11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Preface and acknowledgements

Classical Japanese: A Grammatical Compendium is a reference guide to classical
Japanese grammar intended to reach students who have already acquired a fair
command of modern Japanese and a basic knowledge of modern Japanese grammar.
The origins of this reference guide were laid many years ago. The prototype was
written in Dutch, and was greatly indebted to prof. Vande Walle's unpublished
course-book Grammatica van het klassiek Japans. Being given the excellent
opportunity to translate the course-book into English, I availed myself of many
valuable suggestions gained from student feedback, and made an attempt at
appending an extra chapter on classical Japanese particles. Additionally, I have also
made the most of additional usage examples taken from various Japanese-language
sources.

Making extensive use of reference works on literary-style Japanese or bungo 文語 , the

current text provides a concise introduction to the classical language through a
compact linguistic analysis. It puts key grammatical features in context, using
examples drawn from a range of classical sources. The used source material primarily
represents well-known phrases or lines of poetry taken from masterpieces of the
Japanese classical literary canon. As a reference work primarily dealing with lexical
categories, this book should optimally be used in conjunction with other selected
readings from classical texts. This handbook therefore tries to achieve the multiple
goals of helping students to master the key points of the classical language,
introducing real-language background derived from ancient, medieval, and early
modern documents, and offering stimuli for further reading in the original and in
translation.

In this compendium, romanization of the Japanese follows the modified Hepburn

system of romaji, and transcribed readings of classical sentences are shown in italic.
Extracts from classical sources are rendered into modern character fonts, and
non-common Chinese characters or kanji are topped with furigana, indicating the
proper spelling according to historical conventions.

For its substantial and generous research support during the period the compilation
of this textbook was carried out, I would like to express my gratitude to the ERC-StG
project Japan Great Depression (reference number 240854). Without it, this version
could never have been completed. I feel truly privileged indebtedness to prof. dr.
Michael Schiltz, who suggested me the idea for the first edition of this text and
provided solid support during the preparation of the final manuscript. Equally
profound gratefulness is due to prof. dr. Willy Vande Walle for sharing invaluable
knowledge and expertise during the several years I worked with him as his teaching
assistant. I was most fortunate to have a copy editor of dr. Paul Arblaster's caliber,
whose meticulous reading led to a much improved manuscript. I would further like to
extend a special note of thanks to the KU Leuven Japanese Studies colleagues and
students, as my primary audience group, for giving me the opportunity to integrate
many fine suggestions in the final text.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Part I: Introductory Remarks

1. Introduction
1.1. Justification
In terms of grammar and vocabulary, the Modern Japanese language radically differs
from most European languages. Learning Japanese therefore often presents problems
in the field of linguistic analysis, especially since a systematic approach to teaching
Japanese grammar and language structure is notably lacking. Eventually, however,
most students of the Japanese language manage to master the language, since apart
from reading theory from text books, practical experience of Japanese as a spoken
medium is of equal importance, if not more important than class itself.
In order to gain a solid knowledge of a language, merely learning the modern variant
and its practical uses is not enough. Understanding and analysing a country and its
culture require much greater proficiency than the level offered in modern course
textbooks. Conversance with proverbs, fixed expressions, the historical background of
words or the origin of poetic or rhetorical devices, and so forth, may constitute a
valuable contribution to the knowledge of the relevant culture, and is indispensable
for those claiming to be real experts in the field they are majoring in. In Japanese
Studies, students are required not only to have a sound knowledge of modern
Japanese, they equally ought to address some more classical aspects of Japanese,
pertaining to the development of the language. This mere fact implies that a
Japanologist must be interested in the more theoretical aspects of the Japanese
language. Students of Japanese consequently should study two historically relevant
phenomena, namely what is known as classical Japanese (meaning all expressions of
written Japanese from the Heian period 平安時代 明治時代
until the early Meiji era )
and Kanbun 漢文 , the idiosyncratic Japanese form of classical Chinese.
It should be noted that there is no way to acquire either "kind" of older Japanese by
oral practice. The only course and exercise material available are texts, produced
during the said periods. Since these languages can only be studied using this kind of
material, one should have some solid theoretical knowledge enabling the analysis of
sentences, phrases, and so on. Unlike in modern (spoken) Japanese, there is no way
to contrast obtained translations with reality. Once more it necessarily emerges that
the Japanese language should be studied taking an analytical and theoretical
approach.

1.2. Aims
A grammar can be conceived with two distinct objectives:

a. As a description of patterns according to which expressions in a specific

language are phrased, in order to be acceptable and intelligible for the
entire population or major subgroups within this population = descriptive
grammar. A descriptive grammar basically is exhaustive. It does not
intend to rule which is right and which wrong, but should offer a linguistic
description of a certain language. Ultimately, it aims at creating the
foundations of a deductive analysis of the language concerned, possibly

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

with reference to other languages. A descriptive grammar will, from a

scientific perspective, try to describe the language studied according to
"universally" accepted criteria, and thus make use of a specific linguistic
model.
b. As a collection of rules governing how speakers or learners of a language
use acceptable and intelligible patterns of expression = normative
grammar. A normative grammar does not aim at explaining every
possible pattern of expression featuring in a language, but intends to
compile a set of rules representing a majority opinion or a regulation laid
down by official instances, regarding utterances deemed to be linguistically
proper and correct. A normative grammar therefore is not exhaustive, but
rather the lowest common denominator. True to its objective, a normative
grammar will describe its object according to "local" criteria that
specifically apply to the language concerned, having no claim to
universality.

As a normative grammar, the present course aims to provide an introduction to the

grammar of the Japanese literary language (also known as Bungo 文語). The system
underlying this course mainly corresponds to the grammatical system used for
teaching modern Japanese language, for example in Japanese schools.
Consequently, grammatical aspects introduced in this course nearly always have,
mutatis mutandis, equivalents in modern Japanese. The general framework however
applies to both stages of Japanese, warranting the expectation that this primer may
equally be useful when analysing, explaining, and using modern Japanese.

1.3. Spelling and transcription

1.3.1. Spelling
The passages extracted from classical texts follow the classical orthography
(rekishiteki kanazukai 歴史的仮名遣 ), a system commonly used until 1946 when the
current modern spelling was introduced. It is assumed that the classical spelling
somehow reflected the Heian period pronunciation of Japanese. The classical spelling
is based on a kana syllabary, which as early as the Heian period was organized into a
table of fifty sounds, the so-called gojūonzu 五十音図 . This table consists of five
段
columns (dan ; literally "tiers") arranged in aiueo order, and ten rows (gyō ), 行
starting with vowel kana, and proceeding in accordance with the Japanese
alphabetical convention of following the initial kstnhmyrw consonants. Every single
kana sign was subsequently attributed to one of the fifty cells according to its initial
く
sound and final vowel. Consequently, ku belongs to the cell formed by the k row
(kagyō カ行 ) and u column (udan ウ段 ), and o を is placed at the intersection of the
w row (wagyō ワ行 ) and the o column (odan オ段 ). The terms dan and gyō are
equally taken as reference when classifying verbs into flexional classes (see below).
Technically, the table shows some inconsistencies. Three speech sounds, yi, ye and
wu, had already vanished from Old Japanese before the table came about. They were
い え う
replaced by substitute sounds, i , e and u respectively. During the Muromachi
period, the 47 unique speech sounds were enlarged by the addition of nasal n , ん
which had undoubtedly figured in the classical language long before. In modern
times, the 48 kana signs were next expanded by sets consisting of basic kana (neutral

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sounds; also known as seion 清音 ) combined with diacritics or other marks.

Specifically kana having a voiced initial consonant (dakuon 濁音 marked by a
dakuten 濁点 ゛
, i.e. a double slash in the top right corner: ) and kana beginning with
a p sound (handakuon 半濁音 半濁点
, indicated by a handakuten or top right circlet:
゜ ) were added to the original table. This finally resulted in a 76 character table, or 73
unique kana when disregarding the duplicates i , u い う え en e . An unabridged
version of the Japanese sound matrix can then be represented as follows:

あ段 い段 う段 え段 お段
あ行 aあ iい uう eえ oお
か行 kaか kiき kuく keけ koこ
さ行 saさ shiし suす seせ soそ
た行 taた chiち tsuつ teて toと
な行 naな niに nuぬ neね noの
は行 haは hiひ fuふ heへ hoほ
ま行 maま miみ muむ meめ moも
や行 yaや iい yuゆ eえ yoよ
ら行 raら riり ruる reれ roろ
わ行 waわ iゐ uう eゑ oを
格外 n ん
が行 gaが giぎ guぐ geげ goご
ざ行 zaざ jiじ zuず zeぜ zoぞ
だ行 daだ jiぢ zuづ deで doど
ば行 baば biび buぶ beべ boぼ
ぱ行 paぱ piぴ puぷ peぺ poぽ

1.3.2. Transcription
Since classical Japanese texts are currently read in modern pronunciation, this
introduction uses a transcription based on the modern modified Hepburn
romanization. A number of rules apply:
▪ Most hagyō は行 characters are transcribed without an h/f (e.g. koi , kau 買ふ
, mae ,
ōkimi ), except when they figure in the beginning of a word or element of a compound
日
(e.g. hi , Yukihira 行平 浮舟
, Ukifune ). In the middle of a word, は however is
おはす
always rendered as wa (e.g. owasu ) and the same transcription applies to the
は
joshi wa .
▪ The wagyōわ行 ゐゑ を
characters , , and are transcribed respectively as i, e and o
る わ
(e.g. otoko , koe , mairu ). Wa however retains its original transcription, except
after ku く ぐ
or gu in Sino-Japanese words, where the semivowel w is dropped: e.g.
kaidan , Kantō , gaka .
ぢ づ
▪ and are romanized as ji and zu.

う ふ
The prolongation of sounds is expressed by adding or . The transcription follows
the pronunciation convention applicable to each of the prolonged vowels:
▪ a prolonged a is pronounced as ō (e.g. tō , kōi )
▪ a prolonged i is pronounced as yū (e.g. shū , kyū , Hyūga )
ず
▪ a prolonged u is pronounced as ū (e.g. gafū , tsūzu , yūshi )
▪ a prolonged e is pronounced as yō (e.g. kyō , chō , byōsha )
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▪ a prolonged o is pronounced as ō (e.g. nō , Tōkaidō , kōgō )

Please note that the above spellings are not used for verbal basic forms: au 会ふ, iu 言
ふ 植う
, uu ふ
, you , and so forth.

1.3.3. Kana combinations

Modern Japanese contracted sounds or yōon 拗音 phonologically consist of a
くゎ
consonant combined with a semivowel (y and until 1946 also w; see ) followed by
きゃ
a short vowel (a, u or o). This category comprises the following clusters: kya , sha
しゃ ちゃ にゃ ひゃ みゃ りゃ きゅ しゅ ちゅ
, cha , nya , hya , mya , rya , kyu , shu , chu ,
nyuにゅ ひゅ みゅ りゅ きょ しょ ちょ にょ
, hyu , myu , ryu , kyo , sho , cho , nyo , hyo
ひょ みょ
, myo りょ 拗長音
and ryo . Lengthened contracted sounds or yōchōon
today only involve the vowels u or o. Prolongation, in transcription represented by a
う きゅう
macron (ˉ), is achieved by adding an extra u at the end of a syllable: kyū ,
shūしゅう きょう しょう
, ..., kyō , shō , etc. Prior to the 1946 spelling reforms, a
number of conventional kana combinations were applied in the Japanese language.
Some of them can be compared to the current yōon or yōchōon, whereas other should
be read as notations marking a long syllable, that is the combination of a
consonant/semivowel and a long vowel or the combination of a short vowel and kana
indicating prolongation (u う or u ふ ). Most combinations are obsolete today,
although they may appear in some modern texts, particularly in poetry. The following
table, arranged in aiueo order, presents a modern transcription of these historical
kana combinations:

あう ō しう shū のふ nō
あふ ō じう jū はう hō
いう yū しふ shū ばう bō
いふ yū じふ jū はふ hō
えう yō しゃう shō ひう hyū
えふ yō じゃう jō びう byū
おふ ō すふ sū ひゃう hyō
おほ ō せう shō びゃう byō
かう kō ぜう jō へう hyō
がう gō せふ shō べう byō
かふ kō そふ sō ほふ hō
がふ gō たう tō ぼふ bō
きう kyū だう dō まう mō
ぎう gyū たふ tō まふ mō
きふ kyū ちう chū みゃう myō
きゃう kyō ぢう jū めう myō
ぎゃう gyō ちふ chū もふ mō
くふ kū ちゃう chō やう yō

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くゎ ka ぢゃう jō ゆふ yū
ぐゎ ga ぢゅう jū よふ yō
くゎう kō ぢょ jo らう rō
ぐゎう gō づふ zū らふ rō
けう kyō てう chō りう ryū
げう gyō でう jō りふ ryū
けふ kyō てふ chō りゃう ryō
げふ gyō でふ jō るふ rū
こふ kō なう nō れう ryō
ごふ gō なふ nō れふ ryō
さう sō にう nyū ろふ rō
ざう zō にふ nyū わう ō
さふ sō ぬふ nū ゑふ yō
ざふ zō ねう nyō をう ō
をふ ō

2. Language history
2.1. Origin
The origin of Japanese cannot be ascertained with confidence. Several attempts have
been made to associate Japanese with languages in neighbouring countries (such as
Korea) or regions (such as the Austro-Polynesian region) but none of these attempts
have produced definitive results. The only point that can be asserted with conviction
is that Japanese has some striking similarities in terms of grammar to the Korean
language, for example, but this is not considered to be decisive enough to classify
Japanese in the same language family. On the other hand, some isolated evidence
exists suggesting similarity between Japanese and a number of Polynesian languages
as far as basic vocabulary is concerned. Again, evidence is too limited to conclude in
favour of clear linguistic kinship.

