Readings in Economic Translation

Compiled and edited by

Dr. Hatem Muhammad

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 This is a book that aims to offer a comprehensive practical course in the
translation of economic and financial texts from Arabic to English and vice versa.
The different section and passages in the textbook cover the most important issues
in the field of business, such as economics, management, production, finance, and
marketing. Several texts in English are provided for each topic with text-based
exercises on vocabulary and structures. The aim is to provide students with a solid
and thorough grounding in the technical language of English economic texts and to
introduce suitable translation strategies and techniques for these texts. The book has
benefited extensively from the following sources;

1-Advanced English–Arabic Translation A Practical Guide by El Mustapha Lahlali

and Wafa Abu Hatab.
2- The Routledge Course in Arabic Business Translation by Mahmoud Altarabin
by Routledge
3-Thinking Arabic Translation A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to
English By James Dickins, Sándor Hervey, Ian Higgins

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Contents
1-Introduction
1.2 Cultural commonality versus cultural non-commonality
2-Problems of Technical Translation
2.1. Lexical problems in technical translation
2.2. Conceptual problems in technical translation
3. Generic features of English technical texts
3.1. Features of economic discourse
3.2. Features of business texts
3.2.1. Lexical features
3.2.2. Syntactic features
4-Business Translators:
4.1. Translation and equivalence
4.2. Translation strategies
4.2.1. Literal Translation
4.2.2. Calque
4.2.3. Borrowing
4.2.4. Varied equivalents
5- Translation tools and technology
5.1 General translation tools
5.2. CAT tools
6. Translation Exercises
6.1. The business cycle
6.2. Employment
6.3. Management
6.4. Translating production texts
6.5. Translating passages on Quality
6.6. Translating passages on Banking
6.7. Translating passages on Market competition
6.8. Translating passages on marketing
6.9. Translating passages on Advertising
6.10. Translating passages on E-commerce
7- General Translation Exercises
8- Vocabulary Exercises

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 Course Calendar

Week Study Topic

Week 1 Introduction
Week 2 Problems of Technical Translation
Week 3 Generic features of technical texts
Week 4 Features of business texts
Week 5 Business Translators
Week 6 Translation strategies
Week 7 Translation tools and technology
Week 8 Translation Exercises
Week 9 Passages on Employment
Week 10 Passages on Management
Week 11 Passages on Banking
Week 12 Passages on Market competition
Week 13 Passages on marketing
Week 14 Revision

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1. Introduction
1.1. Economics Texts
Economics is a discipline that is related to the study of production, consumption,
marketing, banking, business administration as well as other topics. There is an
increased need for the translation of economics texts because of globalisation and
the growth of international companies worldwide. This has led to more cooperation
and partnership between business organisations internationally, more translations
made for documents related to loans, purchasing shares and establishing
multinational companies.
Translation is indispensable tool to promote business between private business
institutions and companies in countries speaking different languages around the
world. Furthermore, translation connects the legal and economic aspects of
international business through the translation of contracts, company laws, meeting
minutes, various types of agreements, business plans, business and market reports,
financial documents as well as regulatory and insurance documents. Economy in the
Arab world is largely connected to the international economy ( El-Zaim, 1991 ; Al-
Shaer, 2015 ; and Al-Bursan, 2011).

The daily volume of business transactions between Arab businesses and those in
non-Arab countries can be beyond measure. Business documents of diverse types
are translated between English and Arabic to promote business or determine the
rights and duties of the parties to business transactions. Adding to its critical
significance to individuals and companies, business translation can be used in
academic disciplines at various levels. The nature of business texts may considerably
differ from other types of translation texts. The type of equivalence sought in
business translation is generally determined by linguistic factors rather than
paralinguistic factors which basically relate to non-lexical elements of texts. This
indicates that functional equivalence can be the dominant type of equivalence
Economic translation is required for marketing and commerce, banking and the
investment sector, the insurance industry, accounting and auditing, and marketing
research. It deals with various types of documents such as business plans, blocks of
tender documents, invoices, account statements, consignment bills, offers, credit
requests, guarantee letters, feasibility reports, audit reports, other financial reports
and many other documents of economic use. Economic translations include:
-Catalogs and price lists
-Commercial offers
-Market research studies
-Articles in the economic field
-Financial documents
-Banking documentation
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-Project presentations
-Financial reports
-Business plans
-Audit reports
-Investment projects

Newspapers intended for general readership normally include about two pages on
business related information about local businesses or international business
including reports on local and international economy and stock prices./i The Wall
Street Journal, Financial Times, International Business Times and Business
Standard are major business and financial newspapers. Arabic business and
economy newspapers include Almal News and Aliqtisadi.
All texts can be categorized in terms of the genre they belong to. Each genre has
its own distinctive linguistic features. Since most translation students are not trained
in technical fields, they experience difficulty when they encounter ‘technical’ texts.
The term ‘technical’ is not restricted to the field of natural science and technology
but encompasses and field that has its own technical terms and structural
characteristics.

1.2 Cultural commonality versus cultural non-commonality

According to Dickins et al (2017,p.231), it is important to distinguish between

two types of technical texts for practical purposes.
1-culturally common technical texts whose basic notions are shared by both the SL
culture and the TL culture, such as texts dealing with natural scientific and
mathematical texts as they involve notions that are universal and therefore
independent of particular cultures. The basic notions are common to both the
English-speaking world and the Arab world. The main problems that arise in
translating culturally common technical texts are likely to relate to technical terms.
Technical translators working in scientific and technological fields should have
access to up-to-date specialist dictionaries and databanks because of the lexical
terms they face.

2-Culturally non-common technical texts whose basic notions are not shared by both
the SL culture and the TL culture. It is remarkable that most scientific and
technological fields develop rapidly and there is a need to coin new words and terms.
Even the best dictionaries sometimes fail to provide a single TL term for a new
technical term. Translators can only use an appropriate TL term if they have a sound
knowledge both of the textual context and of the wider technical context.

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 According to Dickins et al (2017, p.232), there are three types of lexical problems
that can make technical texts difficult to translate.
2-Problems of Technical Translation
2.1. Lexical problems in technical translation
Technical texts are mostly inaccessible to the non-specialist reader. There are both
lexical and conceptual reasons for this difficulty. Lexical problems arise from the
use of the following three types of ST terms: (Dickins et al, 2017,p.234)
1- Technical terms which are unfamiliar to the translator, because they are only used
in technical contexts.
2- Technical terms that seem familiar to the translator because they are also used in
non-technical contexts, but they are used in a technically specialized way in the ST.
3-Technical terms that are familiar to the translator because they are also used in
non-technical contexts, but do not obviously look as if they are being used in some
technically specialized way in the ST.
The third Type of lexical problems is the most challenging, because the translator
can easily fail to recognize the term as a technical one and mistakenly render it in its
ordinary sense.

Terminology is a challenging issue especially for the non-professional

translator. A number of terms have specific meanings in economics but are vague
and general in everyday language. This problem could be dealt with once the
translator has decided on the most appropriate dictionary to use. The text has to be
scanned first so that the translator can decide on the basic economic genre being
dealt with. Specific terms are identified and translated using specialized dictionaries
before the translator starts the actual translation process. Knowledge of the discipline
can undoubtedly facilitate the process of understanding economic terminologies, and
rigorous training in translating economic texts can be very beneficial to the
translator, equipping him or her with the translation terminologies, as well as the
relevant strategies to deal with this text type. Marketing terminology is mainly found
in the translation of brochures, catalogues, offers, advertisements, web pages,
marketing and business reports, marketing news and business articles, and business
correspondence in general.

2.2-Conceptual problems in technical translation:

Conceptual problems in technical translation arise from lack of the basic
underlying knowledge which is not understood by non-specialists and not explicit in
the ST. Conceptual problems are the most difficult for the technical translator. Non-
specialists translators are always likely to feel crippled when they lack the basic
technical knowledge of the field and no the linguistic knowledge of syntax and
vocabulary cannot help them. In that case, they have only two options: to learn the
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concepts of the field in which they wish to translate or to work in close consultation
with experts. In practice, trainee translators generally do both of these, quickly
becoming experts themselves with the help of specialist supervisors. The best
qualification for a technical translator is perhaps a combined technical and foreign
language degree.

3. Generic features of English technical texts

The following are typical features of technical texts in English:
1- The language is usually informative. A physician writing about a fatal disease like
cancer is not likely to express his feelings towards the disease.
2- An impersonal style is used.
3- The subjects of sentences are likely to be abstract.
4- The passive is likely to be extensively used. The use of passive or passive-like
verbs focuses attention on the effect or result rather than on the person performing
the action.
5- Use of Cause-and-effect formulations
If the texts involve procedures performed by human beings in particular,
formulations of cause and effect are normal, reflecting the importance of the logic
and development of such texts. Cause-and-effect formulations may include
connectives such as ‘consequently’, ‘hence’ and ‘thus’, verbs such as ‘cause’,
‘determine’ and ‘result in’ and the use of ‘by + -ing’ to signal method. As a rule,
technical translation into English requires economy of language, precision and
clarity, as well as clear use of standard cohesion markers, such as ‘moreover’,
‘likewise’, ‘however’, etc.
6- Nominalization is common.
“The nominalized style is easier to write and its impersonality avoids commitment
to tense, unlike the conversational style’ ( Pinchuk 1977,p. 165).
7- Compound nouns are also a feature of many technical texts. The translation of
technical texts, apart from the lexical, conceptual and stylistic problems, is not
essentially different from most other sorts of prose translation: as long as specialist
help can be called on. Some International organizations, such as the European
Union, keep databanks containing centrally agreed translations of technical
expressions. These are continually added to, and translators are expected to conform
to the agreed terms to achieve consistency and clarity.

3. 1. Features of economic discourse

Though economics is related to everyday language, it has its own linguistic
features: sometimes the jargon of a specialist group seeps into the common language
of the wider community. This is particularly likely to happen where the activities of

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that sub-group directly influence the life of the wider community. According to
Altarabin (2022, p.6), there are some features of economic texts such as;
1-Economic texts often present visual information linguistically, making use of
mathematical systems to represent economic facts. For instance, they may use
mathematical symbols, segmental diagrams and tabular information, and other
visual data (statistical tables, maps and graphs).
2-The language of economics in particular relies on grammatical structures (e.g.
conditionals, passive structures, relative clauses and logical connectives) and
rhetorical functions (e.g. assumption, hypothesis, prediction, explanation and
generalisation).
3-Economic discourse is a global discourse. This globalisation has led to the
emergence of many loan words. In English economic discourse, these loan words
are mainly taken from French, Italian, German, Japanese, Greek and Spanish.

In translating economic texts, translators should stick to the information in the SL.
The whole document should be translated without omission. Figures and numbers,
for example, should be given utmost attention, and no new numbers should be added,
changed or removed.

3.2. Features of business texts

Business texts are a subcategory of technical texts and therefore share common
features with these texts. Tylor (1998) explains that the term technical includes
scientific disciplines such as medicine, physics, and so on, applied technology, and
less obviously “scientific” subjects such as economics. Business texts can be divided
into two basic categories: culturally common business texts (business and market
reports, financial statements, business letters, production, management, etc.) and
culturally uncommon business texts (Islamic banking and finance). Business texts
have a number of key features which set them apart from other texts having no
technical nature. The features are mainly confined to lexical units and syntactic
structures. The following are some of the key defining features of business texts.

3.2.1. Lexical features

Sharing common features with technical language, business language is different
from ordinary language used in general textbooks. Pinchuk (1977 ) lists the features
of technical language which, for the purposes of this book, apply to business
language. Pinchuk says that technical language is specialized, that it is economic in
terms of linguistic means, and that it defines terms accurately. The components
which affect the readability of business texts are writer, text, and readers ( Kirkman
& Turk, 2005 ).

