decreased by 4.33%. In addition, BSFC increased and BTE decreased. Moreover, with the
Characteristics of Biodiesel–Diesel increase in the EGR rate, NOx decreased significantly, and the higher the EGR rate, the more obvious
Blended Fuel Based on an Improved the reduction in NOx emissions. When the EGR rate was 15%, NOx was reduced by 78.89%. However,
Chemical Mechanism. Energies 2022, with the increase in the EGR rate, the emissions of soot, HC, and CO increased. The optimal EGR rate
15, 4153. https://doi.org/10.3390/ for the engine is 10%.
en15114153

Academic Editors: Yaojie Tu,

Keywords: exhaust gas recirculation; biodiesel–diesel; combustion characteristic; emission
Qingguo Peng and João Fernando
Pereira Gomes

Received: 20 April 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 2 June 2022
As the main power mechanism of the automobile, agricultural machinery, and en-
Published: 5 June 2022
gineering machinery, the diesel engine consumes a lot of oil resources. Nitrogen oxides
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral (NOx ), particulate matter (PM), and other pollutants emitted from diesel engines are one of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in the main causes of haze formation [1]. Therefore, in order to improve resource shortage
published maps and institutional affil- and environmental degradation, specified emission regulations at home and abroad are
iations.
becoming more and more strict, and it is increasingly important to find a clean and efficient
alternative engine fuel [2]. Biomass fuels such as biodiesel and alcohols can effectively
reduce pollutant emissions and have excellent renewability, and they have become the
focus of scholars.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Biodiesel is a fuel extracted from vegetable oil, waste animal fat, and waste restaurant
This article is an open access article
fat. It has become a cleaner alternative fuel to fill the demand gap caused by the depletion
distributed under the terms and of petrochemical diesel fuel [3]. Compared with traditional diesel fuel, biodiesel can
conditions of the Creative Commons reach complete combustion due to oxygen enrichment so as to effectively reduce the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// particulate matter, carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of diesel engines [4]. In addition, biodiesel has attracted extensive attention due to its
4.0/). low sulfur content, high cetane number, good lubricity, low-temperature start-up, lack

Energies 2022, 15, 4153. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15114153 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 4153 2 of 23

of aromatic hydrocarbons, and renewable characteristics [5,6]. Moreover, in practical

application, the diesel engine can be blended with diesel without modification, and the
high lightning is also conducive to safe storage and transportation [7]. Zhang et al. [8]
studied the effect of biodiesel–diesel fuel on engine combustion and emission characteristics.
The results showed that compared with diesel, biodiesel could significantly reduce the
emissions of CO, HC, and soot. However, with the increase in the biodiesel blending
ratio, NOx emissions increased. Díaz Domínguez et al. [9] studied the engine combustion,
performance, and emission characteristics of a direct injection four-stroke single-cylinder
diesel engine fueled with Moringa oleifera biodiesel blend (B10). The experimental results
showed that compared with diesel, the combustion of B10 started earlier and the ignition
delay was shorter. Biswas et al. [10] investigated the effect of biodiesel–ethanol fuel at
different injection angles on engine friction performance, stability, and emissions. The
results demonstrated that the maximum exergy efficiency using biodiesel–ethanol blends
at different injection angles was 48.79% and 45.19% higher than that of biodiesel and diesel,
respectively. In addition, the soot, NOx , and HC emissions were reduced by 12.1%, 12.15,
and 12.90% compared with biodiesel. In addition, compared with diesel, the soot, NOx ,
and HC emissions were reduced by 256.70%, 87%, and 9.67%, respectively. Yan et al. [11]
studied the combustion, emission, and performance characteristics of diesel engine fueled
with different percentages of waste frying oil biodiesel (20%, 50%, and 100%) blended with
diesel. The test results showed that BSFC was improved by 12.98%. In terms of emissions,
CO2 , HC, and NOx increased slightly with pure waste frying oil biodiesel. However, when
waste frying oil biodiesel accounted for 20%, almost all emissions were reduced, especially
NOx and soot emissions.
However, there is a trade-off between soot and NOx in diesel engine emissions, and
it is very difficult to reduce these two emissions at the same time [12]. Although some
progress has been made in diesel engine after-treatment technology, it will take some
time for this technology to be put into practice. Burning a biodiesel–diesel mixture can
reduce soot emissions, but NOx emissions will increase [13]. Compared with pure diesel, a
biodiesel–diesel engine has some defects. A special technical method is needed to improve
thermal efficiency and significantly reduce emissions to meet the current strict regulations.
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology is a commonly used method at present. It is a
simple and effective method in the NOx emission reduction scheme [14]. Mourad et al. [15]
studied the effect of heating biodiesel as fuel combined with EGR on the performance
and emissions of a diesel engine. The results showed that the performance of the engine
was slightly improved, and the pollutants emitted by the engine fueled with biodiesel
were significantly less, especially NOx emissions. The reduction rate at 25% EGR was
22.2%. Li et al. [16] studied the performance and emission characteristics of biodiesel
and polyoxyethylene dimethyl ether mixture in a single-cylinder diesel engine at different
loads. The experimental results showed that the use of EGR rates of 20% and 40% and the
addition of 15% polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether could significantly reduce the NOx and
soot emissions of the engine. Can et al. [17] studied the effects of the EGR rate (5%, 10%,
and 15%) on engine performance and emissions using 20% soybean biodiesel mixed with
diesel. The results showed that the combination of biodiesel and EGR could increase the
maximum heat release rate and cylinder pressure. In addition, under high engine load and
15% EGR conditions, the reasonable increase in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and
the maximum reduction in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) were 6% and 3%, respectively,
and the NOx and soot emissions were significantly improved by 55% and 15%, respectively.
Shi et al. [18] studied the comprehensive effects of the combustion and emissions of a
four-cylinder direct injection diesel engine at different loads and EGR rates. The results
showed that with the increase in the EGR rate, the engine emissions, especially NOx and
soot emissions, could be significantly reduced. Mat Yasin et al. [19] studied the application
effect of palm biodiesel and different EGRs on the combustion and emission characteristics
of a direct injection diesel engine. They found that when palm biodiesel and EGR increased,
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 3 of 23

engine torque, engine power, and NOx emissions decreased, while fuel consumption, CO,
PM, and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions increased.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) combined with chemical kinetics can accurately
simulate the spray and combustion in engine cylinders and predict the emissions, thus
shortening the development cycle of the engine. Compared with traditional technology,
CFD simulation technology can save costs and shorten the cycle. It can accurately simulate
the actual working state of the product in the virtual environment based on the data in
the whole product life cycle and modify the product parameters to optimize the product.
At present, commonly used 3D-CFD software mainly includes CONVERGE, Fluent, AVL-
Fire, etc. Zhang et al. studied the effects of diesel/methanol/n-butanol blended fuel and
diesel/ethanol/n-butanol blended fuel on engine combustion, performance, and emission
characteristics using CONVERGE software [20] and AVL-Fire software [21], respectively,
and combined them with a detailed chemical kinetic model. Sathyamurty et al. [22]
studied the performance and emission characteristics when mixing different proportions
of corn oil methyl ester with pure diesel in the engine. The results showed that the mixed
combustion of 10% corn oil methyl ester and pure diesel had the least effect on the thermal
efficiency and BSFC of the engine, but it could greatly reduce the emissions of CO and HC.
Yang et al. [23] studied the combustion and emission characteristics of rapeseed oil and
petrochemical diesel using a CFD model and analyzed the effect of reducing NOx emissions
when introducing 20%-30% EGR. CONVERGE software can automatically generate regular
hexahedral mesh and provide various mesh control strategies, such as adaptive encryption.
Thus, CONVERGE software was selected for in-cylinder analysis in this study.
As mentioned above, biodiesel–diesel blended fuel has a significant effect on improv-
ing engine emissions. It is very interesting to investigate the effect of different EGR rates
on engine combustion and emission characteristics with the CONVERGE software com-
bined with an improved kinetic mechanism. Therefore, a 3D-CFD model was established
by coupling the CONVERGE software with the detailed chemical kinetic mechanism of
biodiesel and was verified with experimental results. Therefore, this paper has significant
advantages for optimizing the engine combustion process and reducing pollutant emis-
sions. In addition, this study can provide a reference and data basis for the follow-up
engine EGR control strategy and provides a certain theoretical reference for the realization
of pollutant emissions.