2.2. Foreign Influences

While the origins of the Japanese language may be obscure, there are clear foreign
influences on its later development.

2.2.1. China
Chinese without doubt has exerted the most important influence. China was the
dominant nation in all Asia during a considerable period of time, and for sheer
practical reasons it was necessary to learn Chinese. The Chinese script was used by
Japanese to write their own texts. Although kana alphabets, incidentally based on
Chinese characters, were invented later on, the influence of the Chinese script with all
its concomitants such as legislation, literature, and vocabulary, remained immense.

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2.2.2. Korea
Korea's role in shaping Japanese culture is usually underestimated or silently
overlooked. The fact is that particularly during the first centuries of adoption from
foreign cultures (3rd to 5th centuries), Korea played a very important role. The first
preceptors of the Japanese, not only in the field of Chinese language, but also in the
area of technology and culture, presumably were Korean immigrants. Their influence
on the adaptation and modification of the Chinese script should certainly not be
downplayed.

2.2.3. European languages

Moreover, as soon as contact with Europeans came about, large numbers of words
from European languages were imported. The oldest loanwords of European origin
were derived from the Portuguese due to encounters with Portuguese missionaries in
the 16th and 17th centuries. Following the seclusion of Japan by the Tokugawa
shogunate, the only Europeans allowed contact with the Japanese were Dutch traders
stationed at Dejima. Dutch loanwords were mainly borrowed during that period.
Nowadays, however, the most important influence on Japanese by a foreign language
other than Chinese comes from English, notably since the American occupation after
World War II. All these influences on the Japanese language, however,
predominantly bear upon vocabulary, leaving the Japanese linguistic structures (that
is, the grammar) unaffected.

3. Grammatical Basic Principles

3.1. What Is a Grammar?
1
Microlinguistically speaking, one might say that a language comprises both a lexicon
(words and their meanings) and a grammar (the rules or structures according to
which words should be connected with each other in order to produce plain and
intelligible expressions for other speakers of the language concerned).
- A lexicon is described in dictionaries.
- A grammar (see above) is explained and illustrated in textbooks that
introduce the general rules to which a language seems to conform, with
example sentences illustrating those rules.
A grammatical system is composed of morphology and syntax.

3.1.1. Morphology
Morphology is the study of word forms. It investigates which kinds of words there are
in a language, and under which circumstances these words are used. Morphology
further determines which forms (attached to words or independently) bring about
relations between words.

1
Microlinguistics concerns the internal analysis of a language, i.e. the analysis of a language's structure, vocabulary
etc. proceeding from that language itself. Macrolinguistics can be defined as the scientific analysis of language as a
universal phenomenon, i.e. taking as starting point the attempt to research all languages jointly, requiring criteria for
all languages to be the same.
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3.1.2. Syntax
Syntax concerns the rules governing how words are arranged in a sentence
(microsyntax), or how sentence parts are connected in a larger correlation
(macrosyntax).

3.2. Traditional Japanese Linguistics

In Japan, a genuine study of the Japanese language started rather late (about the 18th
century). Originally, the Japanese's attitude towards their own language came down
to regarding Japanese as a necessary evil, deeming serious linguistic pursuit only
useful when it concerned Chinese, the actual language of culture and science. The
only (and limited) form of Japanese language analysis worth mentioning preceding
that date, was the analysis of Japanese phonetics which had to be undertaken when
steps were taken to adopt Chinese characters for writing Japanese. This tour de force
should certainly not be underestimated, since it involved a phonetic analysis of a
language that had not yet been committed to writing. Most of the job was presumably
undertaken by on hakase 音博士
, "scholars of pronunciation," who were not
Japanese. This analysis and application to Chinese characters yielded the so-called
Man'yōgana 万葉仮名 2
system, which would prove to be the foundation on to which
the later kana alphabets were engrafted. This phonological analysis of Old Japanese
is in fact based on the very rich and very developed Indian linguistic tradition, which
found its way to China jointly with the linguistic analysis of Buddhist scriptures.
Only during the eighteenth century, following the bourgeoning of a certain Japanese
national awareness, which in the scientific sphere was heralded by the so-called
Kokugaku 国学, i.e. "National Learning", did interest in Japanese arise, and
prominent scholars started to adopt Japanese as an object of study. Japanese terms
for various grammatical specificities were first introduced during this period, laying
the foundations of a traditional Japanese grammar. A great deal of the promising
approach introduced by the first Japanese linguists and grammarians such as Fujitani
Nariakira 富士谷成章 and Gimon 義門
, was rejected during the redescription of the
Japanese language in the 19 century, reflecting Dutch and English influence. The
th

current system, which is largely based on the systematic description by Hashimoto

Shinkichi 橋本進吉 (1882-1945), tries to reconcile the aforesaid traditional approach
with terminology introduced under Western influence. This was naturally
accompanied by ups and downs. The purpose of the present syllabus is to introduce
classical Japanese terminology and classification on the basis of this synthesis,
mirroring the teaching practice at most Japanese schools. This is by far the best
method to tackle the classical Japanese language in a coherent and normative way.

2
Man’yōgana is a compound term linking Man’yō, derived from the eighth­century anthology called Man’yōshū,
with the word kana, lit. "borrowed letters". The term describes the use of Chinese characters for writing Japanese
texts as it was applied in the Man’yōshū, the Kojiki and other Old Japanese writings. Accordingly, a text was
entirely written in Chinese characters, part of which was used phonetically to represent Japanese sounds, whereas
the other part was used semantically, but pronounced in Japanese. The context therefore determined a character's
reading.
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Part II: Linguistic Analysis of Classical Japanese

When parsing a language, a researcher can adopt two methods. One of these is to sort
out the constituent parts of a period, classifying them according to their function in
the sentence; in other words, to try to identify the subject, predicate, and kinds of
complements. This entails the application of "phrasal parsing". The other method is
to apply "part-of-speech parsing". Parts of speech (hinshi 品詞
) dominate the latter
parsing method. They concern certain categories of words, each of which shares
similarities in terms of usage and behaviour (such as syntax, (in)flexion, and so
forth). This part will thoroughly discuss the Japanese parts of speech as identified by
traditional Japanese linguistics. This implies an introduction of peculiar Japanese
terminology, which is explained as clearly as possible using analogies in English.
Traditional discussion of Japanese parts of speech distinguished between two main
3
groups. Free morphemes (jiritsugo 自立語
) comprise words which can operate
independently, and which can be arranged into a sentence. Bound morphemes
(fuzokugo 付属語 ), by contrast, cannot stand alone, but are attached to words, both
free and bound morphemes, that function as base. The following sentence illustrates
the combined appearance of free and bound morphemes (respectively underlined and
shaded) in classical Japanese:
Ki yori ochite shinuru mashira ga ōshi 木より落ちて死ぬる猿が多し 4

As is illustrated in the table below, both main groups can each be subdivided into
smaller categories:
verbs (dōshi
) 動詞
adjectives
flexional (keiyōshi 形容
(yūkatsuyō 有
flexion words (yōgen ) 用言) 詞
活用
) adjectival
verbs
(keiyōdōshi 形
free
) 容動詞
substantives
morphemes
(jiritsugo 自立 (meishi ) 名詞
語 ) nouns (taigen
pronouns
代
) 体言 (daimeishi
) 名詞
flexionless
numerals
(mukatsuyō
無活用)
(sūshi ) 数詞
adverbs
non-nouns
modifying
(fukushi ) 副詞
(hitaigen 非体
(shūshoku
修飾す
adnouns
) 言suru
る
(rentaishi 連
)
) 体詞

3
A morpheme is the smallest possible language element charged with a certain grammatical function or a specific
semantic content (semantic function).
4
Ochi落ち 落つ
is an inflected form of the verb otsu , a free morpheme.
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conjunctions
unmodifying (setsuzokushi
(shūshoku 接続詞 )
shinai 修飾し interjections
ない
) (kandōshi) 感
動詞 )
flexion
flexional
Bound (yūkatsuyō 有 morphemes
助動
morphemes 活用 )
(jodōshi
詞
(fuzokugo 付 )
属語 )
flexionless
particles
(joshi 助詞)
(mukatsuyō
無活用 )

1. Free Morphemes: jiritsugo 自立語

These are words entirely independent from words they join to constitute a sentence.
They operate freely in a language, and can optionally be connected with certain other
words. By virtue of the presence/absence of flexion, these free morphemes can be
classified into flexion words (yōgen) or flexionless words.

1.1. Flexion words: yōgen 用言

These are independent words which change their original form due to certain
circumstances, such as being combined with other words, or establishing
grammatical relations. This form modification is named "flexion".

a. Flexion

For clarity's sake, the following terminological components can be discerned when
analysing yōgen:
Stem (gokan 語幹 ): the base part of a yōgen without its flexional final syllable:
ぐ
Verbs: oyogu ; stem = oyo- およ
し
Adjectives: takashi ; stem = taka- たか
Final syllable (gobi 語尾
): the syllable following the stem, which changes when
flecting a verb (not applicable to adjectives):
ぐ
Verbs: oyogu ; final syllable = gu ぐ
Ending (tenka 添加 5
) : morpheme attached to the (modified/unmodified) final
syllable or to the stem of certain inflected forms:
Verbs: ukuru くる く
[the attributive form of uku ]; ending = -ru る
く く
Adjectives: takaku ; ending = ku ; directly attached to the stem.

b. Definition

- In using "flexion", reference is made to a context-induced modification of a yōgen's

form. Such form change can come about in three ways:
1. By changing the final syllable of a yōgen (verbs)

5
Also called ending morpheme or suffix morpheme. This exclusively regards morphemes being part of the inflected
form, and does not concern particles.
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2. By attaching an ending to the unmodified final syllable (adjectives)

3. By changing the final syllable and attaching an ending (verbs)
- Flexion enables a random yōgen to be grammatically connected to a sequence of
other sentence parts.

c. Inflected form / katsuyōkei 活用形

As an agglutinative language (kōchakugo 膠着語 ), inter-word relations in Japanese
are expressed not by using inflexional endings, but by attaching separate language
elements or morphemes to a specific inflected form. The Classical Japanese language
has six inflected forms in which yōgen, depending on the context, may operate. These
forms, for convenience shortened throughout this course to their three-letter
abbreviations, are:
Mizenkei 未然形 (MZK)
Ren'yōkei 連用形 (RYK)
Shūshikei 終止形 (SSK)
Rentaikei 連体形 (RTK)
Izenkei 已然形 (IZK)
Meireikei 命令形 (MRK)
All forms define the way in which the verb/adjective relates to reality, as viewed by
the utterer. Accordingly, they may somehow be compared to the phenomenon of
"principal parts", or better: moods or "modi" in Western languages (such as
indicative, infinitive, imperative, and so forth). The six forms may further be
subdivided into two main groups. One group comprises MZK, IZK, and MRK,
emphasizing the meaning of a verb or adjective. The remaining inflected forms rather
clarify the position of the verb or adjective in a sentence. In turn, they may be used as
base to which jo(dō)shi having a semantic value are attached. The main group to
which an inflected form belongs, is more or less indicated by the name of the very
inflected form. Certain inflected forms, for instance, are named after the kind of
connection that is established with the part of speech that follows. RTK, for example,
literally means "inflected form linked to nouns" (taigen ni tsuranaru katsuyōkei 体言
に連なる活用形 ). This form consequently is meant to establish a connection between
a yōgen and a taigen, i.e. it operates attributively.
The name of other inflected forms is concerned with a semantic value that is realized.
IZK, for instance, literally denotes "the already completed form". Understandably,
this form is predominantly used to indicate an already realized condition or
completed action, and is fully operative upon attachment of jodōshi or joshi
enhancing this semantic aspect.

d. Why use the term "flexion"?