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1- Informative language
The language used in business texts is an informative language featuring
impersonal style (Dickins, Hervey & Higgins, 2017), Tylor (1998) and Dukāte
(2009). This type of informative language which features the use of declarative
sentences can be seen in various types of business documents.
2-Use of metaphors
One feature of literary texts which can be noticed in business language is the use
of metaphors (figure of speech) to explain a certain idea. Examples of business
metaphors include low hanging fruit (easy and quick wins), lots of moving parts (a
project or a program with numerous components), and boil the ocean (a lot of work
with a small return).
3-Terminology
Business texts feature domain-specific terms which set them apart from other
technical texts. In addition, business terms belong to a number of business domains
such as management, finance, and marketing. In addition to the domain-specific
terms, business texts can include words which have different meanings when used
in a general sense. Depression in everyday language refers to feelings. When used
in a business domain, the word refers to a severe recession in an economy or market.
4-Neologism
Neologism is one of the most common difficult challenges that translators face
in economic texts. It is defined as ‘newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units
that acquire new sense’ (Newmark 1988a: 140). New terms are continuously being
created and translators often cannot find available translations for them so they have
to come up with their own. Newmark (ibid. pp. 140–51) proposes twelve types of
neologisms and different translation strategies for each type. According to Lahlali
and Abu Hatab (2014,p.57) they are classified into two main categories, the first
referred to as existing lexical items but with a new sense. This category is subdivided
into words and collocations. Translation strategies suggested for them include
transference with inverted commas, TL neologisms with composites, and TL derived
words. The second category of neologisms covers the new terms introduced in the
TL and they are subdivided into the following: new coinages, derived words,
abbreviations, collocations, eponyms, phrasal words, transferred words,
acronyms,pseudo-neologisms and internationalisms. Strategies to deal with this
category include: naturalisation, recognised TL translation, functional terms,
descriptive terms, literal translation and translation procedure combination.

5-Facts
The presentation of facts is one of the main features of business texts.
Consider the following example: The price of U.S. crude fell as much as 34% to
$27.34 a barrel ( Disha Experts, 2020 ).
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 ‫ دوالرا أمریكي‬27.34 ‫ حیث أصبح سعر البرمیل‬34 % ‫ھبط سعر النفط األمریكي بنسبة‬

However, business texts may include predictions about future events. Consider the
following example:
Any management action that would increase the level of expected return would have
a positive effect ( Jain & Khan, 2007 , 4.11).
‫ ثمة أثر إیجابي ألي إجراء إداري قد یساھم في رفع مستوى العائد المتوقع‬.
3.2.2. Syntactic features
Business writing is practically listed under technical writing and both, therefore,
share some significant syntactic structures. Use of simple declarative sentences,
nominalization, and passive structures are major syntactic features in business
discourse.
1-Abstract nouns and gerunds
Dickins et al. (2017 , p. 241) say that technical texts feature the use of abstract
subjects. Notice the use of abstract nouns and gerunds in the following texts and
the absence of nouns referring to concrete entities.
- “Management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate
policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the . . . resources to
achieve the policy’s objectives” ( Saxena, 2009 ).
Anothe7r example:

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 “A fancy management philosophy called Business Process Re-engineering looks
precisely at this. Its goal is the simplification of all business processes, by getting
rid of any unnecessary steps” ( Voortman, 2004 ).
2-Passive structures
Business writing features the use of passive structures. Consider the following
examples:
• The reports must be presented to the management to be reviewed and updated
annually.
• A final report will be sent to the National Food Administration (NCM, 2004).
3-Simple sentences
Simplicity is a significant feature of technical texts ( Byrne, 2012 ). Its
significance lies in reducing the work readers need to do to understand the text, and
therefore the risk of misunderstanding is reduced. Technical texts which include
business texts use simple and declarative sentences to ensure simplicity. The
following is an example of simple declarative sentences:
• Marketing is exciting, important, and profitable ( Burrow, 2008 ).
• There was strong central planning and a good deal of informal support and direction
of industrial development ( Stretton, 1999 ).
4-Nominalization
Nominalization refers to “the use of a noun in the same language or in a TT”
(Hervey & Higgins, 2002 , p. 180). Dickins et al. (2017) point out that
nominalization is a common feature of technical texts. In addition, Pinchuk (1977,
p. 165) explains that “nominalization style is easier to write.” Tylor (1998) says that
nominalization distinguishes the grammar of technical texts from the grammar of
the spoken language. Consider the following example:
• The decisions about the extent and method of government intervention are
therefore continually being made and reviewed by governments, and their electorate
(Gillespie, 2016, p. 13).
4-Business Translators:
Translators perform an essential and complex role in the translation industry in
general and in business translation specifically. In addition to the different types of
technical texts that include, but are not limited to, business, financial, economic, and
medical texts, there are different types of translators who work in different places.
Many government and private institutions and companies employ their own
translators mainly to reduce costs, to ensure continuous availability of translators,
and to develop translators’ skills to better meet the specific needs of the employing
12
institutions. Generally, translators working for certain institutions work on and
translate specific types of texts. Another category of translators includes freelance
translators who are self-employed and search for translation work. They work on
various text types, and they frequently edit or revise the work of other translators.
Translators working on business texts can be staff, in-house, or freelance
translators. These translators sharpen their own skills to learn the extensive
terminology which characterizes business texts. Business translators may also need
to have a university degree, have considerable computer skills, and work with others
on specific translation projects. In addition, translators working on technical texts,
which include business texts, must have a good command of both the source
language and the target language in addition to mastering research skills needed to
carry out the translation of complex business texts.
4.1. Translation and equivalence
Although this book concentrates on the translation of business texts, it is necessary
to link business translation to basic translation concepts which are central to most
text types. One of these concepts is the basic definition of translation itself. The key
terms in various translation definitions include, but are not limited to, “process” and
“rendering” (Simpson & Weiner, 1989), “reproducing” (Nida & Taber, 1969), and
“replacement” and “equivalent text” (Cat-ford, 1965). Translation is primarily a
process following which translators decode the syntactic and semantic components
of the source text to search for target text equivalents and then render the source text.
In addition, translation involves a reproduction or replacement of the source text
according to the norms of the target language.
Translation scholars have heated debates on the definition of equivalence. Most
theorists agree that it can be classified into many types and textual levels, which
include word level equivalence, phrase and clause level equivalence, sentence
equivalence, and text equivalence. It is, however, commonly agreed that what
complicates achieving equivalence are the factors which do not directly relate to the
linguistic components of the text but which do relate mainly to society, culture, and
religion. Achieving equivalence has always been problematic ( Catford, 1965 ; New-
mark, 1981; Hatim & Munday, 2004 ; Baker, 2018 ). The difficulty in achieving
equivalence relates to extralinguistic factors which are far beyond the simple
selection of words. One of the translation theorists who focused on linguistic
equivalence was Mona Baker in her In Other Words ( 2018 ).2 She divided
equivalence into different language levels which include word level, phrase level,
grammatical level, and textual level. In addition, she discussed the problems of
equivalence at each level and proposed some practical solutions. Let us consider this
example.
ST: A business cycle is a short-term pattern of economic expansions and
contractions.
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Syntactic and semantic decoding of the sentence:
A business cycle is a noun phrase meaning ‫دورة األعمال‬/‫ دورة اقتصادیة‬, is (verb be)
cannot be translated into Arabic when it is present, and translators therefore should
search for a natural equivalent by turning the whole sentence into verbless sentence
‫ جملة اسمیة‬or using a verb such as ‫ تعتبر‬in case the translator decides to render it into a
verbal sentence ‫ جملة فعلیة‬. Short- term pattern is an adjective and noun construction
meaning ‫ نمط قصیر األجل‬and of economic expansions and contractions is a
prepositional phrase meaning‫من التوسع واالنكماش االقتصادي‬. Note that translators can use
the plural sense and say ‫ فترات التوسع واالنكماش االقتصادي‬. Given this explanation, the
ST sentence can be rendered as:
‫تعتبر الدورة االقتصادیة أحد األنماط قصیرة األجل لفترات التوسع أو االنكماش االقتصاد ي‬.
‫الدورة االقتصادیة ھي أحد األنماط قصیرة األجل لفترات التوسع أو االنكماش االقتصاد ي‬.
Translators may for example replace ‫ تعتبر‬with ‫ تمثل‬at the lexical level and
‫االقتصادیة الدورة‬with ‫ األعمال دورة‬at the phrase level. ‫ االقتصادیة الدورة‬and ‫ األعمال دورة‬are
two accurate translations of business cycle and can be used interchangeably without
semantic differences. Having more than one target language equivalent is usually
discussed under equivalence, a central concept in translation which is briefly
discussed below.

Problems of equivalence in business texts, being a subcategory of technical texts,

can arise in different domains and at different levels. Word level equivalence is of
immense significance here because students mainly look for equivalents at word
level followed by phrase level. Given the domain and word level factors, depression
can mean ‫ اكتئاب‬،‫( انھیار‬psychology), ‫ ركود‬،‫( كساد‬economic), and ‫( منخفض جوي‬weather
forecast). This reflects that students and translators should be aware of the different
uses of a word in order to select the accurate translation. Duties generally means
‫واجبات‬/‫مھام‬. However, in the business texts, it means.‫ رسوم جمركیة‬.
It is therefore difficult for undergraduate students and beginner translators to
determine the accuracy of translating words like depression, which has domain-
based meanings when translating into Arabic. Almaany online dictionary classifies
the Arabic equivalents of depression according to domain: ‫ اكتئاب‬،‫( انھیار‬psychology),
‫ ركود‬،‫( كساد‬economic), and ‫( منخفض جوي‬weather fore- cast). This draws our attention
to the fact that such differences in meaning should be taken into careful consideration
when selecting specific word meanings and excluding others.

What makes equivalence more complicated is the availability of more than one
equivalent translation in the same domain. Business means ‫ أعمال تجاریة‬and ‫شركات‬
when used in plural (businesses). Logistics has different translations into Arabic
within the business domain, and there is no specific criterion to prefer one equivalent
to the other/others. The technical Arabic translation of the term is ‫علم إدارة تدفق البضائع‬
14
which basically relates to managing the flow of goods, information, and other
resources such as products from production areas to consumption areas. The term
can also be rendered into Arabic through borrowing as ‫اللوجستیة‬. One of the
problematic translations of the term is ‫الخدمات اللوجستیة‬, which could be used in
military fields, commercial fields, and production fields. Despite the availability of
different translations of logistics into Arabic, ‫ علم إدارة تدفق البضائع‬or ‫ السوقیات‬remains
a seemingly better translation of the term in the context of business texts. Bottleneck
in business and economic texts does not have one Arabic translation which can
clearly account for the meaning in the business field. One of the available
translations is ‫اختناق‬, which provides a very general meaning of the English term
referring to congestion in the production system. Al-Mawrid dictionary, a well-
known English-Arabic dictionary, translates bottleneck as ‫مخنق‬, which does not
practically reflect the meaning mentioned just now. Therefore, paraphrasing the term
into Arabic as ‫ اكتظاظ سلسلة اإلنتاج‬or‫ اكتظاظ نظام اإلنتاج‬can better reflect the meaning of
the term. Other similar translations can also be used.

Translating financial terms from English into Arabic can also cause difficulties.
Financial statements has different Arabic translations such as ‫ بیانات مالیة‬and ‫قوائم مالیة‬.
The difference between the two lies in that ‫ بیانات مالیة‬is more commonly used. When
translating business, economic, or financial terms between English and Arabic,
students are advised to adopt commonly used target language equivalents. In
addition, students may further explore the context-based meaning and usage of the
source language terms to ensure that the selected target language equivalents reflect
the specific meanings of source language terms. Furthermore, preference can be
given to commonly used terms instead of accurate terms which may not be known
to a larger readership. Student translators should also familiarize themselves with
the contextual usage of certain business terms whose meanings significantly differ
from one context to another (Altarabin, 2022, p. 6). Generally, translated business
texts can be judged reliable when they reflect all source text details and information,
on the one hand, and provide an accurate basis for their users’ actions, on the other.
Translators’ reliability is “judged in relation to the text, to clients, and to technology”
(Chiper, 2000 , p. 218).

4.2. Translation Strategies:

According to Altarabin (2022), selecting a translation strategy depends on the
availability of target language equivalent business terms which are usually technical
and objective. Sometimes, the translation approach is determined by the purpose of
translation whether it is going to be used for general information purposes or for
publishing. Generally speaking, direct translation/literal translation is the most
15
common translation strategy adopted in rendering technical texts in general and
business texts specifically. It can be followed by borrowing, explanation, and varied
equivalents.
4.2.1. Literal Translation:
According to Altarabin (2022), Literal translation refers to the availability of
direct TL equivalents, whether on the word level or the phrase level. This type of
translation does not pose any challenge to translators or student translators because
they can simply look up the meaning of English or Arabic words in dictionaries.
However, they are advised to ensure that the selected meaning suits the context. For
example, the word depression is translated as ‫ األزمة االقتصادیة‬،‫ منخفض جوي‬،‫ ضعف‬،‫حزن‬
(Baalbaki & Baalbaki, 2008, p. 332). Out of these literal translations of the word,
only ‫ اقتصادیة أزمة‬is used in the business context. Translators also need to take into
consideration that literal or direct translation does not always mean one-to-one
correspondence but can also mean one-to-two, as in the previous example. Consider
the following examples of business terms which are literally translated between
English and Arabic.