2. Numerical Approaches
2.1. D-CFD Calculation
The primary conservation equations are mainly composed of the mass conservation
equation, the energy conservation equation, and the gas state equation, which are the most
important equations in engine modeling.

2.1.1. Mass Conservation Equation

Mass conservation means that the change in mass of the control body is equal to the
difference between the inflow mass and the outflow mass, and the equation is as follows:

dmc dmi dm a dmb dme

dθ
= ∑ dθ
−∑
dθ
−
dθ
+
dt
(1)

where mc is the total mass of the material in the cylinder, kg; θ is the crankshaft angle, deg;
mi and me are the mass of the gas and fuel flowing into th+++e cylinder, kg; ma and mb are
the mass of the gas flowing into and out of the cylinder, kg; and t is the time, s.

2.1.2. Energy Conservation Equation

The conservation of energy equation is as follows:

d(mc ·u) dQ F dQw dmb

dθ = − pc · dV
dθ + dθ − ∑ dθ − hc · dθ +
dm
(2)
dm dm
∑ dθ i · hi − ∑ dθa · h a − qe · f · dt e
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 4 of 23

where u is the specific internal energy in the cylinder, J/kg; pc is the pressure in the cylinder,
Pa; V is the working volume, cm3 ; QF is the fuel heat release, J; Qw is the heat loss, J; ha is
the specific enthalpy of outflow gas, J/kg; hb is the specific enthalpy of leakage gas, J/kg; hi
is the specific enthalpy of inflow gas, J/kg; qe is the latent heat of evaporation of fuel, J; and
f is the mass fraction of evaporated fuel, %.

2.1.3. Ideal Gas Equation of State

The gas state is calculated using the ideal gas equation of state when performing 3D
simulations [24], and the gas equation of state is as follows:

1
pc = mc Rc Tc (3)
v
where Rc is the gas constant, J/(K·kg); Tc is the cylinder body temperature, K.

2.1.4. Component Transport Equation

The engine operation process is accompanied by the exchange of gases, consumption
of fuel components, and production of combustion products. For the whole system, the
component transport equation is as follows:
 
∂ρm ∂pm ui ∂ ∂Y
+ = ρD i + Sm (4)
t ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi

Nm ρm
Ym = = (5)
Ntt ρtt
where ρ is the fluid density, kg/m3 ; u is the velocity vector, m/s; D is the mass diffusion
coefficient, m2 /s; Yi is the mass fraction of m components, %; and Sm represents the
generation rate of the component m per unit time, kg/s. Nm is the mass of the micro-
element control body component m, kg; Ntt is the total mass of the micro-element control
body component, kg.

2.2. Spraying Model

Parameters such as injection pattern, orifice parameters, and injection ambient pressure
all affect the fuel injection [25]. Fuel injection is a complex process, for which the Frossling
model was chosen as the evaporation model, the dynamic drop drag model was chosen
as the gas drag model, and the KH-RT model [26] was chosen as the crushing model. The
computational equations of KH-RT are as follows:

R A = Ca Λ (6)

3.7C1 r A
τ= (7)
ΛΩ
9.02r A (1 + 0.45O0.5 0.7
H )(1 + 0.4TKH )
Λ= 0.6
(8)
(1 + 0.865We1.67 )
s
0.34 + 0.38We1.5 σ
Ω= 0.6 )
(9)
(1 + Oa )(1 + 0.4TKH ρlr3A

where RA is the initial radius, m; Ca and C1 are the injector constants; Λ is the wavelength,
m; Ω is the wave height index; τ is the oil beam presence time, s; rA is the droplet radius, m;
We is the Weber number of the continuous phase; Oa is the Anseger number of the droplet;
σ is the surface tension, dynes·cm−2 ; TKH is the Taylor number; and ρl is the density of the
liquid, kg/m3 .
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 5 of 23

2.3. Turbulence Model

There is a complex gas flow in a marine engine cylinder with high turbulence intensity.
In this paper, the in-cylinder flow field was simulated by the RNG k-ε turbulence model [27].
The following equations calculate the turbulent kinetic energy k and turbulent dissipation
rate ε. !
∂ρk ∂(ρui k ) ∂ui ∂ µe ∂k
+ = τij + − ρε + Sa (10)
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j Prk ∂x j
 
∂ρε ∂(ρui ε) µe ∂k
∂t + ∂xi = ∂x∂ Pr ∂x − Cεa ρε ∂u
∂xi
i
j ε j  (11)
+ Cεb ∂u i
∂x ijτ − C Sa ρε + εCs S a k + S − ρR
ε
j

where µe is the effective viscosity, Pa·s; Prk is the Prandtl number in the k equation; Prε is
the Prandtl number in the ε equation; τ ij is Reynolds stress, Pa; Sa represents the source
item; and Cεa , Cεb , Sa , and Cs are empirical constants.

2.4. Combustion Model

The combustion model in CONVERGE software contains many physical models of
specific combustion conditions. In terms of chemical coupling kinetics, the SAGE model is
more accurate. In this paper, the SAGE model was employed to simulate the combustion
process of biodiesel [28]. The specific multi-step reaction is shown as follows:

N N
∑ v0n,r xn  ∑ vn,r xn
00
(r = 1, 2, . . . R) (12)
n =1 n =1

R
·
ω= ∑ v n , r qr (n = 1, 2, . . . N ) (13)
r =1

vn,r − v0n,r = vn,r

00
(14)
N 0 N 00
qr = k f r Π [ Xn ]vn,r − krr Π [ Xn ]vn,r (15)
n =1 n =1
00
where N is the total number of substances; v0n,r and vn,r are the stoichiometric coefficients
of the reactants and products of component n and reaction r, respectively; R is the total
number of reactions; xn is the chemical symbol of component n; kfr and krr are the forward
and reverse reaction rate coefficients for reaction r; and [Xn ] is the molar concentration of
substance n.

2.5. Heat Transfer Models

Heat transfer occurs at every moment during the engine operation [29]. The O’Rourke
and Amsden model [30] can better simulate the engine heat transfer process in CONVERGE
software and is employed to calculate the heat transfer. The calculation formula of the heat
exchange model is as follows:

( Tb −Ta )

µc p ni
y+ < 11.05


dT 
yPrt
k = T  (16)
dxi  ρc p µτ Tb In b
Ta ni
y+


2.1· In(y+ )+2.513
> 11.05

where Prt is the molecular Prandtl number; k is the molecular conductivity coefficient; Ta is
the fluid temperature, K; Tb is the wall temperature, K; µτ is the shear velocity, µm/s; and
y+ is the dimensionless distance.
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 6 of 23

2.6. Emission Calculation Model

Diesel fuel is mechanically affected by the combustion process to generate NOx , which
is mainly divided into high-temperature NOx , fuel NOx , and transient NOx [31]. In the
combustion process, nitrogen molecules are oxidized to NOx . Since there are many atoms
involved in the reaction and the reaction equation is complex, the Extended Zeldovich NOx
model [32] model was chosen for this paper.