The fact that flexion involves modification of verbal (and other) forms, could tempt
one to use the term "conjugation" for any formal modification of Japanese yōgen.
Japanese flexional verbs however do not change along patterns similar to those
governing verbs in European languages. Yōgen for instance do not change according
to gender, person or number. Modification is only affected by the grammatical
context, that is to say the quality of the particles or other words put after a specific

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

yōgen. In order to avoid terminology that is open to confusion, the word flexion has
been adopted to indicate formal modifications of flexional Japanese words.
In most cases, however, denotation of intrinsic nuances, such as feelings, politeness,
time, and so forth, is achieved in Japanese by attaching a specific suffix to a certain
inflected form. In modern Japanese, various suffixes are so closely connected to the
6
verb, that they almost appear to be endings of the verb.
Such forms actually constitute a inflected form of a verb combined with an affix
(jodōshi or joshi). The most important feature, then, is that this system of attaching
affixes and their likes allows a huge variegation of expressions.
The question inevitably is whether attaching a particle that brings modification to a
verb is not the same as using conjugation, as it is the case in Western verbs.
7
It is useful to maintain the difference between conjugation and agglutination as a
mode of expressing diverse semantic differences for two reasons.
1. Both joshi and jodōshi can be defined as proper categories separately from yōgen,
since they are isolable, exchangeable, and up to a certain level independent of the root
to which they are added. Identical affixes, moreover, can in many cases be used both
in connection with verbs and adjectives.
2. Modification of yōgen is typically induced by the kind of particle attached. Even if a
connection can be made between the semantic value of a particle and the inflected
form a yōgen has to adopt, conjugational forms cover a much larger and more
ambiguous area than particles, which are usually very precise in terms of the
emotional and semantic nuances they are intended to convey.

e. Flexional classes

In Western languages, and especially in Latin, different standard patterns (or

paradigms) govern how verbs are inflected, or, more accurately, conjugated, after the
Latin term for such inflexions: conjugatio. A similar phenomenon exists pertaining to
the flexion of Japanese yōgen. There are, in other words, patterns governing the
format of a yōgen in each of the above-mentioned forms. These patterns are called
flexional classes, or in Japanese: katsuyō no shurui . 活用の種類
1.1.1. Verbs: dōshi 動詞
Verbs, or literally "motion-words" in Japanese, express an action, happening, state, or
existence. In lexica or dictionaries, verbs typically appear in their final form, that is
SSK.

a. Inflected forms / katsuyōkei 活用形

The flexion of verbs operates by modification of the final syllable and/or attachment
of an ending, producing at most six different forms. These six forms usually serve as
root for joshi and jodōshi. Among these inflected forms, some may fulfill an
independent role within the syntactic construction. The following forms can be
discerned when flecting Japanese verbs:

6
Consider for example polite verbal endings such as ­masu.
7
The morphological process of successively adding affixes to a root in order to form a compound, contrasted as a
mode of word­formation or of the expression of complex ideas with inflexion or the use of isolated elements.
Agglutination is a particular characteristic of certain non­Indo­European languages, including (for example)
Hungarian, Nahuatl, Korean, Japanese, and Turkish. OED, s.v. "agglutination"
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1. Mizenkei 未然形
The MZK, literally "not yet completed form", is usually called the "imperfective" or
indefinite form. This form cannot be used independently, and should be followed by
jodōshi or joshi. Similar to the MZK in Modern Japanese, which is often followed by
jodōshi expressing negation, intention, or deliberation (cf. ikanai行かない [I do not
go], ikō 行こう [let's go]), the classical MZK is generally followed by jodōshi
articulating a state to be realized, or a future event. Three of the five main uses
(negation, intention, surmise) express that the action is still to be completed. The
future aspect is not explicit in the fourth usage, which connects the MZK to functional
contents: passive, medio-passive, potential, causative and honorific voices.

▪ Negation / hitei 否定
The negation morpheme zu ずtakes a prominent place. Moreover, the conjunctive
negation particle de で is equally ranged under this heading. It is a particle that
actually represents the comprised combination of zu ず
+ the conjunctive particle te
て .

死なず
shinazu
does not die

京には見えぬ鳥なれば、皆人見知らず
Miyako niwa mienu tori nareba, mina hito mishirazu (Ise monogatari, 9:117)
As it was a bird one does not spot in the capital, no-one recognized it.

▪ Intention / desire / request

む じ
The jodōshi belonging to this category are mu (intention), ji (negative intention)
and mahoshi まほし (desire). Kindred particles are bayaばや (first-person desire),
namu なむ な
(request), and Nara particle na (first-person desire/invitation).

死なむ
shinamu
to intend to die, shall die

天つ風雲の通ひ路吹きとぢよ乙女の姿しばしとどめむ
Amatsukaze kumo no kayoiji fukitojiyo otome no sugata shibashi todomemu
(Kokinshū, 872)
Winds of heaven, blow shut the passage of the clouds! I want to retain the
image of the girls for a while.

いかで見ばやと思ひつゝ
Ikade mibaya to omoitsutsu (Sarashina nikki, "Kadode")
I thought to myself how fondly I wanted to see her.

いつしか梅咲かなむ
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Itsushika ume sakanamu (Sarashina nikki, "Ume no tachie")

I wished the ume trees to blossom soon.

今は漕ぎ出でな
Ima wa kogiidena (Man'yōshū, 1:8)
Let's row out now!

▪ Surmise or hypothesis
In addition to the jodōshi mashi まし (surmise), the particle ba ば
(hypothesis/speculation) is particularly relevant for this kind of use. Ba should not be
mistaken for the homophonic IZK particle ba which covers a causal or temporal
meaning.

死なば
shinaba
if I were to die

小倉山峯のもみぢ葉心あらば今一度の行幸待たなむ
Ogurayama mine no momijiba kokoro araba ima hitotabi no miyuki
matanamu (Shūi wakashū, 17:1128)
Autumnal leaves atop Mount Ogura! If you have a heart, please wait for one
more imperial procession.

▪ Passive / medio-passive / potential / causative / honorific

る
Mention should be made here of the jodōshi ru , raru らる す
, su , sasu さす
and
shimu しむ . Specifically, the morphemes ru and raru account for the potential,
(medio)passive, and honorific functions, whereas su, sasu, and shimu operate as
ゆ
markers of a causative or honorific content. In addition, yu and rayu らゆ
count as
Nara equivalents of the jodōshi ru and raru.

2. The ren'yōkei 連用形

The "conjoining form" which, as is hinted by its name, connects flexion words,
indicates that the action or state expressed by the verb is already completed, or still
ongoing. Three functions can be discerned:

▪ Adverbial adjunct

滝の糸は絶えて久しくなりぬれど
Taki no ito wa taete hisashiku narinuredo (Shūi wakashū, 8:449)
Although the threads of the waterfall ceased flowing long ago...

▪ Simultaneity or succession of actions

In this usage, the RYK often appears in isolation and takes a so-called "suspensive
form" (chūshikei 中止形 ), articulating, as it were, a caesura between co-ordinated
sentences. As is illustrated by tsutsu below, the RYK may be combined with a particle.

吾は死に、彼は死なず
Ware wa shini, kare wa shinazu

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I die, and he doesn't

御垣守衛士の焚く火の夜は燃え昼は消えつつ物をこそ思へ
Mikakimori eji no taku hi no yoru wa moe hiru wa kietsutsu mono o koso
omoe (Shikashū, 7:225)
As fire lit by the Palace Guards, burning at night and quenched during the day,
I am meditating.

これより峯つゞき、炭山を越え、笠取を過ぎて、或は岩間まうで、或は石山
ををがむ
Kore yori mine tsuzuki, Sumiyama o koe, Kasatori o sugite, aruiwa Iwama
mōde, aruiwa Ishiyama o ogamu (Hōjōki, 30:39)
A chain of peaks runs from here, and we shall cross Mount Sumi, pass
Kasatori, worship at Iwama, and pray at Ishiyama.

▪ Nominalisation
Nouns derived from a verb (i.e. deverbative nouns), are often followed by the particle
に
ni . A number of RYK forms became independent concepts in their own right and
物語 光
were lexicalized as substantives: monogatari (tale), hikari (light), kasumi 霞
霧 煙 思ひ
(haze), kiri (mist), keburi (smoke), omoi (thought, desire), and so forth.

我が背子に恋ふれば苦し暇あらば拾ひて行かむ恋忘貝
Waga seko ni koureba kurushi itoma araba hiriite yukamu koiwasuregai
(Man'yōshū, 6:964)
It is painful to yearn after my lover; if I have spare time, I will pick one up, a
"shell of forgetting one's love"

あづまの方に住むべき国求めにとて行きけり
Azuma no kata ni sumubeki kuni motome ni tote yukikeri (Ise monogatari, 9)
With a view to finding a province in the east where he could live, he left.

世に語り伝ふる事、まことはあいなきにや、おほくは皆虚言なり
Yo ni kataritsutauru koto, makoto wa ainaki ni ya, ōku wa mina soragoto
nari (Tsurezuregusa, 73)
The things rumoured in the world are truly uninteresting! Most of them are all
lies.

▪ Root for dōshi or jodōshi

The RYK enables a smooth connection between verbs, joining them into compound
き
verbs. It also functions as root for various jodōshi (including ki , keri けり, tsu , つ
ぬ
nu , tari たり , kemu けむ ) which indicate aspect or completion of an action. The
late Heian flexion morpheme tashi たし is something of an oddity, connecting to an
RYK although expressing first-person desire.

彼は死にたり
Kare wa shinitari
He has died

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▪ Root for joshi

Diverse particles are attached to the RYK, including conjunctive particles (te , て
つつ
tsutsu , nagara ながら そ
) and final particles (so , teshigana てしがな, nishigana
にしがな ). As far as adjectives are concerned, the RYK may moreover be taken as root
for the final particles mogana もがな en moga(mo) もが（も）
, the conjunctive
particle tomo とも (which expresses a concessive supposition), and the inductive
は
emphasis particle wa (which highlights a supposition).

「今日、浪な立ちそ」と人々ひねもすに祈るしるしありて、風浪たゝず
"Kyō, nami na tachi so!" to hitobito hinemosu ni inoru shirushi arite, kaze
nami tatazu (Tosa nikki, 20:50)
"Waves, don't arise today!" people prayed all day long, and in truth neither
wind nor waves got up.

いかで鳥の声もせざらむ山に籠りにしがな
Ikade tori no koe mo sezaramu yama ni komorinishigana (Utsubo
monogatari, 1)
I would so love to seclude myself in the mountains where not even a bird's
voice is heard.

世の中にさらぬ別れのなくもがな
Yo no naka ni saranu wakare no nakumogana (Ise monogatari, 84)
I wish it did not exist, the parting that we cannot escape in this world.

吉野河水の心ははやくとも滝の音には立てじとぞ思ふ
Yoshinogawa mizu no kokoro wa hayakutomo taki no oto ni wa tateji to zo
omou (Kokinshū, 651)
Although my heart swirls like the Yoshino river water, I won't set up a noise as
boisterous as a waterfall's roar.

こひしくはとぶらひきませ
Koishikuwa toburaikimase (Kokinshū, 982)
If you should miss me, come and visit me.

花しちらずは千世も経ぬべし
Hana shi chirazuwa chiyo mo henubeshi (Kokinshū, 96)
A thousand more generations should have passed, for blossoms to scatter no
more.
Note: Shi functions as an adverbial particle adding stress/emphasis.

3. The shūshikei 終止形

▪ Marking sentence ending
Conforming to the rules of Japanese grammar, the "final form" in general concludes a
period. The SSK suggests that an action takes place in the present, although adverbs
昔
of time (such as mukashi ) may evoke a context in the past. In such cases, the SSK
may be considered a historical present. Moreover, the SSK is accepted as the form
under which most flexion words are listed in a dictionary.
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いささかに雨降る
Isasakani ame furu (Tosa nikki, 20:38)
It is raining slightly; it drizzles.

▪ Root for jodōshi

Flexion morphemes indicating a hint of speculation as a rule connect with the SSK.
This category includes ramu , rashi らむ, beshi らし
, maji , meri べし and まじ めり
hearsay nari なり .

男もすなる日記
Otoko mo sunaru niki (Tosa nikki, 20:27)
Diaries men are said to keep.

▪ Root for joshi

Thirdly, the SSK functions as a form to which a number of joshi are connected,
namely ya (inductive particle of doubt/rhetorical question), na (final prohibitive
particle), and tomo (conjunctive particle of hypothetical concession).