16
 Note that some Arabic phrases such as‫ سیاسة مالیة‬can have different English
equivalent terms, but each is used in a specific context. Student translators therefore
need to explore the contextual use of each equivalent to ensure that it suits the
specific context in which the source language term was used.
4.2.2. Calque
Calque is primarily a type of borrowing which refers to the literal translation of
source text individual words to create a new term in the target language (Altarabin,
2022, p.11). It is important to note that some target language near synonyms are
sometimes used. Consider the following examples:
- Long position: The term long position refers to an investor’s purchase of a security
or derivative with the expectation that its price will rise in the future. In many Arabic
business texts, it is literally translated as .‫مركز طویل‬.
-Short position: A short position refers to the selling of a security or derivative
because its future price is expected to decrease. It is usually translated in Arabic
business texts .‫مركز قصیر‬
Long position is sometimes translated into a more general meaning as ‫ شراء‬, while
short position is rendered as ‫ بیع‬.Although such translations reflect the general
meaning of buying and selling, they do not make specific reference to an investor’s
buying or selling of securities or derivatives. Therefore, student translators are
advised to note such differences in meaning.
4.2.3. Borrowing
According to Altarabin (2022), borrowing is commonly used when translating
business terms between English and Arabic. For example, cartel can be borrowed
into Arabic as ‫الكارتل‬. The word refers to a group of companies cooperating together
to improve their profits, stop competition among themselves, and dominate the
market in which they operate. It can also be rendered as , ‫اتحاد الشركات‬but such
rendering may not reflect all aspects of the source language term. Gantt Chart is
translated into Arabic as ‫ مخطط جانت‬and is sometimes followed by ‫الجدول الزمني للمشروع‬
in parentheses to highlight its specific meaning. English borrows a number of Arabic
financial terms which are either used on their own or followed by an explanation.
Consider the examples in the following table.

17
4.2.4. Varied equivalents
Some business and financial terms can have more than one target language
equivalent and student translators therefore need to consider the context in which
each of these equivalents is used. Consider the following examples:

The need to explore the contextual usage of a target language equivalent arises
when a number of target language equivalents exist for one source language term,
as in the case of the Arabic terms above. While monetary policy refers to the actions
of the monetary authority or the central bank to control money supply and interest
rates in addition to achieving other policy objectives, fiscal policy refers to the
government actions to control and adjust spending levels and tax rates. Financial
policy can refer to the policies which aim to achieve financial stability and market
efficiency and determine the roles and responsibilities within a financial system of
business firms.

18
 One English word or phrase can have different equivalents in Arabic. Students
therefore need to explore the contextual use of such variants and select the
appropriate equivalents. For example, the words ‫ سلع‬and ‫ بضائع‬refer to goods in
English. However, ‫ سلع‬is used in the context where meeting human needs and
consumption are mentioned. ‫ بضائع‬is mainly mentioned in the context of shipment
and tax on imports. Therefore, student translators should adopt the appropriate
translation strategy taking into account the differences in target language
equivalents.
5. Translation tools and technology
Nowadays translation has become primarily dependent different tools and
software which underscores the strong relation between translation and technology.
Technology plays a significant role in translating technical, scientific and business
texts. Technological applications have significant impact on translation. Indicators
imply that technology will dominate the translation sector soon. For example, instant
translation software such as the Google Translate application is used for different
uses. Due to the constraints of time, many translators resort to machine translation,
which can be misleading when dealing with particular languages such as English
and Arabic. It is noteworthy that machine translation, which most notably includes
web-based platforms such as Google Translate, Reverso Context, and Almaany –
can be used to render individual words or phrases “accurately.” However, one needs
to ensure editing the translations to reflect the meaning of the SL terms. Some online
platforms such as Google Translate do not classify word meanings according to
specific domains such as legal, technical, financial, economic, religious, and so on.
According to Altarabin (2022), in the world of economy, the use of technology
changed the way business is conducted and helped the globalization of business
activities. Technology has increased the demand for translators, which requires
translators’ familiarity with different technological applications as a necessary

19
requirement to meet the new and changing demand on translation. Almost all
translations are now carried out using computer applications which save time and
facilitate easier and faster communication between translators and clients. In
addition, translators need to get used to the advancements in the field of technology
and translation because their job has gone far beyond using Microsoft Word or email.
They are now required to deal with different tools, technologies, and files. We
consider now some of the common general and text-processing tools which
translators can use.
5.1 General translation tools
General translation tools are the tools which translators and others not involved
in the translation industry can use. These tools can be traditional such as paper-based
dictionaries or technological such as computers and electronic dictionaries. A
management student may use a traditional or electronic bilingual dictionary to
translate business terms between English and Arabic. The same applies to students
in scientific and nonscientific disciplines. It is important to note that preference is
given to electronic tools which can be cheaper and less time consuming. Google
offers a free translation service which many people, including translators, use to
search for the meanings of specific words. Another important and freely available
online tool available for business translators working on English and Arabic texts is
Almaany online dictionary. The most significant feature of this online dictionary lies
in providing domain-based meanings. It also offers translated examples for the
contextual use of words. Translators and student translators need to verify the
accuracy of the translations carried out through such tools, especially Google
Translate. Electronic translation tools can sometimes provide all possible
translations of a given term without highlighting the contextual use of each
translation.
5.2. CAT tools
Technically, translators may be requested to deal with basic software such as
Microsoft Office programs and Adobe products. At a more advanced level, certain
translation companies and agencies may require translators’ knowledge and use of
Computer Assisted Translation (CAT) tools which may seem highly expensive and
time-consuming at the initial stages. CAT tools basically include translation
memories, machine translation, terminology management, and some other
significant features. The most popular paid CAT tools are SDL Trados, memoQ, and
Wordfast. Some translation agencies require having at least one of these as a
precondition for assigning translation projects. SDL Trados is probably the most
well-known CAT tool available in the market. In addition, its features include
powerful translation memory, advanced terminology management technology,
20
editing, project management, and machine translation. SDL Trados is very useful
when translating texts which contain repeated information in specific types of texts
which normally do not include literary texts. MemoQ offers similar features to those
of SDL Trados, while Wordfast runs within Microsoft Word, handles different text
formats, and has a translation memory and terminology management. It is essential
that translators and student translators train themselves on using these translation
technologies because the future of translation is gearing toward the integration of
CAT tools in translation.

6.Translation Exercises
6.1.The business cycle
The business cycle or trade cycle is a permanent feature of market economies:
gross domestic product (GDP) fluctuates as booms and recessions succeed each
other. During a boom, an economy (or at least parts of it) expands to the point where
21
it is working at full capacity, so that production, employment, prices, profits,
investment, and interest rates all tend to rise. During a recession, the demand for
goods and services declines and the economy begins to work at below its potential.
Investment, output, employment, profits, commodity and share prices, and interest
rates generally fall. A serious, long-standing recession is called a depression or a
slump (Zompanti, 2009 , p. 18)
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
business cycle trade cycle
market economies GDP
fluctuates booms
recessions full capacity
investment Interest rates
Tend to Demand for
goods declines
below its potential output
depression slump
Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
• A business cycle is a short-term pattern of economic expansions and contractions.
• A market economy relies on capitalism to create an environment in which
producers and consumers are free to sell and buy what they choose.
• In economics, a recession refers to the contraction of a business cycle which
reflects a significant decline in economic activity.
• The global demand for goods can increase or decrease.
Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations. The first
one is done for you .
• A depression is a severe downturn in economic activity.
‫اإلزدھار االقتصادي ھو التراجع البسیط في النشاط االقتصادي‬.

22
‫‪• Petrol prices have fluctuated dramatically in recent years.‬‬
‫شھدت أسعار الغاز ثباتا ملحوظا خالل العقود األخیرة‬
‫‪• A company cannot survive if there is no demand on its goods or services.‬‬
‫‪ .‬تستطیع الشركة مواصلة أعمالھا في حال وجود طلب قلیل على سلعھا وخدماتھا •‬
‫‪• People in different sectors may lose their jobs during a downturn in the business‬‬
‫‪cycle.‬‬
‫‪-‬یفقد الموظفون وظائفھم خالل فترة عدم ثبات الدورة االقتصادیة‬

‫‪Section 2: Arabic into English‬‬

‫إن حالة التشویش السیاسي لألھداف والسیاسات االقتصادیة االستقراریة قد مھدت األمر لظھور نظریة جدیدة‬
‫في تحلیل الدورة االقتصادیة‪ ،‬أطلق علیھا نظریة دورة األعمال السیاسیة‪ .‬فالحكومة أثناء فترة االنتخابات تفضل‬
‫تطبیق سیاسة مالیة توسعیة مثل زیادة اإلنفاق الحكومي وتخفیض الضرائب‪ .‬وھو األمر الذي سیؤدي إلى زیادة‬
‫حجم التوظیف‪ ،‬وانخفاض معدل البطالة‪ ،‬ومن ثم خلق بیئة أعمال مشجعة تحفز أفراد المجتمع للتصویت لھذه‬
‫الحكومة‪ .‬بید أن ھذا االنتعاش في الدورة االقتصادیة یسبب فجوة تضخمیة وارتفاعا في األسعار‪ .‬مما یجعل‬
‫الحكومة بعد إعادة انتخابھا تتجه نحو كبح الطلب الكلي للقضاء على التضخم‪ ،‬ومن ثم إحداث انكماش في الدورة‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫االقتصادیة‪.‬‬
‫) ‪(Al-Afandi, 2020‬‬

‫‪23‬‬
‫‪Vocabulary‬‬
‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬
‫مھدت الطریق‬ ‫فجوة تضخمیة‬ ‫تخفیض‬
‫الضرائب‬
‫سیاسة مالیة‬ ‫طلب كلي‬ ‫بطالة‬
‫إنفاق حكومي‬ ‫انكماش‬ ‫مشجعة‬
‫توظیف‬ ‫تشویش‬ ‫االنتعاش‬
‫بیئة أعمال‬ ‫انتخابات‬ ‫كبح‬
‫بید أن‬ ‫توسعیة‬ ‫للقضاء على‬
‫‪Match the Arabic words with their English translations‬‬

‫‪Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into English:‬‬

‫‪ -‬تھدف السیاسات االقتصادیة إلى تحقیق النمو االقتصادي‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬لم یكن ھناك أي دور للسیاسة المالیة في عملیة صنع القرار‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یھدف متخذو القرارات االقتصادیة لتطبیق سیاسة مالیة توسعیة في اإلنفاق العام‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یناقش الفصل الثالث من ھذا الكتاب سیاسة اإلنفاق الحكومي وأثرھا على االستقرار االقتصادي‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یعتبر تخفیض الضرائب المطبقة على فئة المستثمرین حافزا قویا لالدخار واالستثمار‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ترتكز سیاسة التوظیف الحكومي على مبدأ ضمان توفیر وظیفة حكومیة لكافة مواطني الدولة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یساھم تنویع االستثمارات في خلق بیئة أعمال قویة وتنافسیة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬تتكون الدورة االقتصادیة من مرحلة انتعاش ومرحلة كساد‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬تحدث الفجوة التضخمیة إذا كان اجمالي الطلب أكبر من العرض الكلي‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ناقشت الحكومة المركزیة سیاستھا المالیة بھدف تحسین سبل تحصیل اإلیرادات الحكومیة وخصوصا‬
‫الضرائب‪.‬‬

‫‪24‬‬
 ‫نصح مستشارون مختصون الحكومة بتخفیض الضرائب لتحقیق أثر إیجابي على نتائج االنتخابات التي‬-
.‫ستعقد خالل شھرین‬
‫ وقد یكون لذلك آثارا سلبیة على‬،‫ یحدث االنكماش عادة نتیجة الستمرار انخفاض أسعار السلع والخدمات‬-
.‫االقتصاد في حال تجاوز ھذا االنكماش الحد المسموح به‬.
.‫ یجب تطبیق سیاسة مالیة للسیطرة على زیادة الطلب الكلي في حال وجود فجوة تضخمیة‬-

6.2. Employment
JOB MARKET
A number of measures were attempted in order to combat the crisis in the job
market. Thus, employment measures and unemployment insurance were improved,
as well as measures for those who had lost their jobs. In July 2009, parliament
adopted the “law for employment initiative.” The aim of the law is to mitigate the
impact of the financial crisis on the unemployed, to create means by which job
positions can be maintained, and to give a larger number of people the opportunity
to participate in employment activities. The law should help companies cope better
with the difficulties arising from the financial crisis and help to avoid
disproportionate job losses. In addition, companies offering social work receive a
50% subsidy from the employment office for the salaries payable (Jungmann &
Sagemann, 2011).

job market financial crisis lost job

were cope better employment
attempted initiative
employment subsidy impact
insurance measures job positions
parliament combat crisis arising from
Mitigate unemployment payable

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

25
• These strategies are specifically designed to help you exercise your skills in the job
market.
•The proposed measures effectively combat the financial crisis.
•The new data on private-sector employment reflect the coverage of unemployment
insurance.
• The parliament approved the measures to mitigate the socio-economic impact of
job losses resulting from the financial crisis.
• A new plan was put forward to highlight the importance of a practical monetary
policy to cope with possible future financial crises.
• The new measures aim to mitigate the impact of the financial crisis.

Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:

• The unemployed protested against the insufficient subsidies.
‫احتج الموظفون في القطاع الحكومي على عدم كفایة المرتبات الشھریة‬.
•The committee discussed the delay in paying the employees’ salaries.
‫قررت اللجنة مناقشة عدم دفع رواتب الموظفین‬.
•Financial performance measures help evaluate the progress achieved in the
company’s performance.
‫تساعد اإلجراءات المالیة في تقییم عوائق تحقیق التقدم في أداء الشركة‬.

Exercise 4: Match the English words with their Arabic translations.

Exercise 5: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

26
‫‪• The market report demonstrates that some unprofitable companies will soon exit‬‬
‫‪the market.‬‬
‫‪• Many managers agreed to promote rationalization to increase the profitability of‬‬
‫‪their companies.‬‬
‫‪• The downsizing dimension focuses on the short-term profits a company aims to‬‬
‫‪achieve.‬‬
‫‪• The majority of the company board members decided to prevent managers from‬‬
‫‪sacking employees within three months of their commencing the work.‬‬
‫‪• The management has put forward a plan to restructure the company at the earliest‬‬
‫‪opportunity.‬‬
‫‪•The Ministry of Labor began promoting short-term employment initiatives to‬‬
‫‪reduce the high unemployment rates.‬‬
‫‪Arabic into English‬‬

‫بالتوازي مع تقلیص استقدام العمالة الوافدة‪ ،‬یجب على الحكومة السعودیة وحكومات دول الخلیج أن تقلص‬
‫التوظیف الحكومي‪ ،‬وتتوقف عن استخدام تلك الوظائف كوسیلة لتوزیع الدخل؛ إذ یفترض أن یكون التوظیف‬
‫الحكومي مبنیا على االحتیاج الحقیقي للمؤسسات الحكومیة‪ .‬ومع التضخم الحالي في عدد الموظفین في دول‬
‫الخلیج‪ ،‬ال یبدو أن ھناك أي حاجة إلى زیادة عدد الموظفین الحكومیین‪ ،‬بل ربما یكون من األجدى تقلیص‬
‫عددھم‪ .‬إن تقلیل التوظیف الحكومي سیقلل صعوبة توظیف المواطنین في القطاع الخاص؛ فالمواطن سیكون‬
‫خیاره األسھل واألفضل أن یعمل في القطاع الحكومي‪ .‬وبناء علیه فإن األجور التي یطلبھا المواطنون من‬
‫القطاع الخاص یفترض أن تساوي أجورھم في القطاع الحكومي‪.‬‬

‫استقدام‬ ‫توظیف مواطنین‬ ‫زیادة عدد‬

‫توظیف‬ ‫تقلیص‬ ‫أجدى‬
‫حكومي‬
‫توزیع الدخل‬ ‫العمالة الوافدة‬ ‫موظفین‬
‫مؤسسات‬ ‫تتوقف عن استخدام‬ ‫احتیاج حقیقي‬
‫‪Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into English:‬‬
‫‪ -‬وافقت الشركة على استقدام مستشارین اقتصادیین لوضع خطط تنمویة إستراتیجیة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬على الرغم من النمو المتواضع‪ ،‬یبقى التوظیف الحكومي أقل من مستواه السنوي‪ ،‬وھو المستوى األدنى‬
‫خالل العقدین األخیرین مقارنة بعدد السكان‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬تعتمد الكثیر من دول مجلس التعاون الخلیجي على العمالة الوافدة حیث بلغت نسبتھا حوالي نصف تعداد‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ستؤدي زیادة الطلب على منتجات الشركة إلى خلق وظائف جدیدة وبالتالي زیادة عدد الموظفین عما سبق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬تبین الدراسة أن القطاع الحكومي یسعى إلى توظیف المواطنین في مھن جدیدة لخفض مستوى البطالة‪.‬‬

‫‪27‬‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the following English‬‬
‫‪translations:‬‬
‫‪ -‬تستقدم الشركة العمال األجانب للقیام بأعمال ال یریدھا العمال المحلیون‪ ،‬أو ال یستطیعون القیام بھا‪.‬‬
‫‪• Companies recruit foreign workers only when host country workers do not accept‬‬
‫‪carrying out a certain type of work.‬‬
‫‪-‬أشار التقریر إلى اآلثار السلبیة الناتجة عن التوزیع غیر العادل للدخل‬
‫‪• The report highlighted the impact of income distribution.‬‬
‫بعض األشخاص الذین لدیھم عالقات مع شركات تملكھا الحكومة قد یكونوا موظفین حكومیین أو موظفین‬
‫‪.‬في القطاع الخا ص‬
‫‪• Individuals having relations with government-owned companies are government‬‬
‫‪employees.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: Translate the following phrases into English.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5: Translate the following sentences into English:‬‬

‫‪-‬یتعین على مدیر المشروع تحدید المعاییر واألولویات الخاصة بمتطلبات العمل‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬تعمل السلطات الصینیة على تحسین مرونة سوق العمل وكفاءة اإلنتاج بھدف تعزیز القدرة على التنافس‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬وقع مدیر شركة استیراد السیارات على عقد عمل نھائي مع مالك الشركة بعد مفاوضات بینھما حول حقوق‬
‫وواجبات كل منھما‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬تحاول الدول تطبیق سیاسات مختلفة لتشجیع المنافسة بین مقدمي الخدمات للمواطنین لمنع احتكارھا‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬یعتقد البعض أن ظروف العمل في القطاع العام أفضل من ظروف عمل القطاع الخاص ویرون كذلك أن‬
‫درجة األمان الوظیفي تكون أكبر في القطاع العام‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یلعب التدریب المھني المخصص إلعداد عمال مھرة ومھنیین دورا فعاال في تلبیة متطلبات التنمیة وحاجة‬
‫سوق العمل في المجاالت المختلفة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬یمنح االستثمار في الخدمات التعلیمیة ألسر الطالب فرصة التوفیق بین مطالب تلك األسر ومتطلبات سوق‬
‫العمل‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬أظھر التقریر الذي أعدته الشركة مؤخرا أن بعض أعضاء مجلس اإلدارة یفتقرون إلى الخبرة في عدة‬
‫مجاالت إستراتیجیة تشمل التمویل‪ ،‬وإدارة الموارد البشریة‪ ،‬واألسواق الدولیة‪.‬‬

‫‪28‬‬
 ‫ال یستطیع المتقدمون بطلب وظیفة في ھذه الشركة الحصول على عقد عمل دائم قبل إنھاء فترة التجربة التي‬-
.‫حددتھا الشركة‬
‫ وعلیه بحثت الشركة عن مرشحین آخرین یمكنھم العمل طبقا‬،‫لم یوافق المرشح للوظیفة على متطلبات العمل‬-
.‫لشروط الشركة‬
International trade
In many respects international trade in services is importantly different from trade
in goods. Indeed, the fact that multilateral negotiations on trade in services began in
earnest four decades after the beginning of multilateral negotiations on trade in
goods is a testament to this difference. The basic economic argument for reducing
or eliminating impediments to trade rests on the improvements in efficiency in the
allocation of a country’s resources that result from such actions. In essence, trade
allows a country to focus its resources and energies on what it does relatively better
than the rest of the world, importing those things that it does less well, and paying
for its imports by exporting the things that it does especially well (White, 2001, pp.
5–6)

international trade free trade focus resources

Economic argument comparative does less well
advantage
rests on balance of dumping
payments
allocation of resources multilateral tariffs
importing eliminating subsidize
impediments
trade barriers efficiency protectionism

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• The Palestinian government is planning to promote international trade despite the
Israeli measure to oppose the plan.

29
 • Allocation of the available resources can cause conflicts if such allocation does
not take sustainable development into account.

• The planned meeting will discuss different mechanisms and initiatives aiming at
eliminating international trade barriers and promoting free trade.

•Aiming to promote domestic products and industries, many governments in the

region are attempting to follow protectionism which aims to restrict international
trade.

• The representatives participating in the meeting called on the developed countries

to discontinue dumping goods into the Middle East markets.

• International trade in services is significantly different from trade in goods.

Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:

• You must follow certain procedures and obtain permission to import goods.
‫ال ینبغي لك التقید بإجراءات معینة عند تصدیر بضائع للخارج‬.

• Foreign companies need to discontinue dumping subsidized products into our

domestic markets.
‫یتعین على الشركات األجنبیة الحفاظ على معدل إغراق سوقنا المحلي بالمنتجات غیر المدعومة‬.

• The charity developed a policy to allocate the available resources to support

children.
‫وضعت الجمعیة الخیریة إجراءات صارمة لتخصیص بعض الموارد المتاحة لدعم األطفال‬

Exercise 4: Write the Arabic translations in the following table .

balance of trade bill of lading Barter

30
merchandise trade non-tariff trade surplus
barriers
trade deficit customs Market economy
cost and freight Infant market
industry disruption
Free-Trade Zone strategic performance
industries bond
Electronic economic autarky
commerce slowdown

Exercise 5: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Amid the pandemic, the central government is putting forward plans to avoid any
possible downturn in merchandise trade.
• There are proposals to establish a free-trade zone in line with our international
commitments to meet the expectations of all partners.
• Due to the weak world economy and the escalating trade war between the United
States and China, there is a dramatic slowdown in global trade.
• The basic economic argument for reducing impediments to trade rests on the
improvements in the efficiency of allocating a country’s resources that result from
such actions.

TRADE DEFICITS AND SURPLUSES

When a country’s imports exceed its exports – that is, when it has a negative
balance of trade – it suffers a trade deficit. When exports exceed imports, the nation
enjoys a trade surplus. Several factors, such as general economic conditions and the
effect of trade agreements, influence trade deficits and surpluses. For example,
higher domestic costs, greater international competition, and continuing economic
problems among some of its regional trading partners have slowed the tremendous
growth in exports that Japan once enjoyed (Ebert & Griffin, 2013 , p. 94).

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE TO NATIONS

31
 Almost all nations of the world endeavour to develop their export markets, as
export has increasingly become an engine of economic growth, development and
national prosperity. The success of smaller economies like Taiwan, Singapore, and
South Korea is based on the fact that these economies are the centre of global
manufacturing, trading and services activities. When the domestic markets are small,
foreign markets provide opportunities to achieve economies of scale, trade
expansion and economic growth to the nation. Secondly, countries tend to export
commodities, goods and services, in case the demand for them in the local markets
is limited, such as the export of agricultural products by the EU, the US and Australia
and oil export from the Middle East countries. (Singh, 2009)

endeavor trade trading

expansion
an engine of commodities domestic
markets
smaller agricultural economies
economies products of scale
global export tend to
manufacturing markets
services prosperity demand for
activities
foreign the center of oil export
markets

Exercise 2: Translate following sentences into Arabic:

•In 2018, China’s global manufacturing accounted for 28% of global manufacturing.
•Some local companies gained considerable experience in foreign markets and can
therefore succeed in competing with other companies.
•Different countries engage in international trade to expand their goods and services
market. International trade enables consumers to buy cheaper products.
•Export crops are grown for export markets and are usually traded on international
markets.