O2  2O (17)

O2 + N  O + NO (18)
N2 + O  N + NO (19)
N + OH  NO + H (20)

2.7. Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions in the CONVERGE model were based on a four-cylinder,
four-stroke marine medium-speed diesel engine. The initial cylinder temperature, piston
head temperature, cylinder wall temperature, cylinder head temperature, and initial cylin-
der pressure were 335.15 K, 625.15 K, 403.15 K, 553.15 K, and 1.93 MPa, respectively. The
main boundary conditions and specifications are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Engine specifications and boundary conditions.

Type Value Type Value

Initial cylinder turbulentkinetic
Bore × stroke (mm) 190 × 210 18.375
energy (m2 /s2 )
Connecting rod (mm) 410 Compression ratio 14
Rated speed (r/min) 1000 Initial pressure in the inlet (MPa) 0.192
Fuel injection holes 8 Effective power (kW) 220
Nozzle radius (mm) 0.28 Spray Angle (◦ ) 150

2.8. Computational Grid

The dynamic grid of the 3D combustion chamber model was based on the symmetrical
distribution of the engine’s cylinders through eight injector holes, and one injector hole was
selected to generate a 45◦ fan-shaped dynamic mesh. Generally, finer grids in CONVERGE
are more accurate in predicting droplet fragmentation and evaporation [33]. Figure 1 shows
the cylinder pressure profiles with grid numbers of 1 mm, 2 mm, and 4 mm at 100% load.
When the piston runs to the upper stop, the grid numbers of three grids are 463,250, 375,500,
and 286,300. In this paper, grid encryption was performed near the injector nozzle, piston
gap area, and cylinder wall to ensure the accuracy of the precision model. It can be found
from the figure that there is no obvious difference between the cylinder pressure curves
of the 2 mm grid and 1 mm grid. Because the 2 mm grid could ensure accuracy and save
about 50% of the calculation time, the 2 mm grid was selected for the model simulation in
this paper.
 mm at 100% load. When the piston runs to the upper stop, the grid numbers of three grids
are 463250, 375500, and 286300. In this paper, grid encryption was performed near the
injector nozzle, piston gap area, and cylinder wall to ensure the accuracy of the precision
model. It can be found from the figure that there is no obvious difference between the
cylinder pressure curves of the 2 mm grid and 1 mm grid. Because the 2 mm grid could
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 7 of 23
ensure accuracy and save about 50% of the calculation time, the 2 mm grid was selected
for the model simulation in this paper.

10 1mm
2mm
3mm
Cylinder Pressure (MPa)
8

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank angle (℃A)
1. Comparison of cylinder pressures
Figure 1. pressures for
for different
different grids.
grids.

2.9.
2.9. Feasibility
Feasibility Test
Test
This paper studiesthe
This paper studies theeffects
effectsofof diesel/RME
diesel/RME blended
blended fuelfuel on engine
on engine combustion,
combustion, per-
performance,
formance, and emission characteristics under different loads and EGR conditions. The
and emission characteristics under different loads and EGR conditions. The
schematic
schematic diagram
diagramofofthe
theexperimental
experimental device is shown
device is shownin Figure 2. The
in Figure engine
2. The power
engine was
power
measured
was measuredby a Xiang Yi eddy
by a Xiang Yicurrent dynamometer
eddy current [34,35]. [34,35].
dynamometer In addition, the corresponding
In addition, the corre-
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
sensors were also used to measure pressure, temperature, and flow. The 8 of 22
measurement
sponding sensors were also used to measure pressure, temperature, and flow. The meas-
range
urementandrange
errorand
range of each
error rangeinstrument are shownare
of each instrument in shown
Table 2.in Table 2.

Electronic
control unit

Air Pc display

Fuel tank
Dynamomenter

Engine
Valve Emission analyzer
Exhaust

Figure2.2. Flow
Figure Flow chart
chart of
of the
theexperimental
experimentalsetup.
setup.

Table 2. Measurement range, uncertainty, and accuracy of relevant parameters.

Parameters Measuring Range Accuracy Uncertainty

Pressure 0–25 MPa ±10 kPa ±0.55%
Engine speed 1–2000 rpm ±40 rpm ± 0.24%
Crank angle encoder 0–720 °CA ±0.5 °CA ±0.30
BTE - ±0.5% ±1.70%
BSFC - ±5.10 g/(kW·h) ±1.50%
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 8 of 23

Table 2. Measurement range, uncertainty, and accuracy of relevant parameters.

Parameters Measuring Range Accuracy Uncertainty

Pressure 0–25 MPa ±10 kPa ±0.55%
Engine speed 1–2000 rpm ±40 rpm ± 0.24%
Crank angle encoder 0–720 ◦ CA ±0.5 ◦ CA ±0.30
BTE - ±0.5% ±1.70%
BSFC - ±5.10 g/(kW·h) ±1.50%
NOx emissions 0–6000 ppm ±10 ppm ±0.54%
CO emissions 0–12% vol ±0.04% ±0.33%

2.10. Fuel Properties

In this study, 20% RME and 80% diesel fuel were selected to study the effects of
different proportions of EGR on a marine engine, where R20 represents 20% RME blended
with 80% diesel fuel. E0, E5, E10, E15, and E20 represent EGR proportions of 0%, 5%,
10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively. RME was obtained by the transesterification reaction
of rapeseed oil with methanol. Specifically, the molar ratio of methanol to oil is 6:1, and
1% wt/wt KOH was added as the basic catalyst. Then, rapeseed oil was transesterified
in the reactor for about 1 h under the catalysis of alkali to obtain RME [36]. As shown in
Table 3, the kinematic viscosity and low calorific value of the fuel were measured according
to ASTM D445 and ASTMD240. The latent heat of the blended fuels was calculated by the
following equation.

H = Wa Ha + Wb Hb (21)
where H, Ha , and Hb are the latent heat of vaporization of the blended fuels, rapeseed oil,
and diesel fuel, KJ/kg; Wa and Wb represent the proportion of biodiesel and diesel in the
fuel blend.

Table 3. Performance index of blended fuels.

Item Diesel RME

Cetane number (−) 50 53.88
Viscosity (cPs/40 ◦ C) 2.75 4.556
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg) 42.7 39.73
Oxygen content (% m/m) 0.3 10.7
Density at 15 ◦ C (kg/m3 ) 837 882
Saturation (%) – 4.45

2.11. Model Validation

The model’s accuracy should be verified before the 3D-CFD model is simulated. As
shown in Figures 3 and 4, the cylinder pressure and HRR comparisons between experimen-
tal and simulation results were performed at 100%, 50%, and 25% load. It can be found
that the experimental and predicted in-cylinder pressure and ignition process are within
5% error, and the model is consistent. In addition, Figure 5 shows the experimental and
simulated NOx emission trend under 100%, 50%, and 25% load conditions. It can be found
that the trend of the simulation is similar to that of the experiment. Therefore, the fuel
combustion process and 3D-CFD model can be well predicted.
 shown in Figures 3 and 4, the cylinder pressure and HRR comparisons between experi-
mental and simulation results were performed at 100%, 50%, and 25% load. It can be found
that the experimental and predicted in-cylinder pressure and ignition process are within
5% error, and the model is consistent. In addition, Figure 5 shows the experimental and
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 simulated NOx emission trend under 100%, 50%, and 25% load conditions. It can be found
9 of 23
that the trend of the simulation is similar to that of the experiment. Therefore, the fuel
combustion process and 3D-CFD model can be well predicted.