名にしおはばいざこととはむ宮こどりわが思ふ人は有りやなしやと
Na ni shi owaba iza kototowamu miyakodori waga omou hito wa ari ya
nashi ya to (Kokinshū, 411)
If you are true to your name, well now let me ask you something, capital bird:
is the one I love still alive?

あやまちすな。心して降りよ
Ayamachi su na. Kokoro shite oriyo (Tsurezuregusa, 109)
Don't hurt yourself! Come down carefully!

ちりぬとも香をだに残せ
Chirinu tomo ka o dani nokose (Kokinshū, 1:48)
Though you will be scattered eventually, leave at least your perfume.

Although the SSK typically concludes a Japanese period, this rule is set aside in a few
cases. Certain particles in a sentence, for instance, may require a different final form,
usually RTK or IZK. In Japanese linguistics, this phenomenon is better known by the
term kakarimusubi 係結 (inductive connection).
8

4. The rentaikei 連体形

In general, the adjectival or attributive form is adopted by flexion words preceding a
noun. The number of other functions in which this form features, however, is quite
large.

▪ Attributive adjunct

8
A postpositional particle­verb agreement also known as the "linked form" or "bound ending".
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In its attributive function (rentaihō 連体法

), the RTK invariably appears in
combination with a taigen. The verb may be the principal verb of a noun modifying
clause (rentai­shūshokusetsu 連体修飾節 ).

死ぬる者多し
Shinuru mono ōshi (Konjaku monogatarishū, 25:13)
There are a lot of people who die.

嘆きつつひとり寝る夜の明くる間はいかに久しきものとかは知る
Nagekitsutsu hitori nuru yo no akuru ma wa ikani hisashiki mono to ka wa
shiru (Kagerō nikki, 1:Tenryaku 天暦 9)
Do you know how long it takes for dawn to rise when sleeping alone, weeping?

▪ Implicit nominalization / juntaihō 準体法

The RTK here seems to modify nominal nouns (keishiki meishi 形式名詞
; such as koto
こと , mono もの , toki とき , and so forth) or a nominalizing particle (such as no ), の
which are dropped out elliptically. In contrast to RYK nominalization, the process
here rather converts a verb into an abstract concept (for example shini 死に
[death]
↔ shinuru死ぬる [dying])

死ぬるは安し
Shinuru wa yasushi
Dying is easy.
Note: Following shinuru, the word koto こと seems to be omitted.
さくらの花のちるをよめる
Sakura no hana no chiru o yomeru (Kokinshū, 2:85)
Composed on the topic of scattering cherry blossoms

これやこの行くも帰るも別れつつ知るも知らぬも逢坂の関
Kore ya kono yuku mo kaeru mo wakaretsutsu shiru mo shiranu mo Ōsaka
no seki (Gosen wakashū, 1090)
Here it is, where those leaving and those returning bid farewell, acquaintances
and strangers alike: the Barrier Station of Ōsaka.

▪ RTK due to induction

By the agency of certain preceding inductive particles (zo , namu ぞ
, ya andなむ や
か
ka ), the SSK converts into an RTK. Question words too (e.g. nado ) may causeなど
the final form to transform into an RTK. The question word adopts the role, so to
speak, of an inductive particle.

我が子ぞ死ぬる
Waga ko zo shinuru
My child, for heaven's sake, is dying.

緑なる一草とぞ春は見し秋は色々の花にぞありける
Midori naru hitotsukusa to zo haru wa mishi aki wa iroiro no hana ni zo
arikeru (Kokinshū, 4:245)

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In spring I saw one kind of grass, all green; but in autumn there are flowers,
variedly coloured!
Note: Keri here expresses surprise.

夏草は茂りにけれど郭公などわが宿に一声もせぬ
Natsukusa wa shigerinikeredo hototogisu nado wagayado ni hitokoe mo senu
(Shin kokinshū, 3:189)
The summer grass has already grown rank, but why does the little cuckoo not
utter a single cry near my abode?

▪ Root for joshi

A number of particles always follow the RTK: conjunctive particles (such as the
を
concessive particles o , ni にand ga が
or combinations featuring mono : もの
mono'o ものを ものから
, monono ものの ものゆえ
, monokara , monoyue ) or final
か かな かも
particles (namely ka and the exclamatory particles kana or kamo ).

夏の夜はまだ宵ながらあけぬるを雲のいづこに月やどるらん
Natsu no yo wa mada yoinagara akenuru o kumo no izuko ni tsuki
yadoruran (Kokinshū, 3:166)
A summer night, although still early, has broken into dawn; but where behind
the clouds is the moon taking shelter?

頼まぬものの恋ひつつぞふる
Tanomanu monono koitsutsu zo furu (Ise monogatari, 23)
Although I don't trust you, my love for you will persist.

うつせみの世にもにたるか
Utsusemi no yo ni mo nitaru ka (Kokinshū, 2:73)
How they resemble this ephemeral world of ours!

▪ Root of jodōshi / copula nari

The RTK may serve as the root for the copula nari なり
and the comparative flexion
morpheme gotoshi 如し 若し/ . Both nari and gotoshi however may be put
immediately after a noun, which, in the case of gotoshi, can be extended by insertion
of conjunctive particles such as ga or no. Rahen verbs in particular convert to RTK
when they connect to speculative jodōshi (namely ramu, rashi, beshi, maji, meri, and
hearsay nari), morphemes which normally follow a SSK root.

命にも優りて惜しくある物はみはてぬ夢のさむるなりけり
Inochi ni mo masarite oshiku aru mono wa mihatenu yume no samuru
narikeri (Kokinshū, 12:609)
Far dearer than life itself, is to awake from a dream one failed to see to the end.

行く水の還らぬ如く吹く風の見えぬが如く
Yuku mizu no kaeranu gotoku fuku kaze no mienu ga gotoku (Man'yōshū,
15:3625)
Like the running water that does not return, and the blowing wind one cannot
see.

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▪ Suggestive stylization
This category introduces the RTK as a final form, and suggests a connotation hidden
behind the literal content of a statement.

郭公来ゐる垣根は近ながら待ち遠にのみ声のきこえぬ
Hototogisu kiiru kakine wa chikanagara machidō ni nomi koe no kikoenu
(Gosen wakashū, 149)
Although the fence on which the little cuckoo has perched is near, all I do is
wait impatiently, for I haven't heard its call.

The RTK in sentence-final position suggests transmission of an implicit message by

the author. Using the RTK as a final form with connotative implications was a
favourite stylistic device among Heian writers, which increasingly produced a sort of
competition between the SSK as a regular final form and the RTK. Eventually, this
resulted in the gradual assimilation of both forms. In modern Japanese there is a
thorough synthesis of the two inflexional categories: all flexional classes now have
identical forms for SSK and RTK alike. Adjectival verbs on the other hand still retain
な
different forms for both categories: RTK (~na ) is distinct from SSK (~da ). だ
5. The izenkei 已然形
In the oldest stage of the Japanese language, the perfective form (literally "already
accomplished form") put emphasis on the action or state directly preceding it. In the
course of time, the IZK started to express concession as well as causal/temporal
structures, for example yukedo 行けど (he did go, however …), yukeba 行けば
(since/as he went). The IZK is considered to be the prototype of the modern Japanese
kateikei 仮定形 , the conditional or hypothetical: yukeba 行けば (if he goes). Also, it is
considered to be the opposite of the MZK: whereas the MZK is used to mark an
unfinished situation or action (e.g. negation), the IZK often accompanies completed
actions or situations. Three specific IZK functions can be discerned:

▪ Root for joshi

Conjunctive particles in particular can be attached to the IZK. These may express a
ば ど
logical or causal relation (ba , do , domo ども
), or articulate a concession (do , ど
domo ども ):

吾死ぬれば、鬼とならむ
Ware shinureba, oni to naramu
When I am dead, I shall become an ogre.

父は死ぬれども、子は死なず
Chichi wa shinuredomo, ko wa shinazu
Although its father died, the child will not.

ももちどりさへづる春は物ごとにあらたまれども我ぞふり行く
Momochidori saezuru haru wa monogoto ni aratamaredomo, ware zo
furiyuku (Kokinshū, 1:28)

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In spring, when lots of birds twitter, everything rejuvenates; but I, for one,
grow older.
Note: The verb aratamaru (自ラ四) is put in opposition to the compound verb furiyuku
旧り行く (自カ四) by virtue of the conjunctive particle domo ども. Zo ぞ requires the
final verb to transform into the RTK, following the principle of kakarimusubi; since yuku
行く is a yodan verb, this RTK form is identical to the original SSK.
この子を見れば、苦しき事もやみぬ
Kono ko o mireba, kurushiki koto mo yaminu (Taketori monogatari)
As he looked at this girl, his troubles disappeared.

男も女も恥ぢ交はしてありけれど、男はこの女をこそ得めと思ふ
Otoko mo onna mo hajikawashite arikeredo, otoko wa kono onna o koso eme
to omou (Ise monogatari, 23)
Although both boy and girl were bashful of each other, the boy wanted to take
her as his wife.

▪ IZK due to induction

The perfective aspect is not always clearly present in this usage. Within this category,
the inductive particle koso in particular requires the IZK as a final form. The
combination koso + IZK was first attested in late Heian literature. The particle koso
may be used to lay emphasis or to introduce a concessive thought.

弱者こそ死ぬれ
Jakusha koso shinure
It is the weak that die.

折節の移りかはるこそ、ものごとに哀れなれ
Orifushi no utsurikawaru koso monogoto ni awarenare (Tsurezuregusa, 19)
The very turning of the seasons is so piteous among things.

人こそ見えね秋は来にけり
Hito koso miene aki wa kinikeri (Shūi wakashū, 140)
There isn't a living soul in sight, now that the autumn is here.

▪ Root for jodōshi

This usage concerns the combination of a yodan verb IZK and the jodōshi ri .
9
り
Accordingly, stress is put on the resultative aspect of an action, or on the aspect of
duration.

若草のつまもこもれり我もこもれり
Wakakusa no tsuma mo komoreri ware mo komoreri (Kokinshū, 1:17)
My young wife is hidden here, and so am I.

6. The meireikei 命令形

9
Phonological studies of Old Japanese have demonstrated that the MRK of yodan verbs (which in time covered the
IZK of yodan verbs) originally functioned as root for the jodōshi ri. Based on the perfective or resultative aspect
inherent to ri, however, this jodōshi is classified within this IZK group.
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As is hinted by its name, the MRK represents the imperative voice of a flexion word.
This form is used in isolation, or in combination with the endings yo, ro, and i.

汝、よく聞け
Nanji, yoku kike
You, listen carefully!

b. Flexion classes

As previously mentioned, the flexion of yōgen is determined by different flexion

patterns (or paradigms). With regard to verbs, nine flexion classes can be identified.
They are distinguished by the following factors:
a. The number of forms (vowels) a verbal final syllable can adopt when
inflected. Within the gojūonzu these forms are styled "tiers" (dan ), as 段
行
opposed to rows (gyō ), which indicate the final syllables themselves. It is
important to bear in mind that this way of counting only addresses final
syllabic changes, thus disregarding any ending that might be added to certain
forms.
b. The row to which the final syllable belongs, when a flexion class only
comprises verbs sharing the same kind of final syllable (for example the
"ka-row three-tier flexion" kagyō sandan katsuyō カ行三段活用 ).
c. If necessary, the kind of forms a final syllable may adopt. This particularly
applies whenever, for instance, two flexion classes may take the same number
of forms, although the forms themselves are different. (For example the
shimonidan- 下二段 and kaminidan­katsuyō 上二段活用 ).

Classical Japanese verbs inflect over nine different flexion classes. The following will
introduce paradigms for each of these nine classes, illustrating all possible final
syllables within each class.