32
•The Ministry of Agriculture stressed the need to enhance the capacity to implement
international standards for agricultural products to ensure the competitiveness of
those products in international markets.
• The success of smaller economies like Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea is
based on the fact that these economies are centers of global manufacturing, trading,
and services activities.

Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:

• The central government discussed different ways to enhance the capacity of small
companies in domestic markets.
• ‫ناقشت الحكومة المقترحات المقدمة من الشركات لتعزیز قدرة القطاع الخاص في األسواق المحلیة‬.
• Efficient government export authorities can help local companies to identify
possible opportunities to market their products in export markets.
• ‫یمكن للحكومة مساعدة الشركات المحلیة في تحدید الفرص التنافسیة في األسواق اإلقلیمیة‬.
Exercise 4: Complete the Arabic translations in the following table .

economic encourage trade embargo

barriers
branch office international trade fair
transactions
forbid import set a limit
exportation substitution
a domestic economic imports
business differences declined
trade gap flow of capital declining
industries
quota revenue tariffs export
earnings

33
Exercise 5: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Social barriers can sometimes lead to economic barriers which can include
protectionism trade policies.
• Different governments made provisions which forbid the exportation of goods,
technologies, or services if they are intended to promote the economic development
of an enemy country.
• Different countries have recently proposed legislation to eliminate legal and
economic barriers to international transactions.
• Countries relying on commodity exports are at risk of insufficient export earnings
due to the intense competition in international markets.
• When domestic markets are small, foreign markets provide opportunities to
achieve economies of scale, trade expansion, and economic growth in a nation.
• Many countries tend to export goods and services in case the demand for them in
the local markets is limited, as in the exporting of agricultural products by the EU,
the US, and Australia, and in the oil exports from Middle East countries.

goods and agreements were protectionism

services concluded
to regulate exchanges low rates
fix prices goods/commodities extended
slowdown
main drive exchange rates drop in
average
valued at expansion and restricting
development
globalization growth rates slowing
down

34
 6.3. Management
The management process
Managers work in charities, social organizations, educational institutions, and
government agencies. Regardless of the nature and size of an organization, managers
are among its most important resources. Management itself is the process of
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organization’s financial, physical,
human, and information resources to achieve its goals. Managers oversee the use of
all these resources in their respective firms. All aspects of a manager’s job are
interrelated. Any given manager is likely to be engaged in each of these activities
during the course of any given day ( Ebert & Griffin, 2013 , p. 114).

managers human management

social oversee physical
organizations
institutions be engaged achieve its goals
in
government charities firms
agencies
resources institutions interrelated
leading nature and the course of
size

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Managers of social organizations must inform all employees about the

competencies related to the effective management of their organizations.
• This research paper discusses the effective implementation of strategic
management programs in government agencies.
• The report highlights government agencies’ weak management policies that did
not promote managing local resources.
• Some people believe that public-sector management has the same qualities as
private-sector management
Managers of the public-sector institutions need to employ strategies that ensure
effective human resource management.

35
• Management is sometimes referred to as the process of achieving the strategic goals
of a certain institution.
• A comprehensive strategy is a company’s plan to achieve its planned objectives.
• Operational plans provide managers with detailed and necessary information on
the tasks that must be performed.
• A manager’s responsibilities include measuring employees’ performance and
providing them with direction.
• The tasks of a company’s board of directors include sorting out priorities,
developing strategic plans, finding and allocating resources, and achieving strategic
objectives.
• The central government currently seeks to foster partnerships with the private
sector, which plays a key role in emerging markets.
• Time management is the optimal tool for maximizing productivity during a given
period of time.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Text 2
Strategic management can be seen as the linking process between the
management of the organization’s internal resources and its external relationships
with its customers, suppliers, competitors, and the economic and social environment
in which it exists. The organization develops these relationships from its abilities
and resources. Hence, the organization uses its history, skills, resources, knowledge,
and various concepts to explore its future actions. For some large organizations,
there are additional aspects of strategy that occur at their headquarters. This is called
the corporate level of strategic management and covers such topics as raising finance
and dealing with subsidiaries (Lynch, 2015 , p. 10).

linking
strategic subsidiaries
process
management

social headquarters
internal
environment
resources

external concepts future

relationships actions

36
 suppliers develops
relationships

competitors corporate
level

customers raising
finance

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Some countries focus on strategic management of industrial development to

promote national economies.
• The present research paper is designed to analyze the impact of firms’ external
relationships on development at the organizational level.
• The process of internal resource management is specifically designed to identify
priorities, to effectively and efficiently develop resources, and to foster productivity.
• The new business strategy aims to develop business relationships among different
companies.
• Customers can benefit from the presence of different competitors, which leads to a
reduction in goods and services prices because competing companies seek to secure
a larger market share.
• New companies are aware that developing their business largely depends on
building strong relationships with internal and external institutions.
• The political, economic, and social environment and the free-trade zone have
attracted different investors to various economic sectors in the country, which
consequently led to economic growth.
•The institution decided to implement its strategies and programs to gain sustainable
advantages.
• Some new strategic plans present different mechanisms to develop work capacities
and utilize resources efficiently.
• The general manager stressed the need to include key performance indicators and
other essential elements in any future project management plan.
• Some local companies began to improve their operations management to face the
challenges of foreign companies’ international expansion.

37
•Public-sector institutions may utilize management tools developed by the private
sector to improve performance.
• The project management team members believe that developing the company
activities can significantly help meeting the needs of the local community.
Exercise 6: Translate the following passage into Arabic:
Company directors are responsible to shareholders and other stakeholders to
ensure that the capital invested in the company is used prudently. Directors are
expected to maximize the return on investment for that capital. The principal reason
for having a project authorization procedure is to ensure that money will only be
spent on projects that promise to be profitable or are otherwise essential in the
interests of the organization and its stakeholders (Lock, 2013, p. 119).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Company and organization structure
Most public administration organizations have a hierarchical, “pyramidal”
structure. In a hierarchical organizational structure, power is centralized, and project
teams may be established for issues that are cross-cutting. When a network approach
is chosen inside such an organization, typically a process team (with a horizontal
orientation) is installed that profits from and is supported by a (vertically oriented)
hierarchical structure. A typical market style organization has business or profit units
that compete with each other to get hold of the available resources. In several Dutch
ministries nowadays, internal services have to be paid for by policy units. This
market concept is an attempt to lower the total costs ( Meuleman, 2008 , p. 338).
public compete network
administration with approach
organizational available profits from
structure resources
centralized internal business for
services profit
cross-cutting hierarchical get hold of
installed power market
concept
market style project
teams

38
Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
• Public administration is responsible for organizing government policies and the
performance of state employees.
• The organizational structure of a private-sector company means that private
individuals own and manage the company and its activities.
• Two studies discussed the impact of selecting a certain organizational structure
based on the firm’s ability to compete in domestic markets.
• Some companies offer a number of internal services to their employees working in
different departments and units.
• The general manager recommended maximizing the use of available resources in
order to quickly overcome the financial difficulties.
• For-profit organizations primarily aim to generate profits, which means that they
spend less than what they earn.
• The organization management selected three highly skilled employees to join its
new project team.
• Companies employ marketing managers to attract customers. Managers promote
the brands, products, and services of the companies they work for.
• In a horizontal company structure, managers can delegate certain tasks to
employees at lower structure levels through the “chain of command.”
• All companies should have good organizational structures which clearly explain
the reporting relationships to promote employees’ performance.
• Successful managers encourage motivation among employees to increase
productivity and achieve profits.
• The higher management asserted the need to define the line authority and chain of
command to avoid any conflicts.
• While the central management controls the organization as a whole, autonomous
divisions take most decisions.
• The line manager prepares job descriptions and employee performance evaluation
forms.
6.4. Translating production texts
The economy is an organized system of activities in communities which generate
wealth. Primary sector activities generate wealth through the collection or
exploitation of natural resources. Industries in this sector include agriculture,
mining, forestry and fishing. Secondary sector activities generate wealth through the
processing of natural resources and the manufacturing of goods from raw materials.
Industries in this sector include steel making, ship building, textiles, food processing
and many others Tertiary sector activities generate wealth through the provision of
services. Activities in this sector include personal services such as retail, tourism,

39
 education and health care and professional services such as accountancy and banking
(Hattersley, 2002 , p. 46).

organized tertiary-sector processing

system
collection health care steel making
natural accountancy food processing
resources
mining generate wealth retail
raw exploitation professional
materials services
textiles industries banking

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• The recently published reports indicate that major global market forces can play an
effective role in generating wealth and spreading prosperity.
• This category reflects the high demand for natural resources and raw materials in
order to satisfy human needs.
• Accountancy and banking are two types of professional services which are part of
commercial services and world trade.
• Marketing food-processing industries internationally relies on food safety and
quality.
• India is considered the world’s second largest textile manufacturer. Its textile
industry is cotton-based.
• Commercial services and activities require more advanced mechanisms for
advertising products.
• The declining exports of the manufacturing industry contributed to the financial
problems the country is seeking to address.
• Strategic plans to promote automobile production were submitted to the Ministry
of Trade and Industry.
• Inadequate packaging and processing facilities caused major economic losses
coupled with the loss food producers incurred due to farmers’ poor access to
markets.

40
• Saudi Arabia has recently announced that it will increase pumping oil to about 13
million barrels a day.
• Many underdeveloped countries export a limited range of goods to support their
national economies.
• Seeking to enhance the quality of energy services to final consumers, UNDP has
recently implemented different cost-effective and renewable energy projects.
• Scientific research can play a significant role in the production of goods and
enhancing their competitiveness.
• The multinational company prepared a new map for its retail outlets in Saudi
Arabia.
• E-commerce is an effective tool for enhancing the marketing of products and
services that can be distributed electronically.
• The government intends to gradually adopt the mechanization of farming to
improve agricultural practices.
• They discussed the poor infrastructure, which caused production costs to increase.

6.5. Translating passages on Quality

Section 1: English into Arabic
Successful organizations realize that a major factor in Total Quality
improvement is monitoring performance in meeting or exceeding customer
requirements. In this context, they understand that “customers” are not only the
people to whom you sell products or offer services but also are your internal staff.
All your personnel interact with their own “suppliers” in the processes they operate,
not just the people who sell products or services to your organization. These internal
suppliers “down the line” in a process provide an input to the next job and thus
satisfy their customers – the people “up the line” who need the information or
material. The quality of any organization’s products or services is determined by the
basic business or manufacturing processes that create them. If the chain of processes
is made efficient and effective, then the resulting products or services will also be
efficient and effective and will satisfy the external customer (Peratec, 1994).
realize “up the line” personnel

Total Quality manufacturing “down the

processes line”
meeting requirements efficient and satisfy
effective
internal staff major factor is determined
by

41
 processes…...operate monitoring chain of
performance processes
input offer services external
customer

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• This department provides technical and logistical support to different international
organizations and external customers.
• These measures were aimed at introducing new organizational systems to achieve
total quality.
• Many environmental and health problems resulted from manufacturing processes
which led to air and water pollution.
• The organization explained that monitoring performance against objectives is one
of the key success conditions.
• If the chain of processes is made efficient and effective, then the resulting products
or services will also be efficient and effective.
• The center reviewed the way it offers services to ensure quality standards.
• The management began to devote its efforts to improve production efficiency
through rationalizing the use of available resources.
• Although product return is expensive to companies, it guarantees the satisfaction
of customers who can return defected products for the purpose of repair, refund, or
replacement.
• It is necessary to familiarize all local manufacturers with the latest internationally
adopted product reliability standards.
• Successful organizations realize that a major factor in total quality improvement is
monitoring performance in meeting or exceeding customer requirements.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
The buzzword in today’s marketing management or total quality management
is the customer’s satisfaction. A customer is satisfied when his stated and implied
needs are fulfilled. Here the need could go much beyond the product and service to
enter into the areas like aesthetics, time of delivery, place of delivery, life, the way
the sales transaction is handled, etc. The true definition of quality emerges only and
mainly from customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction can be achieved through
the fulfillment of the stated and implied needs of the customer by the use of the
products and/or services offered by the organization. The effect of customer
satisfaction is the continued brand loyalty, repurchase of the products and service as
well as the customer acting as an opinion leader in the market for the organization.