10 Experiment
Simulation

8
Pressure (MPa)

0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Crank angle (℃A) 10 of 22

3. Cylinder pressure
Figure 3. pressure between
between experiment
experiment results
results and
and simulation
simulation results
resultsat
atdifferent
differentloads.
loads.

700 600
Experiment Experiment Experiment
1000 3-D Simulation 3-D Simulation 3-D Simulation
600
500
800 500
400
400
HRR(J/deg)

600
300
300
400
200 200

200 100 100

0
0 0
-100
-10 0 10 20 30 40 -10 0 10 20 30 40 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Crank angle (℃A)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. HRR
HRR between
between experimental
experimental results
resultsand
andsimulation
simulationresults
resultsunder
underdifferent
differentload
loadconditions.
condi-
tions.

2400 Simulation
Experiment
2200

2000
NOx (ppm)

1000

800
 -100
-10 0 10 20 30 40 -10 0 10 20 30 40 -10 0 10 20
Crank angle (℃A)
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 Figure 4. HRR between experimental results and simulation results under
10 of 23differen
tions.

2400 Simulation
Experiment
2200

2000
NOx (ppm)

1000

800

600

400

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Engine Load(%)
Figure 5. NOx emissions in experiments and simulations under different load conditions.
Figure 5. NOx emissions in experiments and simulations under different load cond
3. Results and Discussion
3.1.
3. Combustion
Results andCharacteristics
Discussion
3.1.1. Cylinder Pressure
3.1.Figure
Combustion Characteristics
6a–c shows the cylinder pressure curves at different EGR rates. The peak
cylinder pressure of pure
3.1.1. Cylinder Pressure diesel fuel was higher than that of biodiesel–diesel blends at all
loads. When the diesel engine was running on biodiesel–diesel blends, cylinder pressure
Figure
decreased 6a-c shows
continuously the cylinder
with increasing pressure
EGR rate. curves
For example, theatcylinder
different EGR rates
pressure
inder
was pressure
highest when the ofEGR
pure ratediesel
was 0%,fuel was higher
followed than
by 5%, 10%, andthat
15%of biodiesel–dies
EGR. This is
because the increase in the EGR rate makes the exhaust gas in the cylinder increase. When
loads. When the diesel engine was running on biodiesel–diesel blends, cyl
the oxygen concentration decreases, the combustion in the cylinder of the diesel engine
decreasedThus,
deteriorates. continuously with increasing
the cylinder temperature EGR increases,
in the cylinder rate. Forandexample, the cylinde
the stall period
highest when the EGR rate was 0%, followed by 5%, 10%, and 15%
and combustion duration increase. For example, at 100% load, the cylinder pressure was EGR.
the highest at EGR = 0%, and when the EGR rate was increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%,
the increase in the EGR rate makes the exhaust gas in the cylinder incre
the cylinder pressure was reduced by 2.3%, 2.65%, and 4.33%, respectively. Similarly, the
oxygen
cylinder concentration
pressure was the highestdecreases,
when the dieseltheengine
combustion in the
was fueled with pure cylinder
diesel. This of the
is due to the high low calorific value. In addition, the lower cylinder temperature and
oxygen concentration are not conducive to fuel evaporation atomization and combustion,
resulting in a decrease in peak cylinder pressure with an increase in EGR. Can et al. [17]
found a similar trend.
 the highest at EGR = 0%, and when the EGR rate was increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the
cylinder pressure was reduced by 2.3%, 2.65%, and 4.33%, respectively. Similarly, the cyl-
inder pressure was the highest when the diesel engine was fueled with pure diesel. This
is due to the high low calorific value. In addition, the lower cylinder temperature and
oxygen concentration are not conducive to fuel evaporation atomization and combustion,
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 11 of 23
resulting in a decrease in peak cylinder pressure with an increase in EGR. Can et al. [17]
found a similar trend.

8
10 (a) 100% Load D100
EGR=0% D100
7 (b) 50% Load EGR=0%
EGR=5%
EGR=5%
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

EGR=10%
8

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

6 EGR=10%
EGR=15%
EGR=15%
5
6
4
4
3

2 2

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank angle (°CA) Crank angle (°CA)

6 D100
(c) 25% Load EGR=0%
EGR=5%
5
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

EGR=10%
EGR=15%

1
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (°CA)
Figure
Figure6. 6.
TheThe
cylinder pressure
cylinder curves
pressure at different
curves EGREGR
at different rates: (a) 100%
rates: load; load;
(a) 100% (b) 50%
(b)load;
50% (c) 25%
load;
load.
(c) 25% load.

3.1.2.
3.1.2. CylinderTemperature
Cylinder Temperature
Figure7a-c
Figure 7a–cshows
showsthethecylinder
cylindertemperature
temperature curves
curves at
atdifferent
differentEGR
EGRrates.
rates.It It
can canbebe
seen that pure diesel fuel had a higher peak cylinder temperature compared
seen that pure diesel fuel had a higher peak cylinder temperature compared to biodiesel–to biodiesel–
diesel
diesel blends.When
blends. Whenthe
the diesel
diesel engine
enginewas
wasfueled
fueledwith
witha biodiesel–diesel
a biodiesel–dieselblend, the cylinder
blend, the cylin-
temperature continued to decrease as the EGR rate increased. For example, at 50% load,
der temperature continued to decrease as the EGR rate increased. For example, at 50%
the cylinder temperature was highest at EGR = 0%, and when the EGR rate was increased
load, the cylinder temperature was highest at EGR = 0%, and when the EGR rate was in-
to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the cylinder temperature was reduced by 2.0%, 2.45%, and 4.33%,
creased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the cylinder temperature was reduced by 2.0%, 2.45%, and
respectively. This is because with increasing EGR rates, more exhaust gas is introduced
4.33%, respectively.
into the This
cylinder, and is specific
the becauseheat
withcapacity
increasing EGR
of the gasrates, morewhich
increases, exhaust gas isleads
in turn intro-
duced into the cylinder, and the specific heat capacity of the gas increases, which
to a decrease in cylinder temperature. Similarly, the cylinder temperature is the highest in turn
leads
when tothe
a decrease in cylinder
diesel engine is fueledtemperature. Similarly,
with pure diesel. thedue
This is cylinder temperature
to the high low calorificis the
value. Furthermore, the increase in the EGR rate reduces the oxygen concentration in the
cylinder, leading to deterioration in combustion and thus decreasing cylinder temperature.
Duan et al. [37] found a similar trend.
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

highest when the diesel engine is fueled with pure diesel. This is due to the high low
calorific value. Furthermore, the increase in the EGR rate reduces the oxygen concentra-
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 12 of 23
tion in the cylinder, leading to deterioration in combustion and thus decreasing cylinder
temperature. Duan et al. [37] found a similar trend.

1500
2000 D100
(a) 100% Load 1400 EGR=0%
(b) 50% Load EGR=5%
1800
1300 EGR=10%
Cylinder temperature (K)

Cylinder temperature (K)

1600 EGR=15%
1200

1400 D100 1100

EGR=0%
1200 1000
EGR=5%
EGR=10% 900
1000 EGR=15%
800
800
700
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank angle (°CA) Crank angle (°CA)

1100 D100
EGR=0%
(c) 25% Load
EGR=5%
Cylinder temperature (K)

EGR=10%
1000
EGR=15%

900

800

700

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Crank angle (°CA)

Figure
Figure 7.7. The
Thecylinder
cylindertemperature
temperature profiles
profiles at different
at different EGR EGR
rates: rates : (a) 100%
(a) 100% load; load; (b) load;
(b) 50% 50%
load; (c) 25%
(c) 25% load. load.