1. The four-tier flexion / yodankatsuyō 四段活用

This class comprises verbs ending in eight possible final syllables, inflected over four
different forms. The inflexion is illustrated by the following grid:

form
stem
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
カ行 -
ガ行 -
サ行 -
タ行 -
ハ行 -
バ行 -
マ行 -
ラ行 -

2. The irregular ra flexion / ragyō henkaku katsuyō ラ行変格活用

This flexion is often abbreviated as rahenラ変 . Only a few verbs expressing existence
or presence (such as haberi 侍り , ariあり , and so forth), belong to this class. In

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

addition, a number of suffixes, such as -tari, -keri, -ri, and so forth, are inflected
according to this pattern. The SSK of this class is distinctive in ending in ri instead of
ru.
form
stem
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
ラ行 -

3. The irregular na flexion / nagyō henkaku katsuyō ナ行変格活用

Also dubbed nahen ナ変 . Only three yōgen respond to this flexional pattern: the
verbs shinu 死ぬ (to die) and inu 往ぬ (to depart), and the jodōshi nu . ぬ
This class is characterized by the fact of having six different forms, two of which, RTK
and IZK, are combined with endings (namely -ru and -re respectively).

form
stem
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
ナ行 -

4. The irregular ka flexion / kagyō henkaku katsuyō カ行変格活用

Also called the ka-row three-tier flexion (kagyō sandan katsuyō カ行三段活用), or
kahen カ変 for short. Again, the number of verbs belonging to this class is quite
来
limited: only the verb ku is included. The kahen flexion comprises three forms, and
has endings for the RTK, IZK, and MRK: -ru, -re and -yo.

form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
stem
カ行 Ø /

5. The irregular sa flexion / sagyō henkaku katsuyō サ行変格活用

This is also known as the sa-row three-tier flexion (sagyō sandan katsuyō サ行三段活
用 ), shortened to sahen サ変 . This flexion is the sa-row equivalent of the previous
class. Every single form is different, and the three final forms, RTK, IZK, and MRK,
are compounds using endings.
Among the verbs taking this flexion are su す (modern Japanese suru する ), and all
its compound derivatives (for example kisu 帰す , takusu 託す ), as well as the voiced
ず
variant (allomorph) -zu (for example ronzu 論ず , but also omonzu 重ず , soranzu 諳
ず す
, and so forth), and the honorific verb owasu (see honorific verbs).

form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
stem
サ行 Ø

6. The higher two-tier flexion / kaminidan katsuyō 上二段活用

Shortened to kamini 上二. Verbs have final syllables varying between just two
different forms: a form ending in u, and one ending in i. The attribute "higher" refers
to the fact that the vowels which can be taken by the final syllable (namely i and u),
are arranged higher in the aiueo order than the vowels u and e, which are
characteristic of the "lesser" two-tier flexion. This class is constituted by verbs having
final syllables from nine different rows. As with the two previous flexions, the three
final forms are compounds using endings.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

form
stem
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
カ行 -
ガ行 -
タ行 -
ダ行 -
ハ行 -
バ行 -
マ行 -
ヤ行 -
ラ行 -
ワ行 Ø

7. The higher one-tier flexion / kamiichidan katsuyō 上一段活用

Abbreviated to kamiichi 上一 . The final syllable of these verbs does not change. Every
form typically has a final syllable belonging to the i tier. This class is constituted by
verbs having final syllables along six rows. The four final flexion forms make use of
specific endings.

form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
stem
カ行 Ø
ナ行 Ø
ハ行 Ø
マ行 Ø
ヤ行 Ø
ワ行 Ø

8. The lower two-tier flexion / shimonidan katsuyō 下二段活用

The shimoni class undisputedly covers the largest variation of final syllable rows.
Since this flexion features a sound change from u to e, with e situated on a lower tier
than i, this class is called the "lower" two-tier flexion. This flexion likewise makes use
of endings (-ru, -re and -yo) to complete the three final forms.

form
stem
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
ア行 Ø
カ行 -
ガ行 -
サ行 -
ザ行 -
タ行 -
ダ行 -
ナ行 -
ハ行 -
バ行 -
マ行 -
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

ヤ行 -
ラ行 -
ワ行 -

9. The lower one-tier flexion / Shimoichidan katsuyō 下一段活用

The shimoichi class applies to only one verb: keru 蹴る . All forms are identical,
provided that the four final forms take extra endings: -ru, -re and -yo.

for
m MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
stem
カ行 Ø

c. Flexion class identification

Generally speaking, the flexion class of a given Classical Japanese verb cannot be
inferred from its SSK. However, it is not too hard to find the appropriate flexion
pattern when observing the following classification rules.
1. The vast majority of verbs belong to the yodan, kaminidan, or shimonidan
classes. Only some twenty-five verbs are ranged under the remaining classes,
and these can easily be memorized.
2. In order to determine which of the three major groups applies, the MZK of a
verb first needs to be found, for example by making the verb negative, that is
by making a negation by adding the ending -zu.

d. Endoactive and exoactive verbs / jidōshi 自動詞 and tadōshi 他動詞

Japanese verbs describing an action or event, are usually of a dual nature, that is to
say featuring one form which includes the object or person subjected to the action,
making it involved with the action, and another form detaching the said object from
the action in which it is not involved (but nonetheless subjected to it). A fine example
is provided by the following pair of sentences:

糸切る
ito kiru
A thread snaps.

糸を切る
ito o kiru
To cut a thread.

At first sight, this phenomenon somewhat resembles Indo-European transitive and

intransitive verbs. There are, however, two reasons preventing us from using this
terminology.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

1. An intransitive verb cannot take a direct object. Japanese jidōshi, however,

may govern a direct object on certain conditions. In modern Japanese, see:

門を出る
kado o deru
To leave through a gate.

2. An intransitive verb cannot be put in the passive. This is however possible as

for Japanese jidōshi. In modern Japanese, see:

子供に泣かれる
kodomo ni nakareru
To be bothered by the child's crying.

1. Typology

In contrast to Indo-European languages, which exceptionally have transitive and

intransitive pairs derived from the same root, the Japanese language quite clearly has
a dual structure, combining jidōshi and tadōshi as variant forms of the same verb.
The following kinds can be discerned:

▪ Verbs sharing the same stem and final syllable, but having different flexions for the
said final syllable. For example:

tatsu 立つ〔自タ四〕 ↔ tatsu 立つ〔他タ下二〕

To stand up To make it stand

▪ Verbs sharing the same stem, but having different final syllables. The exoactive
す
component of this kind of verb almost always has su as its final syllable. For
example:

taoru 倒る〔自ラ下二〕 ↔ taosu 倒す〔他サ四〕

To fall over To bring down

▪ Verbal pairs, consisting of a verb and its deverbative. Two types exist:

a. Exoactive verbs derived from endoactive verbs:

ugoku 動く〔自カ四〕 → ugokasu 動かす〔他サ四〕

to move to put in motion

b. Endoactive verbs derived from exoactive verbs:

fusagaru 塞がる〔自ラ四〕 ← fusagu 塞ぐ〔他ガ四〕

to be blocked up to block up

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Remarkably, the deverbatives are regularly derived from the source verb, taking its
る
MZK as root followed by the ending -ru when creating an endoactive verb, or
adding -suす when forming an exoactive verb. Such constructions clearly suggest a
す
close connection to the verb su , and to the passive (ukemi 受身) and causative
(shieki 使役 ) jodōshi raru らる
and sasu さす (see below).

e. Verbs of respect (keigodōshi 敬語動詞)

As will be illustrated below, jodōshi dispose over several possibilities of adding
honorific, humble or polite overtones to verbs. Apart from such formal endings, there
equally exist a number of verbs usually derived from common classical verbs but
having a modified meaning fitting a formal turn of phrase. Such verbs are presented
in the following table (the underlined verbs may also be used as auxiliary verbs).
Modern variants are given in the shaded sections.

Summary of formal verbs

neutral humble 謙譲 honorific尊敬
to be, to exist ari あり haberi侍り owasu す
ori り saburauふ owashimasu御座し
iru る sōrō 候 ます
masu 坐す
mashimasu 坐しま
す
imasu 坐す
imasugari坐すがり
mod.: お仕えする mod.: いらっしゃ
る
to serve tsukau 仕ふ haberi 侍り
saburau ふ
tsukamatsuru仕る
mod.: お仕えする
to do su す itasu 致す nasaru 為さる
okonau 行ふ tsukamatsuru 仕る asobasu 遊ばす
tsukōmatsuru 仕る
mod.: いたす mod.: なさる
to say, to speak iu 言ふ mōsu す ōsu す
kikoyu 聞こゆ notamau 宣ふ
mod.: 申し上げる mod.: おっしゃる
to think omou 思ふ zonzu 存ず obosu 思す
oboshimesu 思し召
す
mod.: 存ずる mod.: お思いにな
る
to know shiru 知る shiroshimesu 知ろ
to govern osamu む しめす
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mod.: お治めにな
る、ご存じである
to eat kuu 食ふ tabu 食ぶ mesu 召す
to drink nomu 飲む itadaku頂く kikoshimesu 聞こ
し召す
mod.: 頂く、頂戴す mod.: 召し上がる
る
to hear kiku 聞く uketamawaru る kikoshimesu 聞こ
し召す
mod.: お聞きする mod.: お聞きにな
る
to see miru 見る goranzu ご覧ず
mod.: ご覧になる
to go yuku 行く mairu る owasu 御座す
to come ku 来 agaru 上がる owashimasu 御座し
to leave mōzu づ ます
makaru 罷る mashimasu 坐しま
makariizu 罷り出づ す
makazu imasu 坐す
(kikoshi)mesu （聞
こし）召す
mod.: うかがう、参 mod.: いらっしゃ
上する、退出する る
to give atau 与ふ mairasu らす tamau 給ふ（四
tatematsuru 奉る 段）
kudasaru 下さる
tabu 賜ぶ
mod.: さしあげる mod.: くださる
to receive morau 貰ふ 承る
uketamawaru
uku 受く tamawaru給はる
itadaku頂く
tamau 給ふ（下二
段）
mod.: いただく
to sleep nu寝 ōtonogomoru る
寝ぬ
inu oyoru 御夜る
mod.: お休みにな
る
f. Auxiliary verbs (hojodōshi 補助動詞) and copulas
1. Auxiliary verbs

The Japanese language naturally has not only verbs that function fully independently,
but also has specimens making it possible for other words to fulfil a verbal role. These
are called auxiliary verbs and can be categorized as follows:
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

1. Formal auxiliary verbs. These constitute verbs of respect (see the table
above) serving as auxiliaries or adjectives/adjectival verbs in order to express a
hierarchic relation.
2. Neutral auxiliary verbs. These are attached to nouns, nominal forms of verbs
or adjectives, particularly when particles expressing emphasis etc. join in. An
す
example is the verb su , precursor of the modern Japanese verb suru する .
For example:

思ひもせず
omoi mo sezu (Man'yōshū, 20:4425)
not caring anything

Of course, combinations of both neutral and formal auxiliary verbs occur:

殿下も臨場し給ふ
denka mo rinjō shitamau
His Highness too was present.

2. Copulas

Classical Japanese has two copulas: nari なり and tari たり. Both are merged forms
of に + ari あり and to と + ariあり respectively. Tari appears to be of "newer"
formation, and was presumably coined during the Heian era, when it was used for
reading Kanbun texts. Leaving the historical development of both copulas aside, let us
first consider their flexional patterns:

Nari and tari inflexions

root form
Flexio
basic MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
n
form
taige
n/ ()
RTK rahen
taige
Ø
n
▪ Flexion

Both nari なり and tari たり are governed by the rahen flexion, but in addition they
中止形
have their own suspensive forms (chūshikei ). They are nishite にして or nite
にて for the verb nari, and toshite として とて
or tote for tari.
Moreover, the flexion of nari combined with the negation zu ず or with emphasizing
joshi produces irregular forms. More exactly, it reverts to its original compounds:
nari なり ず
+ zu → ni arazu にあらず or nari なり + koso こそ → ni koso are にこそ
あれ etc.

大将にあらねども
Taishō ni aranedomo (Heike monogatari)
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Although he was not a general...

▪ Usage

Nari can be put after taigen or nominalized yōgen (RTK forms). It usually concludes
an assertion or declarative sentence. Added to meishi or RTK forms expressing a
place or direction, nari behaves as a substantive verb (denoting being or existence).
In combination with RTK forms operating as a proper name, nari indicates the name
といふ名の
of the substance, that is to say it can be read as to iu na no … . Tari is only
used together with taigen, preferably from Sino-Japanese stock (kango 漢語 ). It
indicates the quality or function of a noun, and not rarely suggests a temporary
situation.

細川幽斎は勿論歌人なり
Hosokawa Yūsai wa mochiron kajin nari
Hosokawa Yūsai, to be sure, is a poet

かなたに見ゆる山は立山なり
Kanata ni miyuru yama wa Tateyama nari
The mountain you see over there is Mount Tate

此小山は、もと外側なる四軒の家の所有にして
Kono koyama wa, moto sotogawa naru yonken no ie no shoyū ni shite
(Monbushō 文部省, Jinjō shōgaku tokuhon 尋常小学読本, 5)
This hillock used to be considered to belong to the four houses on its outer
sides.