42
 To satisfy a customer, the extremely important task for an organization is to
understand what the customer actually needs (Mukherjee, 2006, p. 34).
customer acting as fulfillment of
satisfaction
marketing extremely repurchase
management important
stated and buzzword opinion leader
implied
aesthetics is satisfied actually needs

emerges go beyond

brand loyalty is handled

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
• Two teams reviewed the work of distribution channels to ensure reducing costs and
properly adopt strategic marketing management.
• The proposed approach requires continuous control of the quality of services to
achieve the highest level of customer satisfaction.
• The effect of customer satisfaction is the continued brand loyalty, repurchase of
the products and services, and the customer acting as an opinion leader in the market
for the organization.
• Companies can achieve continued brand loyalty when improving the levels of
customer satisfaction.
• The improved quality of products can stimulate different customers to repurchase
such products.
• The fulfillment of customers’ changing needs guarantees continuous suitable
working conditions and profitability.
•Some companies adopted new customer service policies in order to familiarize their
employees with how to deal with customers who are not satisfied with products.
• Governments should emphasize the need to promote different modern distribution
networks which will improve service expectations.
• Competitive pricing can limit the ability of producers in developing countries to
compete in international markets.
• The new program aims at developing women’s productive capacity and marketing
abilities to ensure that they can compete successfully in domestic markets.
• Producers generally substitute different materials to ensure cost reduction and
product improvement.

43
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.6.Translating passages on Banking

Section 1: English into Arabic

FOUR TYPES OF BANKS
Investment banks are a subset of the banking industry and have a special legal
structure to execute their roles in the capital markets. There are four main types of
banks: retail banks, commercial banks, investment banks, and universal banks.
Retail banks are focused primarily on collecting deposits from individuals and
organizations and making loans. Commercial banks are focused on serving the
banking needs of corporations. For example, a commercial bank may offer a working
capital loan to fund the operation of a business. After World War Il, 60% of lending
in the United States was done by retail and commercial banks. By 2008, that was
down to 20%. In large part, this shift was a result of the growth of money-market
funds, bond funds, and securitization – all financial vehicles related to the investment
banking industry. Universal banks engage in retail, commercial, and investment
banking practices (Howard & Snider, 2010 , p. 21).

capital loan corporations commercial

banks
banking bond funds collecting
industry deposits
execute roles financial banking
vehicles needs
retail banks subset money-
market funds

44
universal banks legal structure securitization
making loans capital markets investment
banking
Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
• The central bank decided to review the role of financial institutions and investment
banks.
• Commitment to the standards of and transparency in the international banking
industry promotes reliable banking transactions.
• The proposal relating to allowing some banks to make loans and accept deposits
was rejected because some banks cannot engage in these two activities.
• After World War Il, 60% of lending in the United States was done by retail and
commercial banks.
• Commercial banks are focused on serving the banking needs of corporations.
• Universal banks engage in retail, commercial, and investment banking practices.
• Different banks generally raise money by providing different types of loans such
as personal loans.
• A major portion of personal savings in the United States is used to pay for home
mortgages.
• This research discusses the suitability of the security procedures followed in
electronic banking.
• The agreement signed by the parties does not specify the beginning of each month
as the payment due date for the goods and materials.
• Many NGOs around the world provide assistance to poor students through student
loans.
• The company appointed a financial advisor to provide financial planning and help
it achieve its financial goals.
• The investment banking industry is growing in the Middle East.

Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

45
 E-banking
E-banking (Electronic Banking): Some commercial banks provide the facility of
e-banking through which a customer can operate his account via internet. He can
transfer money and can also make payments of various bills. Through e-banking
transactions can be carried out safely and with total confidentiality.
Remittance of Funds/Transfer of Money y: Commercial banks remit money from
one place to another or even from one country to another. Remittance of fund is done
by telegraphic transfer, mail transfer, demand draft, etc.
Dealings in Foreign exchange: By keeping separate foreign exchange
department, commercial banks offer services for converting one currency into
another. Banks make profit in foreign exchange transactions. (Oswaal Editorial
Board, 2019, p. 200).

Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Many developed countries depend on e-banking to carry out different electronic

transactions.
• Bank customers can now manage their accounts electronically to complete money
transfers and payments.
• In many Gulf countries, different financial institutions and banks allow expatriates
to remit money to a bank account in their home country.
• A large number of workers in the Middle East completely rely on such financial
services for a rapid remittance of funds to their families’ bank accounts.

46
• The insufficient foreign exchange reserves do not allow large remittances to be
made this month.
• The contractual obligations show that the employer must make payments to the
employee without delay.
• Different currency converters are freely available online to convert one currency
into another.
• The company provides facilities for small businesses in the area.
•Market reforms depend on different factors such as the removal of trade barriers
which can promote economic integration.
• Most banks use internet banking systems which allow customers to manage their
accounts through the internet.
• The parties which signed the agreement agreed on profit and loss sharing in any
type of transaction carried out by either party.
• The company reviewed the effects of currency fluctuations on its operations and
transactions.
• The latest report shows that donor financial institutions did not provide any extra
funding to continue carrying out some financial activities.
• Investors should take their investment decisions based on the projected economic
returns.
• The bank cannot achieve profits this year.
Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

47
liberalization development developing
policy countries
offer money banking system
opportunities laundering
banking markets regulatory macroeconomic
authorities
establish branches banking sector tax evasion

negative effects provide services withholding

foreign banks across borders

6.7.Translating passages on Market competition

Competition and Monopoly Power: All markets, in any industry, commence their
existence with the introduction by a firm of a product, good, or service to meet
previously unfulfilled demand. The introduction of new products involves
expenditures (by the firms who make the products) that produce common benefits
for each market where the products are sold. For example, the costs that a
pharmaceutical manufacturer faces to develop a new drug are one and the same,
irrespective of whether the drug is sold in one country or another. Costs that cannot
be allocated to any single or particular market are referred to as common costs.
Common costs are fixed costs, and the amount of such costs depends on the technical
complexities and risks involved in introducing a new product to the market (Djolov,
2006 , p. 9).

competition monopoly
commence introduction of
unfulfilled demand expenditures
common benefits pharmaceutical
new drug irrespective of
common costs technical
complexities

48
Exercise 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• The proposed policies primarily aim to raise profits above the expected average
which market competition can achieve.
• Some of the companies which provide services mainly in the Arab world were not
able to compete in African countries due to the different customer needs.
•Local and international companies can achieve common benefits when participating
in different business activities. Companies competing in international markets can
focus their efforts to achieve speedy marketing.
• The company was able to compete successfully in the international market thanks
to its effective strategic management.
• Companies normally do not develop a specific strategy for single markets but rather
adopt strategies they developed earlier to compete in different markets.
• Some companies use their brand and image to compete with other companies in
international markets.
•The company managed, during a short period of time, to sell a huge quantity of its
products and therefore achieved high total sales revenue.
• It is inefficient to have companies compete to provide public utilities such as
electricity and water because they cannot lay different networks of cables and pipes.
• Some economic, financial, and technical factors make it impossible for new firms
to enter the market.
• The management discussed removing all barriers to competition.

Exercise 2: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

49
Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

6.8.Translating passages on marketing

Products and brands

The corporate brand has become increasingly important in today’s markets and
society. Not only do corporate brands provide companies with competitive
advantages, they also represent the way in which companies behave towards society.
Products and brands have been fulfilling consumers’ needs for quite some time, but
now, as markets are full of interchangeable products and brands, consumers
increasingly look for distinguishing companies. Companies use a corporate branding
strategy – that is, a strategy in which the corporate brand plays a central role – to
radiate reliability, innovativeness, or social responsibility, for example. Consumers
use such company associations to evaluate the company. This evaluation is often
referred to as the corporate image. Consumers’ evaluations of the company’s
products and services are generally considered to be moderated by this corporate
image and vice versa; the product evaluations influence the image of the corporate
brand (Cramer, Neijens & Smith, 2003 , p. 111).
Exercise 1: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
corporate brand corporate image
competitive increasingly important
advantages
fulfilling needs social responsibility
moderated by interchangeable
central role branding strategy
innovativeness radiate reliability

50
Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
• Companies offer their products to local or international markets in order to satisfy
customers’ wants or needs.
• A product logo can help consumers easily identify the name of the manufacturing
company which reflects a product recognition.
• Some poor corporate branding strategies which the company implemented resulted
in a profitability decline.
• Companies can reinforce their brand names by promoting their exclusive
packaging and design.
Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:
• Consumers’ evaluations of the company’s products and services are generally
affected by this corporate image and vice versa; the product evaluations influence
the image of the corporate brand.
‫•قد ال تتأثر تقییمات الموردین لمنتجات الشركة بشكل عام إلى اإلدارة من خالل صورة الشركة والعكس‬
.‫صحیح؛ تؤثر تقییمات المستھلكین للمنتج على صورة الشركة‬
• Not only do corporate brands provide companies with competitive advantages;
they also represent the way in which companies behave toward society.
‫•توفر العالمات التجاریة للشركات مزایا تنافسیة في األسواق اإلقلیمیة وتعزز دورھا االجتماعي من خالل‬
.‫صورتھا‬
• While companies make products, consumers build corporate brands through their
expectations and experiences with the products.
‫•تتعاون الشركات والمستھلكون في بناء صورة الشركة من خالل التوقعات‬
Exercise 4: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

Pricing of Products
Price of product refers to the amount of money customers have to pay to obtain
a product. The demand for a product or service is related to its price. Generally lower
the price, higher would be the demand for the product and vice versa. The marketers

51
have to properly analyze the factors determining the price of a product and take
several crucial decisions in this respect, including setting the pricing objectives,
determining the pricing strategies, determining the price and changing the prices.
Physical Distribution – Managing physical distribution is another very important
function in the marketing of goods and services. The two major decision areas under
this function include (i) decision regarding channels of distribution or the marketing
intermediaries and(ii) physical movement of the product from place of production
to place of consumption (Tulsian, 2007 , p. 12).
Exercise 1 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
pricing physical factors
distribution determining
Consumption marketing setting
intermediaries
demand for amount of pricing strategies
money
marketers to obtain channels of
distribution
crucial related to
decisions
pricing
objectives

Exercise 2: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:

• Different companies can use varied pricing strategies when marketing and selling
their products.
‫*تستخدم كافة الشركات نفس استراتیجیات تسعیر المنتجات عند عرض منتجاتھا في األسواق المحلیة وبیعھا‬
.‫للمستھلكین‬
• Some NGOs provide assistance to farmers which includes small agricultural loans
and marketing of their products.
‫ یشمل قروض طویلة األجل وتسویق منتجاتھم في األسواق‬،‫*تقدم بعض المنظمات الدولیة دعما للمزارعین‬
.‫المحلیة‬
• In developing countries, consumers prefer imported products to products made
locally because of the high quality of imported products.
‫*یفضل المستھلكون في الدول النامیة شراء منتجات محلیة عالیة الجودة بدال من المنتجات المستوردة التي‬
‫تفتقر إلى الجود ة‬.

52
 Exercise 3 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

Exercise 4: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• Environmentalist have stressed the importance of developing and introducing
production processes which do not harm the environment.
• Companies generally use their brands to protect their products and services from
unscrupulous competitors.
• International companies which promote product innovation can achieve
prominence in international markets.
• Different companies adopt different marketing skills and strategies to develop the
habit of consuming among their clients.
Marketing
Most people in business have an understanding of what marketing is all about –
getting and keeping the right customers. Although you will find many definitions on
marketing when you search for it, I like this definition best for its simplicity and
usability. Marketing can be direct marketing, viral marketing, branding, customer
relationship management, promotion and advertising, public relations, and so on.
Product marketing is marketing that is focused on the product (or service) the
company is bringing to market. Product managers can be found in all kinds of
companies, from pharmaceutical makers to furniture manufacturers and from fast-
food chains to computer vendors. Regardless of the industry, product managers have
one thing in common; they are responsible for the marketing of their product (Butje,
2012, p. 2).
Exercise 1 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
people in business what marketing is computer
vendors
getting and usability
keeping
direct marketing viral marketing

53
branding promotion

advertising public relations

fast-food chains product managers

Exercise 2 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

Exercise 3: Translate the following passage into Arabic:

When examining external opportunities and threats, marketing managers must
analyze aspects of the marketing environment. This process is called environmental
scanning – the collection and interpretation of information about forces, events, and
relationships in the external environment that may affect the future of the
organization or the implementation of the marketing plan (Hair, Lamb & McDaniel,
2012, p. 33).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.9.Translating passages on Advertising
The sellers are also trying to get customers’ attention on the product through
nonpersonal communication by advertising through suitable media. In the last ten
years, new media have emerged and with computer-aided design facilities,
advertising has become more forceful and its usage has spread widely. Advertising
provides customers the right to choose a product which best fulfills their needs. It is
also used to combat severe competition.
Advertising and Brands: Brand names give advertising efforts their full thrust,
as it is the brand that the company wants to promote through advertising. Advertising
efforts therefore revolve around brands. Sellers take full advantage of brand equity
by using the same brand for related products by having brand extensions. However,
if the new product does not come up to the level of the original product, it could

54
 dilute the brand equity of the main product; companies have to keep a vigil on brand
equity ( Mathur, 2010 , p. 252).
Exercise 1 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
advertising brands provides the right
customers’ revolve severe competition
attention around
suitable media brand equity full thrust
design facilities nonpersonal full advantage
spread widely new media brand extensions
combat more forceful
Exercise 2: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:
• If the new product does not come up to the level of the original product, it could
dilute the brand equity of the main product.
‫ ال تضعف ملكیة العالمة التجاریة للمنتج األصلي‬،‫•في حال كانت جودة المنتج الجدید مساویة لجودة األصلي‬
• Advertisement in commodities and agricultural products markets is more beneficial
to the whole industry than advertisement in other markets.