Figure 8 shows the temperature field distribution of the cylinder. As the EGR rate
continued toto increase,
increase,thethelocalized
localizedhigh-temperature
high-temperature areas in the
areas cylinder
in the gradually
cylinder de-
gradually
creased. This
decreased. is due
This toto
is due the increasing
the increasingEGR
EGRrates.
rates.The
Thetotal
totalspecific
specificheat
heatcapacity
capacity of
of the
the fuel
increased with increased EGR rates in the cylinder. In addition, the oxygen concentration
in the cylinder decreased, which is not conducive to fuel combustion, resulting in a lower
combustion temperature in the cylinder.
cylinder.
 Energies
Energies 14,15,
2022,
2022, 4153PEER REVIEW
x FOR 1313
of 23
of 22

EGR = 0% EGR = 5% EGR = 10% EGR = 15%

ATDC = 0 °CA
100%
Load
ATDC =
10 °CA

ATDC = 0 °CA
50%
Load
ATDC =
10 °CA

ATDC = 0 °CA
25%
Load
ATDC =
10 °CA

Figure 8. The temperature field distribution in the engine cylinder.

Figure 8. The temperature field distribution in the engine cylinder.

3.2.
3.2.Performance
PerformanceCharacteristics
Characteristics
3.2.1.Brake-Specific
3.2.1. Brake-SpecificFuel
Fuel Consumption
Consumption
Figure99shows
Figure showsthe the effect
effect of
of the
the EGR
EGR rate
rateon
onengine
engineBSFC
BSFCatatdifferent loads.
different It can
loads. be be
It can
found that the BSFC of pure diesel fuel was lower than that of the biodiesel–diesel
found that the BSFC of pure diesel fuel was lower than that of the biodiesel–diesel blends. blends.
In addition, when burning biodiesel–diesel blends, the BSFC of the diesel engines grew
In addition, when burning biodiesel–diesel blends, the BSFC of the diesel engines grew
with increasing EGR rates. For example, at 100% load, when the EGR rate was increased to
with increasing EGR rates. For example, at 100% load, when the EGR rate was increased
5%, 10%, and 15%, the fuel consumption of the engine was improved by 0.74%, 1.49%, and
to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the fuel consumption of the engine was improved by 0.74%, 1.49%,
2.23%, respectively, compared with EGR = 0%. This is because as the EGR rate increases, the
and 2.23%,
oxygen respectively,
concentration compared
in the cylinder with EGR and
decreases, = 0%. This
local is because
oxygen as the
deficiency EGR rate
increases. Thein-
creases,
fresh airthe oxygen
is not concentration
sufficient in the
to support the cylinder
effective decreases,
combustion andinlocal
of fuel oxygenresulting
the cylinder, deficiency
increases.
in increased fuel consumption. A similar trend was found in a study by Sun et al. [38].in the
The fresh air is not sufficient to support the effective combustion of fuel
cylinder, resulting in increased fuel consumption. A similar trend was found in a study
by Sun et al. [38].
 Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 14,4153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
14 22

300
D100 EGR=0%
EGR=5% EGR=10%
280 EGR=15%

BSFC (g/kW·h)
260

240

220

200
100% 50% 25%
Engine load

Figure9.9.The
Figure Theeffect
effectof
ofEGR
EGRrate
rateon
onengine
engineBSFC
BSFCatatdifferent
differentloads.
loads.

3.2.2.
3.2.2.Brake
BrakeThermal
ThermalEfficiency
Efficiency
The
The brake thermal efficiency
brake thermal (BTE) is
efficiency (BTE) is the
thekey
keyindex
indextotomeasure
measurethe theeconomy
economy index
index of
of the engine. The lower the BSFC, the better the economy. Figure 10 shows
the engine. The lower the BSFC, the better the economy. Figure 10 shows the effect of the the effect of
the
EGREGR raterate
onon engine
engine BTE.
BTE. TheBTE
The BTEwas
washighest
highestwhen
whenthe
the diesel
diesel engine
engine was
was fueled
fueled with
with
pure
pure diesel fuel. In addition, the BTE decreased continuously as the EGR rate increased.
diesel fuel. In addition, the BTE decreased continuously as the EGR rate increased.
More
Morespecifically,
specifically,the
theBTE
BTEwas wasthe
thehighest
highestatataa0%0%EGREGRrate,
rate,followed
followedby by5%,
5%,10%,
10%,and
and
15%. For example, at 100% load, when the EGR rate was increased to 5%,
15%. For example, at 100% load, when the EGR rate was increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, 10%, and 15%,
the
theBTE
BTEof ofthe
theengine
enginewas
wasimproved
improvedbyby0.76%,
0.76%,1.54%,
1.54%, and
and 2.43%,
2.43%, respectively,
respectively,compared
compared
with EGR = 0%. This is because the cylinder temperature and O2 concentration decrease as
with EGR = 0%. This is because the cylinder temperature and O2 concentration decrease
the EGR rate increases. Thus, it results in the deterioration of combustion. In addition, the
as the EGR rate increases. Thus, it results in the deterioration of combustion. In addition,
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
increase in the EGR rate increases the combustion duration and reduces the combustion
the increase in the EGR rate increases the combustion duration and reduces the combus-
reaction rate, thus reducing the thermal efficiency. A similar trend was found in a study by
tion reaction rate, thus reducing the thermal efficiency. A similar trend was found in a
Devarajan et al. [39].
study by Devarajan et al. [39].
40
40
D100 D100EGR=0% EGR=0%
EGR=5% EGR=5%
EGR=10% EGR=10%
EGR=15%
EGR=15%
35
35
BTE (%)

30
BTE (%)

30
25

25
20
100% 50% 25%
Engine load
Figure 10. The effect of EGR rate on engine brake thermal efficiency at different loads.
20
100%
3.3. Emission Characteristics 50% 25%
Engine load
3.3.1. NOx Emissions
Figure
Figure 10. 10.
For The
effecteffect
biodiesel-
The EGRof
ofand EGR rate brake
diesel-fueled
rate on engine on engine
engines, EGR
thermalbrake thermal
is commonly
efficiency efficiency
used
at different as an at
loads. different
effective loa
method to reduce NOx emissions. Figure 11a-c shows the NOx emissions at different EGR
rates.
3.3. Emission Characteristics
3.3.1. NOx Emissions
For biodiesel- and diesel-fueled engines, EGR is commonly used a
 Energies 2022, 15, 4153 15 of 23

Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW3.3. Emission Characteristics 15 of 22

3.3.1. NOx Emissions
For biodiesel- and diesel-fueled engines, EGR is commonly used as an effective method
to reduce NOx emissions. Figure 11a-c shows the NOx emissions at different EGR rates.
Compared to pure diesel, biodiesel–diesel blends had higher NOx emissions. In ad-
Compared to pure diesel, biodiesel–diesel blends had higher NOx emissions. In
dition, the NO x emissions decreased continuously with the increase in the EGR rate. At
addition, the NOx emissions decreased continuously with the increase in the EGR rate. At
100%
100%load,
load,when
whenthe theEGR
EGRrate
rate was
was 5%, 10%, and
5%, 10%, and15%,
15%,NONOx xemissions
emissionswere werereduced
reducedbyby
49.9%, 64.3%, and 73.9%, respectively, compared with EGR = 0%. NO
49.9%, 64.3%, and 73.9%, respectively, compared with EGR = 0%. NOx emissions depend x emissions depend
ononthe
thecylinder
cylindertemperature,
temperature, oxygen content, and
oxygen content, and reaction
reactiontime.
time.With
Withincreasing
increasing EGR
EGR
rates, the
rates, theoxygen
oxygenconcentration
concentrationin in the
the intake air
air decreases,
decreases,and
andthe thecylinder
cylinder temperature
temperature
decreases;
decreases;thisthissignificantly
significantly inhibits NOxx formation
inhibits NO formation andandresults
resultsininlower
lowerNONO x emissions.
x emissions. AA
similar trend was found in
similar trend was found in a study a study by Jiang et al. [40].
Jiang et al. [40].