所謂新劇なるもの
Iwayuru shingeki naru mono (Satō Haruo 佐藤春夫, Tokai no yūutsu 都会の
憂鬱)
The so-called pieces dubbed "shingeki"

伯の内務大臣たりし時
Haku no naimudaijin tarishi toki (Fukuda Hideko 福田英子, Warawa no
hanseigai 妾の半生涯, 3:2)
When the Count was the Home Secretary

兄人たる人、外より来たりて
Shōto taru hito, soto yori kitarite
A man came from abroad, appearing to be her brother

1.1.2. Adjectives / keiyōshi 形容詞

These are flexionable words, expressing qualities of actions or nouns. Accordingly,
they at first sight bear a striking resemblance to adjectives in Indo-European
languages. However, they differ from one another in the following characteristics.
- Keiyōshi lack comparatives and superlatives.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

-
Keiyōshi do not accord with the number, gender or "case" of the noun they
modify
- Keiyōshi are governed by a flexion comparable to Japanese verbs. They
consequently may function as a single predicate
This implies that they have more predicative characteristics than their English
counterparts. Accordingly, keiyōshi are more proximate to Japanese verbs, from
which they however differ as follows:
- Keiyōshi flexion does not involve modification of the final syllable, but
concerns the addition of an ending to the original final syllable or to the stem.
- Not all jodōshi added to verbs in order to realize different semantic changes
can be put after a keiyōshi.

a. The flexion of keiyōshi

In contrast with verbal flexion, keiyōshi inflexion only involves stems and endings
added to them.

b. Inflected forms

The inflected forms adoptable by keiyōshi entirely correspond to the terms

introduced when discussing dōshi flexion. For the most part, they fulfill the same
functions.

c. Flexion classes

Keiyōshi can be divided into two peculiar flexion classes, assisted by an extraordinary
class, which operates as an auxiliary flexion to both main classes.

1. Ku flexion / ku­katsuyō ク活用

く
This flexion has an RYK ending on ku , directly attached to the keiyōshi's stem. The
remaining possible endings are similarly added directly to the stem.

Ku flexion
Basic form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form stem
10
- Ø Ø

2. Shiku flexion / shiku­katsuyō シク活用

Keiyōshi belonging to this class have their RYK ending on shiku しく. This group
typically has each of its four inflected forms beginning with shi . し
10
け
In Old Japanese texts, ke and shike しけ can be found as the obsolete MZK and IZK forms respectively (e.g.
yokemu よけむ "it will be fine"). These endings soon sank into oblivion, and had already fallen into disuse by the
Heian period.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Shiku flexion
Basic form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form stem
- Ø Ø

3. Kari flexion / kari­katsuyō カリ活用

This flexional class originated from the contraction of a (shi)ku keiyōshi RYK, and the
auxiliary ari あり
. Although a number of keiyōshi exclusively inflect using this model,
the great majority belongs to either of the previous classes, and only has recourse to
the kari auxiliary flexion when connecting joshi and jodōshi.

Kari flexion
Basic form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form stem
- Ø Ø

d. Examples

1. Ku flexion keiyōshi

▪ MZK

寒からず
samukarazu
It is not cold.

▪ RYK

寒くば
samukuba
If it is/gets cold
Note: Although certain grammars read this phrase as the combination of MZK + ba, the
particle ba should rather be construed as a corruption of the particle wa attached to RYK
base.

寒くす
samuku su
To make it cold.

寒かりけり
samukarikeri
It was cold.
Note: Keri is a jodōshi indicating a past event (see below).

▪ SSK

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

寒し
samushi
It is cold.

▪ RTK

寒き日
samuki hi
A cold day.

寒かる日
samukaru hi
A cold day.

▪ IZK

寒けれども
samukeredomo
Although it is cold.

▪ MRK

寒かれ
samukare
Be/Get cold!

2. Shiku flexion keiyōshi

▪ MZK

美しからず
utsukushikarazu
It is not beautiful.

▪ RYK

美しくば
utsukushikuba
If it is/was beautiful.

美しくす
utsukushiku su
To make beautiful, to beautify.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

美しかりけり
utsukushikarikeri
It was beautiful.

▪ SSK

美し
utsukushi
To be beautiful, it is beautiful.

▪ RTK

美しき物
utsukushiki mono
A beautiful thing.

美しかる物
utsukushikaru mono
A thing of beauty.

▪ IZK

美しけれども
utsukushikeredomo
Although it is beautiful.

▪ MRK

美しかれ
utsukushikare
Be beautiful!

e. Remarks related to keiyōshi inflected forms:

- As an ending, the IZK kere came about by adding re to the primeval form ke.
- Since the Heian era, and enhanced during the ensuing Kamakura and
Muromachi periods, syncopation took place in MZK, RYK, and RTK endings,
leading to the /k/ in the middle of a word being omitted. Such syncopations
gave us words such as takō たかう from takaku たかく , or ureshū うれしう
from ureshiku うれしく , for example.

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

f. Inflected forms functioning differently between keiyōshi and dōshi

1. A keiyōshi RYK has two different functions:

a. As suspensive form (chūshikei) connecting sentences:

風激しく、傘役立たず
kaze hageshiku, kasa yakutatazu
The wind is (too) strong, umbrellas are of no use.

b. As an adverbial form, preceding other yōgen:

雪激しく降る
yuki hageshiku furu
It snows heavily.

2. A stem may be used in isolation, assuming the following functions:

a. Attributive modification (in combination with no の):

遠の国
tō no kuni (Man'yōshū, 15:3688)
A far-away country.

b. Adverbial modification: stem reduplications often apply (see modern

Japanese ideophones or gitaigo 擬態語 ):

久々合はず
hisabisa awazu
Not to have seen each other for a long time.

c. As an exclamation:

おお、寒！
Ō samu!
Oh, how cold it is!

d. As a noun:

円
maru
a circle (derived from marushi 円し [round])

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

1.1.3. Adjectival verbs / keiyōdōshi 形容動詞 11

This part of speech too comprises words expressing qualities of actions or nouns.
Whenever functioning (attributively or adverbially) as a modifier, they necessarily
12
take an auxiliary suffix which "facilitates" this role, but which is not a fixed part of
the main word.
Leaving the moot point of the keiyōdōshi's real nature up to further linguistic study,
this category is tentatively approached as a separate set of qualifiers within yōgen,
conformable to the common practice in Japanese school grammars. Two different
13
basic keiyōdōshi types can be discerned, depending on their endings or suffixes.

a. Keiyōdōshi flexion

In contrast to their keiyōshi counterparts, flexion does not directly connect to the
stem of classical Japanese adjectival verbs, but is rather realized by a suffix, or
copulative, connecting the keiyōdōshi to the rest of the sentence. This copulative,
either nari なり
or tari たり
, is partially derived from the verb ari, and inflects in the
same way.

1. Keiyōdōshi taking the tari flexion / tari­katsuyō タリ活用

This flexion only governs keiyōdōshi of Sino-Japanese origin. These typically have a
mono- or disyllabic Sino-Japanese stem enhanced by the suffix tari . In Classical たり
Chinese too, these words particularly functioned as adverbial modifiers, or at least
originally fulfilled a qualifying function.
The suffix tari たりrepresents a contraction of the joshi to and the verb ari と あり
(see above). Since the Chinese originals essentially behaved as qualifiers, the particle
to was inserted before the copula ari, instead of using ni.
This keiyōdōshi formation basically started as a rendering of classical Chinese
qualifiers in a Sino-Japanese reading, a common practice in premodern Japan when
classical Chinese texts were read in their Japanese pronunciation (kanbun kundoku
漢文訓読 ). Accordingly, numerous Sino-Japanese readings found their way into the
common Japanese vocabulary. Two examples of these keiyōdōshi are given below, as
14
well as a table illustrating the flexion of the suffix tari.
11
Although this rather innovative rendering is chosen to approximate the original Japanese term keiyōdōshi, the
label does not quite accurately reflect the goods: in that respect "nominal adjective" would be a better alternative as
translation. In terms of the history of the language, keiyōdōshi indeed derive from nouns or quasi­nouns (in most
cases even from Chinese stock), used in fixed combination with the copula nari. Functioning as an attributive
modifier (rentaishūshokugo 連体修飾語 , i.e. modifying a taigen), naru inevitably appears as an RTK form between
keiyōdōshi modifier and the modified.
12
See below. The classification and analysis of keiyōdōshi within Japanese linguistics is of a rather controversial
nature. There is particular controversy as to whether it should be considered a compound, joining two separate
words, the first rather closely related to nouns (being an adjectival noun), or a unit, that is to say, an inflecting word
essentially different from keiyōshi due to its flexion.
13
These may also be considered copulatives, that is, dependent morphemes derived from a copula, and always
connected to a keiyōdōshi stem.
14
The RYK is sometimes called fukushikei 副詞形 , and may use to as an additional RYK form.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

判然たり
hanzen tari
to be clear, distinct

厳然たり
genzen tari
to be solemn, grave

Tari flexion
Basic form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form stem

2. Keiyōdōshi taking the nari flexion / nari katsuyō ナリ活用

This keiyōdōshi category comprises words of Japanese and Sino-Japanese origin.
Sino-Japanese words account for the major part, the majority derived from Chinese
nouns. The indigenous Japanese keiyōdōshi mostly concern words of an inherently
qualifying nature, and rarely involve words of a nominal or adverbial background.
The inflecting suffix nari なり に
is a blending of the joshi ni あり
and the copula ari
(see above). Although clearly older than the tari flexion, this formation was
apparently not capable of turning Chinese qualifiers into Japanese adjectival verbs.
Illustrations of this flexion class are:

静かなり
shizuka nari
to be quiet, silent

明らかなり
akiraka nari
to be clear

便利なり
benri nari
to be convenient, handy

急なり
kyū nari
to be urgent; pressing

Nari flexion
Basic form
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form stem
-

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Note: Both keiyōdōshi classes additionally have a suspensive form (nishite / にして
toshite として), as mentioned above in the section on copulas. This suspensive form
functions in the same way as a verbal chūshikei does. The most common usages of the
six different inflected forms can be summarized as follows:

▪ MZK

静かならず
shizuka narazu
It is not quiet.

判然たらず
hanzen tarazu
It is not clear.

静かならば
shizuka naraba
If it is quiet.

判然たらば
hanzen taraba
If it is clear.

▪ RYK

静かなりけり
shizuka narikeri
It was quiet.

静かに歩け
shizuka ni aruke
Walk quietly!

子供静かにして、父働く 15
kodomo shizuka nishite, chichi hataraku
The children are quiet, and father is working.

判然たりけり
hanzen tarikeri
It was clear.

判然と言へ
hanzen to ie
Say it clearly!

15
This is an example of the suspensive use of a keiyōshi, combined with the verb su.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

言葉判然として、語る
kotoba hanzen toshite, kataru
Plain in his speech, he talks about it.

▪ SSK

静かなり
shizuka nari
It is quiet.

判然たり
hanzen tari
It is clear.

▪ RTK

静かなる家
shizuka naru ie
A quiet home.

判然たる言葉
hanzen taru kotoba
Plain words.

▪ IZK

静かなれども
shizuka naredomo
Although it is quiet.

判然たれども
hanzen taredomo
Although it is clear.

▪ MRK

静かなれ
shizuka nare
Be quiet!

判然たれ
hanzen tare
Make yourself clear!

1.2. Nouns / taigen 体言

The Japanese concept of taigen covers a wider range of words than the Western
equivalent. In fact, it applies to all free flexionless words (mukatsuyōgo 無活用語
)

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

capable of being the sentence subject (shugo 主語

). This feature sets nouns apart from
the so-called hitaigen 非体言 or non-nouns, which only have the absence of flexion
and syntactic independence in common.

1.2.1. Substantives / meishi 名詞

This category of Japanese words perfectly corresponds to its equivalent in English. In
a nutshell, meishi
a. are invariable
b. can represent or describe objects or concepts
c. can be the subject
d. can be modified by attributive modifiers (rentaishi 連体詞,
rentai­shūshokugo 連体修飾語 , RTK forms of yōgen) or modifying sentences
(rentai­shūshokusetsu 連体修飾節 ).
Substantives may be divided into two categories: indigenous Japanese (wago 和語
)
and Sino-Japanse (kango 漢語 ) nouns.
Apart from characteristic (d), all mentioned features equally apply to the two
remaining categories within taigen. Considering the intrinsic correspondence
between meishi and English-language nouns, examples have been omitted for
brevity's sake.