• The competitive advertising model divides a company’s advertising spending into

one part which affects the market demand and another part which affects the market
share.
‫ وآخر‬،‫ منھا جزء یؤثر على طلب األسواق المحلیة‬،‫•یقسم نموذج الدعایة إنفاق الشركة المحلیة إلى عدة أقسام‬
.‫یؤثر على أرباح الشركة‬
Exercise 3 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

55
Exercise 4 : Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
Advertising is bringing a product (or service) to the attention of potential and
current customers. Advertising is focused on one particular product or service. Thus,
an advertising plan for one product might be very different than that for another
product. Advertising is typically done with signs, brochures, commercials, direct
mailings or email messages, personal contact, and so on. (Gupta, 2009 , p. 261).
Advertising plays a strong role in the economy. It provides useful information to
consumers that tells them about product and service choices as well as comparing
features, benefits, and prices. With more complete information, consumers and
businesses often choose to purchase additional products and services.
Advertising also plays a significant role in the business cycle. As the broader
economy shifts between periods of growth and recession, advertising shifts its focus.
During downturns, like the one we’re in now, ads may focus on the price of a product
or service. If one company curtails advertising in order to cut costs during a
downturn, another company might boost ad spending to grab customers and grow
its market share. Advertising helps stimulate economic growth. In a country in which
consumer spending determines the future of the economy, advertising motivates
people to spend more. By encouraging more buying, advertising promotes both job
growth and productivity growth both to help meet increased demand and to enable
each consumer to have more to spend (Solomon, 2009, p. 49).
Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
plays a role cut costs growth/recession

choices grab customers downturns

benefits stimulate growth curtails

purchase comparing boost ad spending

features
broader businesses market share
economy
shifts focus business cycle productivity growth
Exercise 2: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:
• In a country in which consumer spending determines the future of the economy,
advertising motivates people to spend more.
‫قد ال تشجع الدعایة الناس على اإلنفاق في البلدان التي ال یحدد فیھا إنفاق المستھلكین المستقبل االقتصادي للبالد‬

56
• By encouraging more buying, advertising promotes both job growth and
productivity growth both to help meet increased demand and to enable each
consumer to have more to spend.
‫ التؤثر الدعایة على تحسین اإلنتاجیة للمساھمة في تلبیة‬،‫•عندما ال یتم تشجیع المستھلكین على شراء المزید‬
.‫الطلب‬
• Underdeveloped countries are far behind developing countries in terms of
productivity growth.
‫•یمكن مقارنة البلدان النامیة بالبلدان المتقدمة فیما یخص مستویات اإلنتاجیة‬
Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:

Exercise 4: Translate the following passage into Arabic:

International advertising can, therefore, be viewed as a communication process
that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication
styles, and consumption patterns. International advertising is also a business activity
involving advertisers and the advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in
different countries (Poonia, 2010, p. 171).
6.10.Translating passages on E-commerce:
E-commerce
Advantages of Electronic Commerce: Firms are interested in electronic commerce
because, quite simply, it can help increase profits. All the advantages of electronic
commerce for businesses can be summarized in one statement: electronic commerce
can increase sales and decrease costs. Advertising done well on the web can get even
a small firm’s promotional message out to potential customers in every country in
the world. A firm can use electronic commerce to reach small groups of customers
that are geographically scattered. The web is particularly useful in creating virtual
communities that become ideal target markets for specific types of products or
services. A virtual community is a gathering of people who share a common interest,

57
 but instead of this gathering occurring in the physical world, it takes place on the
internet ( Schneider, 2011 ).
Exercise 3: Translate the following words & expressions into Arabic:
advantages virtual web
communities
firms target markets potential
customers
for businesses gathering of ideal
people
statement electronic specific types
commerce
decrease costs increase profits common interest

promotional increase sales

message
Exercise 2: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:
• The company’s prior experience in e-commerce made it achieve success in
conducting online transactions.
‫ على الرغم من خبرتھا العریقة في التجارة‬،‫لم تتمكن الشركة من تحقیق أرباح في تعامالتھا اإللكترونیة‬
.‫اإللكترونیة‬
• Sellers believe in achieving higher profits when shifting to e-commerce because
of the low advertisement costs and increase in sales.
‫ نظرا للتكالیف‬،‫یرى الباعة إمكانیة تحقیق أرباح أكبر من خالل دراسة مقترح التجارة اإللكترونیة‬
.‫المعقولة واألرباح المرتفعة‬
Exercise 3: Translate the English phrases in the following table .

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

58
7- General Translation Exercises
1-Translate the following text, paying attention to numbers and figures.
Uranium Purchases and Prices
Owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors (‘civilian
owner/operators’or ‘COOs’) purchased a total of 55 million pounds U3O8e
(equivalent) of deliveries from U.S. suppliers and foreign suppliers during 2011, at
a weighted-average price of $55.64 per pound U3O8e. The 2011 total of 55 million
pounds U3O8e increased 18 percent compared with the 2010 total of 47 million
pounds U3O8e. (Uranium quantities are expressed in the unit of measure U3O8e
(equivalent)). U3O8e is uranium oxide (or uranium concentrate) and the equivalent
uranium-component of hexafluoride (UF6) and enriched uranium. Nine percent of
the U3O8e delivered in 2011 was U.S.-origin uranium at a weighted-average price
of $52.12 per pound. Foreign-origin uranium accounted for the remaining 91 percent
of deliveries at a weighted average price of $55.98 per pound. Australian-origin and
Canadian-origin uranium together accounted for 31 percent of the 55 million pounds.
Uranium originating in Kazakhstan, Russia and Uzbekistan accounted for 40
percent, and the remaining 20 percent originated from Brazil, China, Malawi,
Namibia, Niger, South Africa, and Ukraine. Owners and operators of U.S. civilian
nuclear power reactors purchased uranium for 2011 deliveries from 32 sellers, up
from the 23 sellers in 2010.
http://205.254.135.7/uranium/marketing/pdf/2011umar.pdf (accessed 28 May
2011)
-Nuclear power reactors ‫مفاعالت الطاقة النوویة‬ -Uranium oxide ‫اكسید الیورانیوم‬
-Enriched uranium ‫الیورانیوم المخصب‬
Foreign-origin ‫اجنبي المنشأ‬
Civilian ‫مدني‬

2- Translate the following text paying attention to false cognates in English and
Arabic.
An almost universal feature of most economies is the coexistence of ‘base’ and
‘broad’ money instruments. In modern economies, the monetary base consists of
small denomination government paper notes, while broad money consists of
electronic book-entry credits created by the banking system redeemable in base
money. In earlier historical episodes, the monetary base often consisted of specie
(gold or silver coins) with broad money consisting of privately-issued banknotes
redeemable in base money. In this chapter, we consider a set of simple models
designed to help us think about the determinants of such monetary arrangements.
www.sfu.ca/~dandolfa/macro2005.pdf (accessed 28 May 2011)

59
Glossary
Monetary base ‫األساس النقدي‬ Denomination ‫فئة‬
Paper notes ‫اوراق نقدیة‬ Banknotes ‫اوراق مصرفیة‬

3- Identify and translate the neologisms in the following blog.

EXECUTIVE compensation, and especially the big bonuses that characterised

Wall Street pay in recent years, has come in for a great deal of criticism as financial
markets have melted down – particularly given the massive government aid many
financial institutions have received. Bail-outs have frequently come with strings
attached, limiting or advising against lavish pay packages. But so far, little progress
has been made on attempts to claw back bonuses already paid, to traders earning
millions of dollars while their desks approached the precipice. But on this score,
UBS is proving itself quite innovative: ‘Just as bonuses (Latin for “good”) are paid
out for good performance, maluses (“bad”) will be meted out if the bank
subsequently makes losses or if the employee misses performance targets, UBS said.
The maluses could wipe out all previously agreed share bonuses and two thirds of
all cash bonuses under stringent new rules designed to align the interests of
executives and traders with those of shareholders.’ I’d say that the primary result of
such a rule would likely be the quick departure from UBS of anyone able to find
work elsewhere, but the Times story quoted above notes that UBS is pulling out the
legal stops to see if it can hand ‘maluses’ to employees who have already left the
firm.
http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2008/11/more_financial_neologis
ms (accessed 28 May 2011)
-Financial markets ‫األسواق المالیة‬ -Interests ‫مصالح‬ - Traders ‫تجار‬
-Shareholders ‫اصحاب االسھم‬ -Bonus ‫مكافأة نقدیة‬

2- Metaphors in Economic Texts:

According to Lahlali and Abu Hatab (2014,p.61), another problem in economic

discourse is related to the use of figures of speech. Metaphors used in economic texts
are classified into three types. The first type is used for textual decoration or
illustration, referred to as image metaphors. The second type is the generic-level
metaphor which occurs generally in the language. The third type is the specific-level
metaphor which is used to explain specific economic problems (Henderson 1982).
The following strategies are suggested to translate metaphors (Dobrzyńska 1995:
595):

60
1. Using an exact equivalent of the original metaphor.
2. Using another metaphorical phrase which would express a similar sense.
3. Replacing an untranslatable metaphor of the original with its approximate literal
paraphrase.
14.1 Identify metaphors in the following excerpts from an article in The
Economist.

The euro-zone crisis

Fighting for its life
The euro zone is in intensive care

WHAT’S the French for “this sucker could go down”? Echoes of 2008, when the
global financial system wobbled and George Bush gave his pithy view of the
American economy, now resound on the other side of the Atlantic. Credit-default-
swap spreads for European banks, a measure of how costly it is to buy insurance
against their default, are at record highs ... The rates that banks charge each other for
loans in the interbank market are rising, too, as they did then. Rumours swirl and
panic flares: shares in BNP Paribas, a well-run French bank, dropped by 12% on the
morning of September 13th following reports that no one would lend it dollars.
BNP’s denials saw the shares bounce back later in the day. Shares in Société
Générale, another French bank, whipsawed too. The French banks’ reliance on short-
term dollar funding, which American money-market funds are increasingly leery of
providing, is one reason why Moody’s, a ratings agency, downgraded Société
Générale on September 14th, though exposure to sovereign default is also a key
factor. The government at the heart of concerns again this week is that of Greece.
Panicked officials are racing to plug a gaping hole in the budget and accelerate
reforms in the face of speculation that international lenders will withhold the next
€8 billion tranche of the country’s bail-out. If the funds are not released within two
weeks, the government risks being unable to pay wages and pensions. A hastily
announced property tax should raise about €2 billion, which may just keep the
budget deficit below 9% of GDP this year.
http://www.economist.com/node/21529044 (accessed 28 May 2011)

Insurance ‫تأمین‬ Loans ‫قروض‬ Shares ‫اسھم‬ Short-term

‫قصیرة األجل‬
Downgraded ‫خفضت ائتمان‬ Budget ‫میزانیة‬ Tax ‫ضریبة‬ Deficit ‫عجز‬

61
Translate the following description of profit and loss statement into Arabic.
What is a profit and loss statement?
The profit and loss statement is a summary of the financial performance of a
business over time (monthly, quarterly or annually is most common). It reflects the
past performanceof the business and is the report most often used by small business
owners to track how their business is performing.
As the name indicates the profit and loss statement (also known as a statement of
financial performance or an income statement) measures the profit or loss of a
business over a specified period. A profit and loss statement summarises the income
for a period and subtracts the expenses incurred for the same period to calculate the
profit or loss for the business.
Traders, partnerships and small proprietary companies are not required to prepare
and lodge a profit and loss statement with their annual tax return. However, they are
very useful in helping you to objectively determine the financial performance of your
business. Most accounting software packages will produce a profit and loss
statement, but you may need the help of a bookkeeper or an accountant unless your
business is very small. All public companies and large proprietary companies are
required by law to prepare a formal financial report that complies with Australian
Accounting Standards for each financial year.

http://www.smallbusiness.wa.gov.au/understanding-profit-loss-statements/#profit-
andloss (accessed 15 April 2013)

Translate the following news report.