300
D100 D100
100 (b) 50% load
EGR=0% (a) 100% load EGR=0%
250 EGR=5% EGR=5%
EGR=10% 80 EGR=10%
200 EGR=15% EGR=15%
NOx (ppm)

NOx (ppm)

60
150

100 40

50 20

0
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Crank angle (°CA) Crank angle (°CA)
D100
60 EGR=0%
EGR=5% (c) 25% load
EGR=10%
50
EGR=15%
NOx (ppm)

40

30

20

10

0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Crank angle (°CA)
Figure 11. NOx emissions at different EGR rates: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load; (c) 25% load.
Figure 11. NOx emissions at different EGR rates: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load; (c) 25% load.

The NOx distribution field in the cylinder is shown in Figure 12. The NOx distribution
decreased gradually with the increase in the EGR rate. Combined with the cylinder tem-
perature distribution field in Figure 12, it can be found that the NOx distribution is influ-
enced by the cylinder temperature distribution, and NOx is easily generated in the high-
temperature gathering area. In addition, the reduction in oxygen concentration in the cyl-
inder is also the main reason for inhibiting NOx formation.
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 16 of 23

The NOx distribution field in the cylinder is shown in Figure 12. The NOx distribution
decreased gradually with the increase in the EGR rate. Combined with the cylinder
temperature distribution field in Figure 12, it can be found that the NOx distribution is
influenced by the cylinder temperature distribution, and NOx is easily generated in the
high-temperature gathering area. In addition, the reduction in oxygen concentration16inofthe
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22
cylinder is also the main reason for inhibiting NOx formation.

EGR = 0% EGR = 5% EGR = 10% EGR = 15%

ATDC = 0°CA
100%
Load
ATDC =
10°CA

ATDC = 0°CA
50%
Load
ATDC =
10°CA

ATDC = 0°CA
25%
Load
ATDC =
10°CA

Figure 12. The NOx distribution field in the cylinder.

Figure 12. The NOx distribution field in the cylinder.

3.3.2. CO
3.3.2. CO Emissions
Emissions
Figure 13a–c
Figure 13a-c shows
shows the the CO emissions at
CO emissions different EGR
at different EGR rates.
rates. It can be
It can be seen
seen that
that the
the
CO emissions
emissions of thethe biodiesel–diesel
biodiesel–diesel blend were lower than that of pure pure diesel
diesel fuel,
fuel, and
and
CO emissions
CO emissions increased
increased withwith the
the EGR
EGR rate.
rate. For
For example,
example, atat 100%
100% load, when
when the
the EGR
EGR rate
increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the CO emissions increased by 7.28%, 8.7%, and 9.58%,
respectively. This
respectively. This isis due
due toto the
the low
low temperature
temperature and and lack
lack of
of oxygen.
oxygen. Thus, CO generation
increaseswith
increases withincreasing
increasingEGR EGRrates.
rates.InInaddition,
addition, when
when thethe oxygen
oxygen content
content andand tempera-
temperature
ture
in theincylinder
the cylinder continue
continue to decrease,
to decrease, the production
the production of incomplete
of incomplete combustion
combustion prod-
products
ucts increases,
increases, which which
in turn in turn
leadsleads to increased
to increased CO emissions.
CO emissions. A similar
A similar trendtrend
was was
found found
in a
study by Sun
in a study by et
Sunal.et[37].
al. [37].
 COemissions
CO emissionsincreased
increasedwith
withthetheEGR
EGRrate.
rate.For
Forexample,
example,at
at100%
100%load,
load,when
whenthetheEGR
EGRrate
rate
increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the CO emissions increased by 7.28%, 8.7%,
increased to 5%, 10%, and 15%, the CO emissions increased by 7.28%, 8.7%, and 9.58%, and 9.58%,
respectively.This
respectively. Thisisisdue
dueto tothe
thelow
lowtemperature
temperatureand andlack
lackof
ofoxygen.
oxygen.Thus,
Thus,COCOgeneration
generation
increaseswith
increases withincreasing
increasingEGREGRrates.
rates.In
Inaddition,
addition,when
whenthe
theoxygen
oxygencontent
content and
andtempera-
tempera-
turein
ture inthe
thecylinder
cylindercontinue
continueto todecrease,
decrease,the
theproduction
productionof
ofincomplete
incompletecombustion
combustionprod-prod-
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 ucts increases, which in turn leads to increased CO emissions. A similar trend was 17 of 23
found
ucts increases, which in turn leads to increased CO emissions. A similar trend was found
inaastudy
in studyby
bySun
Sunetetal.
al.[37].
[37].

140
140
400 D100
D100 (b)50%
50%load
load D100
D100
400 (a)100%
100%load
load (b)
(a) EGR=0%
EGR=0% EGR=0%
EGR=0%
120
120
EGR=5%
EGR=5% EGR=5%
EGR=5%
300 EGR=10%
EGR=10% EGR=10%
EGR=10%
300 100
100
EGR=15%
EGR=15% EGR=15%
EGR=15%

(ppm)
(ppm)

CO(ppm)
CO(ppm)

80
80
200
200
60

CO
CO

60

100 40
40
100

20
20
00
00
-20 -10
-20 -10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 -20 -10
-20 -10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70
Crankangle
Crank angle(°
(°CA)
CA) Crankangle
Crank angle(°
(°CA)
CA)
35
35 D100
(c)25%
(c) 25%load
load D100
EGR=0%
EGR=0%
30
30 EGR=5%
EGR=5%
25
EGR=10%
EGR=10%
25
EGR=15%
EGR=15%
(ppm)

20
CO(ppm)

20

15
15
CO

10
10

55

00

-5-5
-20 -10
-20 -10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70
Crankangle
Crank angle(°
(°CA)
CA)