1.2.2. Pronouns / daimeishi 代名詞

The term daimeishi is evidently calqued on the word pronoun, which in fact misfits
this Japanese part of speech. Indo-European pronouns are much more clearly set off
from nouns, and in addition vary morphologically – two features which are not true
for Japanese daimeishi. Daimeishi are characterized by the fact that
- they are independent flexionless words capable of being a sentence subject; in
which regard they correspond to nouns.
- every one of them fulfils a referential (deictic) function, semantically set apart
from nouns.

a. Indigenous daimeishi

The Japanese language has a considerable number of indigenous pronouns. These are
especially characterized by the fact of referring to (first, second, and third) persons, as
well as by being able to suggest distance with regard to the speaker; in terms of both
time and space. The first and second persons take pronouns which intrinsically
indicate the first or second person. The third person however is deficient in such
substantive words (which perhaps may somewhat be likened to the English personal
pronouns), and instead uses alternatives which might be translated as "the one who"
or "the one that", and so forth. Numerous first and second person pronouns go back
to honorific vocabulary, which accounts for their considerable diversity. In general,
however, Japanese pronouns play a less prominent role than their Indo-European
counterparts, since most of their functions are fulfilled by honorific and other flexion
morphemes.

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b. Sino­Japanese daimeishi

Due to the strong influence of the Chinese language, a number of Chinese nouns
entered the Japanese vocabulary as pronouns. They particularly represent items
suggesting a certain honorific connotation, and accordingly got incorporated into the
formal register. As an example, one could mention the word kikun 貴君 ("honoured
君
lord"), which nowadays by and large corresponds to the word kimi ("you").

c. Pronoun characteristics

Daimeishi, as briefly indicated above, display a number of characteristics wanting in

Western grammar.

1. Persons

In addition to the first, second, and third person, there is an indefinite class of
daimeishi that concurrently serve as interrogative pronoun. The Japanese
terminology reads:
jishō 自称 the first person
taishō 対称 the second person
tashō 他称 the third person
futeishō 不定称 the indefinite person

2. Demonstrative pronoun typology

In classical Japanese, the following kinds of demonstrative pronouns can be

distinguished:
ninshō­daimeishi 人称代名詞 personal pronouns
jibutsu­daimeishi 事物代名詞 impersonal pronouns
basho­daimeishi 場所代名詞 place pronouns
hōgaku­daimeishi 方角代名詞 direction pronouns
hanshō­daimeishi 反照代名詞 reflexive pronouns
Remarkably, the trichotomy first, second, and third person applies to all five kinds of
pronouns, making, for instance, a second person place pronoun possible (compare
soko そこ in modern Japanese).

3. Distance to the locutor

Moreover, a further subdivision can be made relative to the distance between the
locutor and the person/object referred to, in so far as they indicate a third-person
being or object:
kinshō 近称 indicating a proximal relationship
chūshō 中称 indicating a medial relationship
enshō 遠称 indicating a distant relationship

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4. Tabular summary

Pronouns
Personal Imperson Place Direction Reflexive
al
First person wa 吾 koこ koko こ kochi こ onore 己
ware吾 これ こ
kore ち onozuka
onore己 konata ら ra
soregash 此方 mizukar
i某 ら a
nanigash 自 jibun
i何某 分
予
yo / jishin 自
余 maro 身
麻呂 麿/ / jiko 自己
丸 dō 同-
Second person na な so そ soko そ sochi そ tō 当-
nare な sore それ こ ち
れ sonata
nanji 其方
kikei 貴
兄
kikun 貴
君
kihō 貴方
sokka 足
下
denka 殿
下
heika 陛
下
onore お
のれ
sonata
そなた
sochi そ
ち
omae 御
前
Third The locutor ko こ aあ kashiko achi あち
person 近称 kore これ are あれ かしこ anata 彼
in the The so そ ka か ashiko 方
proximit interlocutor sore それ kare かれ あしこ kanata
y of: 中称 shi 其 asoko 彼 かなた
Something ka か 所
out of reach kare 彼
遠称
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a あ
are あれ
Indefinite 不定称 taた izure れ izuko izuchi い
tare誰/ nani 何 izuku づち
孰 izuchi い izukata
soregash づち
i某
nanigash
i某

1.2.3. Numerals: sūshi 数詞

Japanese numerals are independent words capable of being the sentence subject. This
implies that they have as much in common with nouns as pronouns do. What
distinguishes numerals from nouns is that the former operate as words indicating a
quantity or set. Another peculiarity of Japanese numerals is their duality: they consist
both of an incomplete indigenous and an integral Sino-Japanese series. Finally it
should be pointed out that a set of mainly Sino-Japanese classifiers (josūshi 助数詞 ) is
operative, linking up with a certain numeral while divulging the nature of the counted
item.

a. Numeral typology

Two main types of numerals can be distinguished in Japanese:

- cardinals (kisūshi 基数詞)
- ordinals (josūshi 序数詞). This set is further subdivided into multiplicatives
(baisūshi 倍数詞 ) and fractions (bunsū 分数).

1. Cardinals

▪ Japanese numerals

Japanese numerals comprise a full set up to ten, and some number words larger than
ten:

1 hitotsu つ
2 futatsu つ
3 mitsu つ
4 yotsu つ
5 itsutsu つ
6 mutsu つ
7 nanatsu つ
8 yatsu つ
9 kokonots つ
u
10 tō / to / / / ～
­so
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

100 momo / / ～
­o
1,000 chi
10,00 yorozu (originally an expression used vaguely or hyperbolically
0 for a large number)

In the standard classical language, that is to say in Heian Japanese, indigenous

numerals are ignored for numbers over ten. By contrast, Old Japanese from the Nara
and previous eras made prolific use of indigenous numeral combinations to represent
amounts over ten, e.g.:

30 miso / 三十 /
misoji
80 yaso / 八十 /
yasoji
80 yao
0
etc.

When adding single entities to tens, the suffix amari was inserted, for example misoji
amari futatsu no katachi 三十余り二つの相 to express "thirty-two men". Since this
rendering was much more complicated than the Sino-Japanese way of counting, it
lapsed into disuse by about the 8th century.
As a rule, Japanese numerals are combined with Japanese classifiers, but they can
equally be used in combination with nouns, occasionally adopting the classifying
suffix -tsu, which properly speaking is no part of the numeral (see the third example):

hitoyo 一 one night

夜
hitotsu 一 one month
ki 月
mitsug 三 triplets / a
o 子 three-year-old
▪ Sino-Japanese numerals
Sino-Japanese numerals make use of a complete set. In real terms, they are used for
practically any number over ten. Still, numbers below ten are usually expressed in
Japanese numerals.

1 ichi 一
2 ni 二
3 san 三
4 shi 四
5 go 五
6 roku 六
7 shichi 七
8 hachi 八
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

9 kyū 九
10 jū 十
11 jūichi 十一 etc.
20 nijū 二十 etc.
100 hyaku 百
200 nihyaku 二百 etc. 16

1,000 sen (issen) 千 (一千)

2,000 nisen 二千 etc.
10,000 man (ichiman) 万 (一万)
20,000 niman 二万 etc.
100,000 jūman 十万 etc.
1,000,000 hyakuman 百万 etc.
10,000,000 senman 千万 etc.
100,000,000 oku (ichioku) 億 (一億) etc.
Summary
NUMERAL JAPANES SINO-JAP NUMERAL SINO-JAP
JAPANESE
S E ANESE S ANESE
1 hitotsu つ ichi一 11
toamarihito
tsu あまりつ jūichi
2 futatsu つ ni 二 20 futaso hata nijū
mitsu つ san 三 百
momo
3 100
-o / ～ hyaku
nihyaku 二
yotsu つ shi 四
4 200 futao
百
5 itsutsu つ go 五 1,000 chi 千 sen 千
6 mutsu つ roku 六 10,000 yorozu man 万
7 nanatsu つ shichi 七 100,000 ∅ jūman
yatsu つ hachi 八
hyakuman
8 1,000,000 ∅
百万
kokonotsu senman 千
9
つ kyū 10,000,000 ∅
万
oku 億
tō / to 100,000,00
-so ～
10 jū ∅
0

2. Ordinals

Japanese ordinals are formed by adding prefixes and/or suffixes to the cardinals. In
contrast to common practice in English and other European languages, different
kinds of ordinals exist in Japanese, each befitting a certain context.

▪ Ordinals based on indigenous cardinals

16
It should be noticed that euphonic changes (onbin 音便) may apply when continuing this series, for example
happyaku 八百 instead of *hachihyaku, and so forth.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

These ordinals have the noun me 目

("eye") suffixed to the numeral. A classifier (see
below) such as tsu is necessarily put between the numeral and the suffix. For
example:

the first hitotsume つ

the first (person) hitorime
the third room mimame
the seventh day nanukame

▪ Ordinals based on Chinese cardinals

Three variations apply:

1. The Sino-Japanese prefix dai 第 is put before the numeral:

firs daiic 第
t hi 一
2. The Sino-Japanse suffixes ban 番 or gō 号 are put behind the cardinal.
first ichiba 一
n 番
secon nigō 二
d 号
3. A combination of both previous formations:

first dai ichiban 第一番

second dai nigō 第二号
thirty-seco dai 第三十二
nd sanjūnigō 号
4. In case of a series (such as listed items, for example) or numeration (for
example dates), ordinal affixes are usually omitted.

in the first place ichi... 一

eleventh (day of the jūichinic 十一
month) hi 日
twelfth (month) jūnigats 十二
u 月
Note: The Sino-Japanese numerals for four (shi 四) and seven (shichi 七) are usually
replaced by the indigenous Japanese equivalents yo and nana.
The Japanese set of numerals is used for counting the days of the month.
Sino-Japanese numerals only serve to state a period of days, not a specific date.

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3. Multiplicatives

Three suffixes can function as formatives that denote multiplication by a certain

quantity. One belongs to the indigenous Japanese stock, and the two others are from
a Sino-Japanese background.

1. Japanese: e (-fold, -ply, literally "layer")

This multiplicative suffix is exclusively put after Japanese numerals. Similar to

cardinal numbers, Japanese multiplicatives are limited to ten; any multiplication
beyond this cut-off makes use of Sino-Japanese numerals. Incidentally, this set is
defective and has to rely on Sino-Japanese supplements for the numerals "four" and
"six".

double, futa
twofold e

2. Sino-Japanese: jū 重, bai 倍
In addition to the Sino-Japanese counterpart of the above, bai 倍 originally denoted
"multiples of two".

treble; triple sanjū 三重

17

three times; sanb 三倍

threefold ai

4. Fractions

A simple rule of thumb applies to fractions: first the denominator or part displayed
below the line (or after the slash) is mentioned, followed by the suffix bun . This 分
expression is followed by the particle no の
and the numerator (= number above the
line).

four-fifths, gobun no 五分の

⅘ yon 四
5. Indefinite numerals

Numerals of this kind either express an undefined amount or ask about an exact
quantity. They can be formed in two ways.

1. By replacing a Japanese numeral by the question formative iku 幾:

17
Note that Japanese numerals are here written with the same kanji characters as the Sino­Japanese numerals, while
having different readings (dōjiidokukun同字異読訓 ).
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

how many ikuts つ

u
how many ikuta くたり
people ri
ikuni
n
how many ikue
times

2. By replacing a Sino-Japanese numeral with the question prefix nan 何:

how many nanb 何
times ai 倍
how many nanni 何
people n 人
6. Classifiers

Classifiers (also called counters or numeratives) are a group of words included in the
numerating system in order to establish a semantic relation between the numeral and
the counted object. One specific classifier will typically be used to count nouns
belonging to the same semantic class. The common feature shared by nouns governed
by the same classifier, usually refers to a visible physical characteristic. A discus, a
sheet of rice paper, and a coin, accordingly, are all counted using the classifier mai , 枚
which thus accompanies thin or flat small-sized objects.
Classifiers are common to many Asian languages, including Chinese, Korean, Malay,
and so forth. Japanese classifiers do not escape the usual dichotomy between
indigenous and Sino-Japanese vocabularies. Indigenous classifiers can be observed
both after Japanese and Sino-Japanese numerals. Sino-Japanese classifiers, in
principle, only follow Sino-Japanese numerals.

▪ Japanese classifiers:

Classifier Meaning Usage Example

eda 枝 branch offerings, presents kiji hitoeda雉一枝 one
pheasant offering
furi 振り swing (drawn) swords 刀一振
katana hitofuri
り one unsheathed
sword
hashira 柱 column deities and dignitaries mihashira no kami 三
柱の神 three gods
kasane 重ね layer clothing, paper, boxes kosode mikasane 小袖
三重ね three kosode
18

kashira 頭 head Buddhist statues, daimyō futakashira大

daimyo 名二頭 two feudal
lords

18
A wadded silk garment.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

kawara 航 ship's keel, bottom ships Yasokawara no fune

timber 八十航の船 eighty
ships
koshi 腰 waist trousers, skirts, isokoshi no ya 五十腰
(sheathed) swords, の矢 (a quiver
(quivered) arrows counting) fifty arrows
ma 間 chamber rooms heya futama 部屋二間
two rooms
moto 本 root long, erect things (esp. taka hitomoto 鷹一本
plants), (trained) one hawk
hawks
mune 棟 ridge buildings dozō hitomune 土蔵一
棟 one godown
nagare 流れ flowing flags, long and narrow akahata o
objects, juxtaposed nananagare tsukuri …
things 赤旗を七流れ作
り、・・・ making
seven red flags
suji 筋 tendon, string long and narrow Moto hikaru take
objects 本光る
hitosuji arikeri
竹一筋ありけり one
bamboo shoot shone at
its base
人
tari *human being people
19
musume futari 娘二人
two daughters
wa 羽 (pair of) wings birds kamo futawa 鴨二羽 a
brace of ducks

Note: Present table calls for two comments:

a. Today, the indigenous Japanese classifiers are outdated and hardly feature
in modern Japanese. They can only be retrieved in classical texts.
b. Numbers below ten maintain their Japanese readings; accordingly:

鷹一 taka one hawk,

本 hitomoto etc.