UK manufacturing growth slows
UK manufacturing growth faltered in April as exports were hit by weaker
demand from across the globe. Markit’s Purchasing Managers’ Index registered 50.5
in April compared to 51.9 in March. Any number over 50 on the index denotes
growth with today’s figures showing output rising at slowest rate of the year so far.
Consensus forecasts were for an expansion of 51.6. However, it was the fifth month
in a row that the manufacturing sector reported expansion. New export orders fell at
their steepest pace since May 2009 pushing total orders down slightly for first time
in five months. The drop in exports resulted from weaker demand from mainland
Europe, the US and East Asia, Markit said. After surging higher on the back of rising
oil prices during March the latest figures showed an easing in cost inflationary
pressures. Companies nonetheless continued to report paying higher prices for
chemicals, eggs, feedstock, fuel, metals, oil and polymers, Markit said. A number of
companies also indicated that suppliers were raising their charges to reflect increased
transport costs. More of a worry for policy-makers was a continued acceleration in
average output price inflation in April. Charges rose at the quickest rate for seven
62
months, as manufacturers passed on increases in input costs to their clients. April
data signalled that manufacturing employment edged higher, with a marginal
increase in payroll numbers reported for the fourth successive month. Where an
increase in staffing was indicated, this was attributed to higher output and the
introduction of new product lines. However, some firms reported reducing
headcounts due to weaker demand and through redundancy programs.
http://www.londonstockexchange.com/exchange/news/sharecast/news-detail.
html?newsId=20066612 (accessed 1 June 2011)

Demand ‫الطلب‬ Index ‫مؤشر‬ Slowest rate ‫ابطأ معدل‬

Manufacturing sector ‫قطاع التصنیع‬ Exports ‫الصادرات‬
Inflation ‫تضخم‬ Payroll ‫ قائمة بأسماء العاملین‬Chief Executive ‫المدیر التنفیذي‬

Translate the following audit report. Make sure you follow the conventional
pattern of auditor’s reports.
Independent Auditors’ Report
To The Shareholders of XXX Bank
Report on the Financial Statements
We have audited the accompanying consolidated financial statements of your
Corporation and its subsidiaries [together ‘the group’] which comprise the
consolidated statement of financial position as at 31 december 2013 and the
consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, cash flows and changes
in equity for the year then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies
and other explanatory information.

Board of Directors’ Responsibility for the Financial Statements

The board of directors is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of
these consolidated financial statements in accordance with international financial
reporting Standards, and for such internal control as the board of directors
determines is necessary to enable the preparation of the financial statements that are
free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.

Auditors’ Responsibility
Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial
statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with
international Standards on auditing. Those standards require that we comply with
ethical requirements and plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance
about whether the consolidated financial statements are free from material
misstatement. An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence

63
about the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. The procedures
selected depend on the auditors’ judgement, including the assessment of the risks of
material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In
making those risk assessments, the auditors consider internal control relevant to the
entity’s preparation and fair presentation of the financial statements in order to
design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the
purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity’s internal control.
An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used
and the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by the board of directors, as
well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements.
http://www.etisalat.com/en/system/docs/reports/Q4-2012-Interim-Financial-
Report.pdf
(accessed 14 April 2013)
Make a list of the new economic terms you could translate into Arabic in the
following introduction to an article on the economic crisis.
There are three important starting points for understanding the current economic
crisis. Firstly, what is happening at the moment represents the break-up of the
interlocking set of arrangements by which the world economy has been governed
since the mid-1980s. These arrangements represented a temporary ‘solution’ for
capital to the crises which emerged a decade earlier. Secondly, the crises of the 1970s
and the attempts to resolve them of the 1980s arose from a central contradiction
within capitalism between the creation of profits in the sphere of production and the
realisation of those profits in the sphere of circulation and exchange. Thirdly, the
historically weak situation of British capital, at least that section of British capital
territorially located in Britain, has left Britain especially vulnerable to the crisis.
The crisis itself has a number of dimensions but three in particular are crucial.
The first is the build-up of debt, both corporate and household debt, but especially
household debt. Linked with this is the likelihood of a return to international
monetary instability and of the refusal of the rest of the world to fund US (and UK)
trade deficits. The third factor is the effect of the ecological crisis on the world
economy, which brings with it the prospect of an end to two decades of low
commodity prices. However, these should be seen as medium-term developments,
determining the underlying tensions within which more immediate changes take
place. A Marxist analysis of the crisis needs to be based on an analysis which can
grasp these underlying structural factors, see how these play themselves out in
surface phenomena and also understand the competing strategies of capital as it
attempts to manage the crisis.
http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1581 (accessed 28 May
2011)
64
Translate the following financial report:
Recession and the Financial Crisis
The most important current development in the wake of the banking crisis is the
transmission of that crisis to the rest of the economy and its interaction with the more
general economic crisis now emerging. The most obvious issue here is the onset of
recession. The central reason for the recession is the dependence of consumer
demand in particular but also business investment on high levels of debt over the last
two decades. Now that lending is contracting this debt-fuelled expansion is no longer
possible and a sharp economic slowdown looks inevitable. The fall in house prices
is also worsening the slowdown in consumer spending as households can no longer
borrow against rising equity values. There are two fundamental reasons for the
reliance on debt. Consumption has come to depend on debt because of the
contradiction between driving wages down to generate profits in production and
needing to ensure demand in order to sell the goods produced and realise these
profits. The most obvious manifestation of this is growing income inequality and it
is no accident that the build-up of debt has been worst in countries with the greatest
disparity in incomes, notably the UK and USA. Linked to this is the way in which
production in general, but especially investment, has come to rely on debt as a result
of the weakness of profitability in the productive sector. As Robert Wade puts it ‘the
rate of profit of non-financial corporation’s fell steeply between 1950–73 and 2000–
06 – in the US, by roughly a quarter. In response firms “invested” increasingly in
financial speculation’. Consequently, without debt being available to fund expansion
recession appears inevitable.
http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1581 (accessed 28 May
2011)
-Competing strategies ‫استراتیجیات منافسة‬ - Recession ‫ركود‬
-Consumer demand ‫طلب المستھلك‬ - Investment ‫االستثمار‬
-Interest rates ‫معدالت الفائدة‬ -Dimensions ‫أبعاد‬
-Economic crisis ‫أزمة إقتصادیة‬ -Interlocking ‫متداخلة‬
-Capitalism ‫الرأسمالیة‬ -Debt ‫دین‬
-Instability ‫عدم استقرار‬

Translate the following extracts into Arabic.

How to Brand a Next-Generation Product
When Apple launched its latest iPad, experts and nonexperts alike expected it to
be dubbed ‘iPad 3’, a natural follow-on to the second-generation iPad 2. Instead, the
company called the new iPad just that: ‘the new iPad’. Observers debated whether
this was lazy branding or a very deliberate effort to market the iPad as a sibling to
the Mac. Macs keep their names with each successive upgrade, analysts noted, while

65
iPhones sport sequential numbers and letters to indicate improvements. ‘Consumers
don’t necessarily read specs to learn about new features, but they’ll always notice a
new name.’ Like Apple, most consumer-centric companies deal with the dilemma of
how to brand the next-generation of an existing product. Product upgrades make up
the majority of corporate research and development activity. That’s why Harvard
Business School marketing professors John T. Gourville and Elie Ofek were
surprised to find a dearth of academic research on the subject. ‘There’s a lot of
research about new-product branding, but as best as we could tell, nobody had
looked closely at the issue of how to brand a successive generation,’ Gourville says.

Brand name continuation vs. name change

In one experiment, 78 participants considered a hypothetical scenario in which
a wellknown firm is preparing to launch a new version of its colour printer. The
participants, who were split into two groups, received a list of seven successive
model names. For the first group, the entire series of printers was branded in a
sequential fashion, from 2300W to 2900W. For the second group, the first four
models were named sequentially – 2300W to 2600W, but the last three models
reflected a brand name change – MagiColor, MagiColor II, and MagiColor III.
Based on the names alone, on a scale of 1 to 7, participants gauged the likelihood of
significant changes and improvements for each successive model. Even though
participants had no information about the actual features of the products, participants
predicted much greater change when the latest version was named MagiColor than
when it was named 2700W.
http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/6961.html (accessed 29 May 2011)

2. Translate the following business letter into Arabic.

Subject: Confirmation of Balance as of 31 July 2012
Dear Mr Smith,
With reference to above noted subject, please note that we are in the process of
reconciling our records with our account for audit of our financial statements. In
connection therewith, kindly confirm the balance due to/from us on account as at
Date 30-06-2012 Please state in the space below whether or not this is in agreement
with your records as the above date. Please furnish the information you may have
that will assist us in reconciling the differences. An early response shall be highly
appreciated.
Yours sincerely,
http://www.learningall.com/2012/05/customer-balance-confirmation-letter-sample
(accessed 14 April 2013)

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Translate the following text on international accounting standards (IAS). Follow
the strategies discussed earlier when translating abbreviations and acronyms.
Make a list of abbreviations and their translations.

IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements as issued at 1 January 2009.This

extract has been prepared by IASC Foundation staff and has not been approved by
the IASB. For the requirements reference must be made to International Financial
Reporting Standard. This Standard prescribes the basis for presentation of general
purpose financial statements to ensure comparability both with the entity’s financial
statements of previous periods and with the financial statements of other entities. It
sets out overall requirements for the presentation of financial statements, guidelines
for their structure and minimum requirements for their content. A complete set of
financial statements comprises:
a) a statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
b) a statement of comprehensive income for the period;
c) a statement of changes in equity for the period;
d) a statement of cash flows for the period;
e) notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other
explanatory information; and
f) a statement of financial position as at the beginning of the earliest comparative
period when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a
retrospective restatement of items in its financial statements, or when it reclassifies
items in its financial statements.
http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/9DC65C49-ABA2-4718-954A
49775B5C84E6/0/ IAS1.pdf (accessed 2 June 2011)
Financial statements ‫كشف الحساب‬ Standard ‫معیار‬
Comprises ‫یتألف من‬ Equity ‫حقوق الملكیة‬
Comprehensive income ‫الدخل الشامل‬ Retrospectively ‫بأثر رجعي‬
5. Translate the following extracts taken from an economics web page.

Britain has become, once more, a high-inflation economy. Normally as a nation

we like to top any European league. But when that league is for inflation rates across
Europe, that is more than a little embarrassing. New Eurostat figures, which the
Labour party was quick to pick up on, show that last month Britain had the highest
inflation rate in the European Union. Yes, of all 28 EU members states, Britain’s
inflation rate was the highest.
http://www.economicsuk.com/blog/001944.html (accessed 28 October 2013).

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5. Translate the following economics passages.

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 - Economists have based their theories and opinions on a stable and balance
economy as the norm, crisis is the exception. However, facts are different. Since no
state in the world enjoys stable economy to the extend that the rule is the crisis and
the exception is stability. Economic crisis are due to the low foreign exchange
revenues in economy or the external payments increasing as a result of the rise in
importation prices for example. Economic crises may be temporary or permanent
due to different factors. Changing in commodities or foreign exchange prices as well
as inflation rates and interest lead to these crises. Thus, they are likely to appear in
an economy and move to another.

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8-Vocabulary Exercises :
A. Put the correct word in each space.

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C. Choose the best word.

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Internet banking

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C: 1 c, 2 a, 3 c, 4 b, 5 b, 6 a, 7 c, 8 c, 9 b, 10 a, 11 c, 12 a

D: 1 c, 2 c, 3 a, 4 b, 5 a, 6 b, 7 a, 8 c, 9 b, 10 a, 11 b, 12 b, 13 a, 14 c

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