Figure 13. The effects of different EGR rates on CO emission: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load;
(c) 25% load.
Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Theeffects
effectsof
ofdifferent
differentEGR
EGRrates
rateson
onCO
COemission:
emission:(a)
(a)100%
100%load;
load;(b)
(b)50%
50%load;
load;(c)
(c)25%
25%
load.
load.
3.3.3. Soot Emissions
Figure 14a–c shows soot emissions at different EGR rates. It can be seen that the
3.3.3.Soot
3.3.3. SootEmissions
Emissions
soot emissions of biodiesel–diesel blends were lower than those of pure diesel. The soot
Figure
generation 14a-c shows
Figure gradually
14a-c shows soot emissions
soot
increased emissions
with the at at different
different
increase EGR
EGR
in the EGR rates.
rates.
rate.ItItFor
canexample,
can be seen
be seen that
that
at the
the
100%
soot emissions
soot
load, emissions of biodiesel–diesel
of
soot generation biodiesel–diesel
was greatestblends blends
at an EGR wererate
were lower
lower thanfollowed
than
of 15%, those of
those of pure
pure diesel.
diesel.
by 10%, The
5%,The soot
andsoot0%.
gen-eration
gen-eration gradually
gradually increased
increased with
with the
the increase
increase in
in the
the EGR
EGR
In particular, the soot generation at an EGR rate of 15% was 41.7% higher than that at an rate.
rate. For
For example,
example, at
at 100%
100%
load,rate
load,
EGR sootof
soot generation
generation
0%. This is was
was greatest
duegreatest at an
at an EGR
to the increasing EGR EGR raterate.
rate of 15%,
of 15%,
When followed
followed
the oxygen by 10%,
by 10%, 5%,
content 5%, and
inandthe
0%.
0%. In particular,
In particular,
combustion chamber the soot
thecontinues generation
soot generation
to decrease, at
at an an EGR
theEGR
EGR rate rate of 15%
of 15% the
rate inhibits was 41.7%
wasoxidation higher
41.7% higher than
of sootthanand
that at
that
leads at an
toan
soot EGR
EGR rate of
rate
production. of 0%.
0%. This isis
This
Biodiesel due
due
fuel can toimprove
to the increasing
the increasing
combustion EGR due
EGR rate.toWhen
rate. When the oxygen
the
the oxygen oxygen
in the
content in
content
biodiesel. inThus,
the combustion
the combustion
biodiesel canchamber chamber
reduce CO continues
continues
emissions. toto In
decrease,
decrease, the
addition,the as EGREGR
the rate
rate
EGR inhibits
inhibits
rate continues the
the
oxidation
oxidation of
of soot
soot and
and leads
leads to
to soot
soot production.
production. Biodiesel
Biodiesel fuel
fuel
to rise, the cylinder combustion temperature decreases, which is not conducive to complete can
can improve
improve combustion
combustion
dueto
due tothe
combustiontheoxygen
oxygen
of the in inthe
fuel the biodiesel.
biodiesel.
and generates Thus,
Thus, biodiesel
biodiesel
a greater amount canreduce
can reduce
of soot.COCO emissions.
emissions.
A similar In
trendIn addition,
addition,
was found
as the
in athe
as studyEGR
EGR rate
by rate
Liu et continues to rise, the cylinder combustion
al. [41]. to rise, the cylinder combustion temperature decreases,
continues temperature decreases,
which isis not
which not conducive
conducive to to com-plete
com-plete combustion
combustion of of the
the fuel
fuel and
and generates
generates aa greater
greater
amountof
amount ofsoot.
soot.A Asimilar
similartrend trendwas wasfound
foundin inaastudy
studyby byLiu
Liuetetal.
al.[41].
[41].
Energies
Energies 2022,
2022, 14,
15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4153 1818of
of 23
23

100

D100 (b) 50% load

(a) 100% load 12
80 EGR=0%
D100
EGR=5%
EGR=0%
EGR=10%
9 EGR=5%
60 EGR=15%
EGR=10%

Soot (ppm)
Soot (ppm)

EGR=15%
40 6

20 3

0 0

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Crank angle (°CA) Crank angle (°CA)
4.0
D100
3.5 EGR=0%
EGR=5%
3.0 EGR=10%
EGR=15%
2.5
Soot (ppm)

2.0

1.5

1.0 (c) 25% load

0.5

0.0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Crank angle (°CA)

Figure 14. The effect of different EGR rates on soot emissions: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load;
(c) 25% load.
Figure 14. The effect of different EGR rates on soot emissions: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load; (c) 25%
3.3.4. HC Emissions
load.
Figure 15a–c shows the HC emissions at different EGR rates. It can be seen that
3.3.4.
the HC HCemissions
Emissions of the biodiesel–diesel blend were lower than those of pure diesel fuel.
When Figure 15a-c showsblends
biodiesel–diesel the HCwere
emissions
burned, at HC
different EGR continued
emissions rates. It cantobe seen that
increase as the
HC
EGRemissions of theMore
rate increased. biodiesel–diesel blend
specifically, the were lower
HC emission wasthan those of
the highest pure
at an EGR diesel
rate
of 15%,
fuel. Whenfollowed by 10%, 5%,blends
biodiesel–diesel and 0%. Thisburned,
were is due toHCtheemissions
increasingcontinued
EGR rates.toWhen the
increase
oxygen
as the EGR content in the combustion
rate increased. chamber continues
More specifically, to decrease,
the HC emission was thethehighest
EGR rate inhibits
at an EGR
the oxidation
rate of CO and
of 15%, followed byleads
10%,to5%,
CO and
production.
0%. ThisBiodiesel
is due to fuel canincreasing
the improve combustion
EGR rates.
When the oxygen content in the combustion chamber continues to decrease, addition,
due to the oxygen in biodiesel. Thus, biodiesel can reduce CO emissions. In the EGR
withinhibits
rate increasing EGR rates,ofthe
the oxidation COoxygen
and leadsconcentration in the cylinder
to CO production. Biodieseldecreases, and the
fuel can improve
temperaturedue
combustion decreases, weakening
to the oxygen the oxidation
in biodiesel. Thus,ofbiodiesel
HC andcan leading
reduceto an
COincrease
emissions.in HC
In
emissions.with
addition, A similar trendEGR
increasing was rates,
foundthein aoxygen
study by Labecki et al.
concentration in[42].
the cylinder decreases,
and the temper-ature decreases, weakening the oxidation of HC and leading to an
increase in HC emis-sions. A similar trend was found in a study by Labecki et al. [42].
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 19 of 23
Energies
Energies2022,
2022,14,
14,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 19
19 of
of 23
23

180
180 120
120
(a)
(a)100%
100%load
load D100
D100 (b) D100
(b)50%
50%load
load D100
150
150 EGR=0%
EGR=0% 100
100 EGR=0%
EGR=0%
EGR=5%
EGR=5% EGR=5%
EGR=5%
EGR=10%
EGR=10% EGR=10%
EGR=10%
120
120 80
80
EGR=15%
EGR=15% EGR=15%
EGR=15%
(ppm)

(ppm)
HC (ppm)

HC (ppm)
90
90 60
60
HC

HC
60 40
40
60

30 20
20
30

00
00

-20
-20 -10
-10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 -20
-20 -10
-10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70
Crank
Crankangle
angle(°CA)
(°CA) Crank
Crankangle
angle(°CA)
(°CA)
70
70 (c)
(c)25%
25%load
load D100
D100
EGR=0%
EGR=0%
60
60 EGR=5%
EGR=5%
EGR=10%
EGR=10%
50
50 EGR=15%
EGR=15%
(ppm)
HC (ppm)

40
40
HC

30
30

20
20

10
10

00

-20
-20 -10
-10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70
Crank
Crankangle
angle(°CA)
(°CA)

Figure 15. The effect of different EGR rates on HC emissions: (a) 100% load; (b) 50% load;
(c) 25% load.
Figure
Figure 15.
15. The
Theeffect
effect of
of different
different EGR
EGR rates
rates on
on HC
HC emissions:
emissions: (a)
(a) 100%
100%load;
load; (b)
(b) 50%
50%load;
load; (c)
(c) 25%
25%
load.
load.
4. Conclusions
Nowadays, with the rapid development of the economy and industrial automation, the
4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
shortage of resources [43] and environmental pollution [44] are becoming more and more
Nowadays,
Nowadays,
serious. In this study, with
withathethe rapid
rapid development
3D-CFD development
model of
of the
was developed the economy
by usingand
economy and industrial automation,
industrialsoftware
CONVERGE automation, and
the
the shortage
shortage of
of resources
resources [43]
[43] and
and environmental
environmental
combined with detailed kinetic mechanisms to study the effects of different EGR pollution
pollution [44]
[44] are
are becoming
becoming more
ratesand
more and
on
more
more
the serious. In
serious. Inand
combustion this study,
thisemission a 3D-CFD
study, acharacteristics
3D-CFD model model was
of was developed
developed
a diesel by using
by using
engine fueled with CONVERGE
CONVERGE
biodiesel–dieselsoft-
soft-
ware
ware and
blended combined
andfuel.
combined with
The effectswithof detailed
detailed
different kinetic
EGR mechanisms
kinetic mechanisms
rates to
to study
study the
on the in-cylinder the effects
effects of
pressure, of different
different
in-cylinder
EGR
EGR rates
rates on
temperature, the
the combustion
onBSFC, BTE, NOx and
combustion and emission
emission
emissions, HCcharacteristics
emissions, COof
characteristics of aa diesel
diesel engine
emissions, engine
and soot fueled
fueled with
with
emissions
bio-diesel–diesel
bio-diesel–diesel
of the biodiesel/diesel blended
blended blended fuel. The
fuel.fuel
Theengine effects
effects of
of different
were different EGR
simulated EGR rates
rates on
and analyzed on bythe in-cylinder
theadjusting
in-cylinder
the
pressure,
rates.in-cylinder
pressure,
EGR in-cylinder temperature,
The main conclusionstemperature, are as BSFC,
BSFC, BTE,
BTE, NO
follows. NOxx emissions,
emissions, HC HC emissions,
emissions, CO CO
emissions,
emissions,
(1) and
and soot
soot in emissions
emissions ofof thethe biodiesel/diesel
biodiesel/diesel blended
blended fuel
fuel engine
engine were
were
(1) With
With thethe increase
increase in the
the EGR
the EGR rate,
EGR rate, the
the engine
engine cylinder pressure
cylinderpressure
pressure and
and
and cylinder
cylinder
cylinder temper-
tempera-
temper-
simulated
simulated and
and analyzed
analyzed by
by adjusting
adjusting the
the EGR
EGR rates.
rates. The
The main
main conclusions
conclusions are
are as
as
ature decrease. This is mainly due to the increase in the EGR rate. The increased EGR
ture
ature decrease.
decrease. This
This is
is mainly
mainly due
due to the increase in the EGR rate. The increased
increased EGR
EGR
follows.
follows.
increases
increases the exhaust gas in the cylinder and reduces the oxygen concentration.
increases the the exhaust
exhaust gas gas inin the
the cylinder
cylinder and and reduces
reduces thethe oxygen
oxygen concentration.
concentration.
(2) With the
(2) With
With the increase
the increase
increase in in the
in the EGR
the EGREGR rate, rate, NO emissions
NOxxx emissions decrease.
emissions decrease.
decrease. In In particular,
In particular,
particular, when when
when the the
EGRrate
EGR
EGR rateis
rate is 15%,
is 15%, NO
15%, NO emissionsare
NOxxx emissions
emissions arereduced
are reduced by
reduced by 78.89%.
by 78.89%.
78.89%. This This is
This is because
is because
because the the increase
the increase
increase
inthe
in
in the EGR
the EGR rate
EGR rate reduces
rate reduces
reduces the the oxygen
the oxygen concentration
oxygen concentration
concentration and and cylinder
and cylinder temperature,
cylinder temperature,
temperature, which which
which
inhibits
inhibits the
the generation
generation of
of NO
NO . . Moreover,
Moreover, the
the greater
greater
inhibits the generation of NOx. Moreover, the greater the EGR rate, the more obvious
xx the
the EGR
EGR rate,
rate, the
the more
more obvious
obvious
thereduction
the
the reductionin
reduction inNO
in NOxxx...
NO
(3)
(3) However,
(3) However,
However, with with
with thethe
theincrease
increaseinin
increase inthe the
theEGR
EGR
EGR rate,
rate,HC,
rate, HC,CO,
HC, CO,andand
CO, sootsoot
and emissions
soot emissions
emissionsincrease. Too
increase.
increase.
high
Too
Too highan EGR
highan an EGRrate
EGR rate will
rate willbe unfavorable
will bebe unfavorable
unfavorableto to the power
tothe performance
the power
powerperformance
performanceandand economy
economythe
and economy of of
of
engine,
the engine,so the
so EGR
the EGR rate should
rate should
the engine, so the EGR rate should not be too high. not be
not too
be high.
too high.
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 20 of 23

In short, while reducing NOx emissions, the optimal EGR rate that has a positive
impact on engine power characteristics and emissions is 10.

Author Contributions: Data curation, H.H., J.T. and J.L.; formal analysis, D.T.; investigation, J.T.
and D.T.; methodology, J.L.; project administration, J.T.; software, J.T.; writing—original draft, H.H.,
J.L. and D.T.; writing—review and editing, H.H. and J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is supported by the Guangxi University of Science and Technology Doctoral
Fund under the research grants of 20Z22, 20S04 and 21Z34; This research is supported by the Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of Guangxi under research grants 2018GXNSFAA281267 and 2018GXNSFAA294072.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi under
research grants 2018GXNSFAA281267 and 2018GXNSFAA294072. This research is supported by the
Guangxi University of Science and Technology Doctoral Fund under research grants 20Z22, 20S04,
and 21Z34.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

BSFC Brake-specific fuel consumption

BTE Brake thermal efficiency
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
NOx Nitrogen oxides
PM Particulate matter
UHC Unburned hydrocarbon
hi Specific enthalpy of inflow gas, J/kg
ma Mass of the gas flowing into the cylinder, kg
pc Pressure in the cylinder, Pa
Pre Prandtl number in the ε equation
Prt Molecular Prandtl number
R Total number of reactions
rA Droplet radius, m
t Time, s
ρl Density of the liquid, kg/m3
[Xn ] Molar concentration of substance n
µe Effective viscosity, Pa·s
Ca , C1 Injector constants
cεa , cεb , Sa , Cs Empirical constants
D Mass diffusion coefficient, m2 /s
f Mass fraction of evaporated fuel,%
H Latent heat of vaporization of the blended fuels, KJ/kg
ha Specific enthalpy of outflow gas, J/kg
Ha Latent heat of vaporization of the rapeseed oil, KJ/kg
Hb Latent heat of vaporization of the diesel fuel, KJ/kg
hb Specific enthalpy of leakage gas, J/kg
k Molecular conductivity coefficient
mb Mass of the gas flowing out of the cylinder, kg
mc Total mass of the material in the cylinder, kg
Energies 2022, 15, 4153 21 of 23

me Mass of the fuel flowing into the cylinder, kg

mi Mass of the gas into the cylinder, kg
N Total number of substances
Nm Mass of the micro-element control body component m, kg
Ntt Total mass of the micro-element control body component, kg
Oa Anseger number of the droplet
Prk Prandtl number in the k equation
qe Latent heat of evaporation of fuel, J
QF Fuel heat release, J
Qw Heat loss, J
RA Initial radius, m
Rc Gas constant, J/(K·kg)
Sa Source item
Sm Generation rate of the component m per unit time kg/s
Ta Fluid temperature, K
Tb Wall temperature, K
Tc Cylinder body temperature, K
TKH Taylor number
us Specific internal energy in the cylinder, J/kg
u Velocity vector, m/s
V Working volume, cm3
Wa Proportion of diesel in the blended fuel
Wb Proportion of biodiesel in the blended fuel
We Weber number of the continuous phase
xn Chemical symbol of component n
y+ Dimensionless distance
Yi Mass fraction of m components, %
µτ Shear velocity, µm/s
τij Reynolds stress, Pa
θ Crankshaft angle, deg
σ Surface tension, dynes·cm−2
τ Oil beam presence time, s
Ω Wave height index
Λ Wavelength, m
ρ Fluid density, kg/m3

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