▪ Sino-Japanese classifiers

Classifier Meaning Usage Example

bi 尾 tail fish akahara sanbi 赤腹三
尾 three daces
chaku 着 clothing clothes hakama itchaku 袴一
着 a pair of trousers
chō 挺 to handle tools 人力
jinrikisha gochō
車五挺 five rickshaws
chō 張 to stretch bows, tents, string koto gochō 琴五張 five
instruments harps
dai 台 platform machines and vehicles kikai ichidai機械一台
one machine

19
In response to the question word ikutari having been limited to one, two or four persons since the Heian period;
the remaining combinations have used Sino­Japanese classifiers ever since.
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

fū 封 seal letters, parcels 一封書

ippūsho one
letter
fuku 幅 width scrolls, maps 地図二幅
chizu nifuku
two maps
gu 具 tool utensils, clothes 瓶子一具
heiji ichigu
one pitcher
hiki 匹 companion animals 馬二匹
uma nihiki two
horses
hon 本 root cylindrical objects 筆二本
fude nihon two
pencils
jiku 軸 axis scrolls 巻物
makimono nijiku
二軸 two scrolls
jō 條 line long and wide things, 帯一條
obi ichijō one
e.g. sashes, roads, sash
ribbons
ka カ・ヶ, ko 個 (piece) default classifier hako niko 箱二個 two
boxes
ka 荷 load burden to be carried ryōgake ikka両掛一荷
a carrying pole
ken 軒 the eaves houses sankenme no tei三軒
目の邸 the third
mansion
ku 口 mouth people and tools kōshi ikku 講師一口
one instructor
kyaku 脚 leg legged furniture tsukue nikyaku机二脚
two desks
mai 枚 small piece of a board, flat, thin objects gin sanmai 銀三枚
stick three silver coins
mei 名 name persons [formal] hakase hachimei博士
八名 eight doctors
men 面 surface flat objects biwa sanmen 琵琶三
面 three Japanese
lutes
mon 門 gate cannons hō hyakumon 砲百門
one hundred cannons
nin 人 man people bushi ikunin 武士幾人
How many samurai?
ryō 両 two wheels vehicles, rolling stock kuruma sanryō 車三両
three cars
satsu 冊 volume books shomotsu sansatsu書
物三冊 three books
satsu 札 writing official documents shōmon issatsu 証文一
札 one deed
shu 首 head poems waka hyakushu 和歌
百首 one hundred
tanka
sō 艘 large vessel ships, vessels kaisen gosō 回船五艘
five lighters
soku 足 foot footwear kutsu gosoku 靴五足
five pairs of shoes
tō 頭 head large animals, cattle ushi hyakutō 牛百頭
one hundred head of
cattle
tsū 通 message letters and documents tegami ittsū 手紙一通
one letter

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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

zen 膳 dining tray meals served in bowls, hashi ichizen箸一膳a

chopsticks pair of chopsticks

Sino-Japanese classifiers naturally follow Sino-Japanese numerals (excepting the

peculiar cases involving the numbers four and seven).
Further, attention should be paid to the rules of euphonic change (onbin ), which 音便
remain unimpaired.

1.3. Non­nouns: hitaigen 非体言

This category covers independent non-inflecting words, which cannot act as subject of
a sentence. A distinction is made between hitaigen that operate as a modifier (before
taigen or yōgen), and hitaigen not functioning as modifier. Attributive modifiers are
referred to by Japanese grammars as rentai shūshokugo 連体修飾語 , whereas
adverbial modifiers are known as ren'yō shūshokugo 連用修飾語.

1.3.1. Adverbs: fukushi 副詞

Japanese adverbs display the following properties:
1. They are independent, free words, which modify other adverbs, yōgen,
predicates, and, in rare cases, nouns.
2. They are invariable and can be neither subject nor predicate in themselves.
In the linguistic sphere, one might add that as these words are characterized by
invariability and modifying nature, which makes them the ideal soil for onomatopoeia
and mimetic words (giongo 擬音語 and gitaigo 擬態語 respectively).
Interestingly, the number of fully fledged fukushi in the Japanese language is rather
limited, and most of the adverbial vocabulary is derived from keiyōshi, keiyōdōshi,
nouns, or verbs.
According to the parts of speech they modify, adverbs can be divided into three major
groups:
1. Adverbs exclusively modifying yōgen.
2. Adverbs modifying yōgen, taigen, and other fukushi.
3. Adverbs modifying the predicate in its entirety.
More precisely, these groups can further be categorized as follows:

a. Adverbs exclusively modifying yōgen

1. Modal adverbs (jōtai­fukushi 状態副詞

)
These are used to indicate the way in which an action is done, or modify the property
of a condition.

For example: at least semete せめて

constantly taezu 絶えず
Moreover, quite a number of jōtai­fukushi are derived from adverbial forms of yōgen:

For example: well yoku 良く

likewise onajiku 同じく
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 11 Apr 2014 Open Course Classical Japanese

Another group of adverbs originated from reduplications:

For example: respectively sorezore それぞれ

accidentally tamatama 偶々
Finally, a number of adverbs were taken from the Chinese. They partly concern words
that already had a modifying function in Chinese. The remaining ones are words that
originally go back to Chinese nouns, or that were compounded in Japan from Chinese
elements.

For example: as a matter of course mochiron 勿論

all issai 一切
in a dignified manner dōdōto 堂々と
2. Locative adverbs (basho­fukushi 場所副詞 )
Locative adverbs indicate place or distance.

For example: nearby chikaku 近く

far away harukani 遥かに
on the way michisugara 道すがら
3. Temporal adverbs (toki no fukushi 時の副詞 )
Adverbs of this kind are used to indicate time.

For example: first mazu 先づ

when? itsu いつ
soon mamonaku まもなく
rarely mareni 稀に
for a while shibashi 暫時
and many more.

b. Adverbs modifying yōgen, taigen, and other fukushi: measure adverbs

(teido fukushi 程度副詞 )
These adverbs establish the measure of the action, state, or quality that they modify.

For example: all mina 皆

very hanahada 甚だ
more and more masumasu 益々
and so forth.

c. Adverbs modifying the predicate (chinjutsu fukushi 陳述副詞)

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These adverbs modify the predicate in its entirety. They express a great variety of
semantic functions, including negation, condition, affirmation, and interrogation.
They are often combined in a set phrase with a specific verbal form.

For example: as yet imada 未だ

[not] in the least sarasara + neg. 更々
really [should] masani (+ beshi) 正に...べし
why nazo なぞ
and so forth.

1.3.2. Adnouns or noun adjuncts: rentaishi 連体詞

Adnouns are independent words, used to modify taigen. Originally, they all come
from verbal rentaikei forms. The differences between rentaishi and dōshi are as
follows:
1. Rentaishi are indivisible, i.e. they cannot be defined as words consisting of
different parts. Dōshi combined with jodōshi do not qualify as adnouns.
2. Rentaishi are invariable, i.e. RTK of inflecting words cannot be considered
as adnouns.
3. Rentaishi are isolated, i.e. the word itself is recognisable as a derivative, but
it lost its original form, and only survived as an attributive modifier
(rentai­shūshokugo).

Classical Japanese features just over a dozen rentaishi.

a certain aru 或る
all, every arayur あらゆ
u る
the so-called iwayur
u
particular; considerable sashita 然した
ru る
not much; not so [+ neg.] saseru 然せる
last saru 去る
last sannur 去んぬ
u る
last inji 往んじ
such saru 然る
such, like this kakaru 斯る
next, coming kitaru 来たる
different; unexpected; aranu 有らぬ
undesirable
next, following akuru 明くる
Additionally, a number of modifying particles, that is to say combinations of a stem
followed by no の つ
or tsu , are classified as rentaishi: see tō no 遠の
(far-away), hon
no 本の (mere), toko tsu 常つ
(eternal) and so on.
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往に
Note: Inji is the contracted form of ini + shi し. Shi is the RTK of the past-tense
き
jodōshi ki , which is attached to the RYK.

1.3.3. Conjunctions / setsuzokushi 接続詞

This part of speech covers uninflected words, which are largely derived from other
parts of speech or their combinations. They establish hierarchy in the text by
connecting clauses or sentences, or by coordinating words in the same clause. They
share this feature with conjunctive particles (setsuzokujoshi 接続助詞 ) and RYK
forms, which are used more frequently in classical Japanese. Conjunctions never
occur in sentence-final position, and can be classified as follows

a. Word­connecting conjunctions

▪ Coordinative conjunctions / Heiretsu setsuzokushi 並列接続詞

For example: narabini 並びに ("and"), oyobi及び ("and"), mata また ("and also")
選択接続詞
▪ Alternative conjunctions / Sentaku setsuzokushi
For example: moshiwa もしは ("or"), aruiwa或いは ("or")
b. Clause, or sentence­connecting conjunctions

並列接続詞
▪ Coordinative conjunctions / Heiretsu setsuzokushi
For example: aruiwa 或いは ("or"), aruwa 或は 将
("or"), hata 又
("or"), mata
("and"), moshikuwa 若しくは ("or"), moshiwa 若しは 並びに
("or"), narabini ("and")

▪ Subordinate conjunctions / Jūzoku setsuzokushi 従属接続詞

For example: katsu 且つ ("besides"), nao ("further"), shikanominarazu 然のみならず
/加之 ("on top of that"), shikashite 而して ("then"), shikōshite して ("thus") , satewa
さては ("and, on top of that")
▪ Copulative conjunctions / Juntai setsuzokushi 順態接続詞
For example: kakareba かかれば ("accordingly"), kakushite かくして ("in this way"),
kakute かくて ("thus"), saraba 然らば ("and then"), sareba 然れば ("and so,
therefore"), shikaraba 然らば ("if so"), shikareba 然れば ("therefore; thus"),
sunawachi ち/ち ("and then"), yueni に ("consequently")

▪ Adversative conjunctions / Gyakutai setsuzokushi逆態接続詞

For example: tadashi 但し ("but"), kakaredomo かかれども ("however"), saredo 然れ
ど ("but"), saredomo 然れども ("but"), sarinagara 然りながら ("however"), saruni
然るに ("but"), saruwa 然るは ("still"), shikaredomo 然れども ("however"),
shikaruni 然るに ("however"), shikashinagara 然しながら ("nevertheless"), shikaruo
然るを ("and yet")
1.3.4. Interjections / kandōshi 感動詞 or kantōshi 間投詞

As suggested by the Japanese terms, utterances or ejaculations expressive of emotion

are assigned to this category. Interjections mostly do not constitute a grammatical

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connection, but invite the addressee to react, or formulate a vocal response following
an external or internal stimulus. A distinction is made between:

a. Emotions / kandō 感動
a あ ("Oh!"), ā ああ
("Oh!"), ana あな ("Ah!"), aware あはれ ("Alas!"), suwa すは
("Good Heavens!")

b. Responses / ōtō 応答
ina いな ("Nay"), iyaいや ("No"), ō おう ("Aye")
c. Appeals / yobikake 呼び掛け
ikani いかに ("Say"), nōnō なうなう ("Hey"), yayo やよ ("Yo-ho")

d. Enticements / sasoikake 誘い掛け

iza いざ ("Come now"), ide いで ("Come now"), isa いさ [+ neg.] ("No")

2. Bound morphemes: fuzokugo 付属語

This grammatical category treats those parts of speech that cannot operate as an
independent entity. They are necessarily attached to another word, without which
they cannot express a meaningful utterance. Since these morphemes usually follow
the word they modify, the term suffix is often used in English to cover these
dependent forms, which in turn can be classified into inflecting suffixes or auxiliaries
(jodōshi 助動詞 ), and non-inflecting suffixes or particles (joshi 助詞 ).

2.1. Inflecting bound forms: auxiliaries / jodōshi 助動詞

After they are suffixed to verbal or adjectival bases, auxiliaries are further inflected.
This happens in a way similar to dōshi or keiyō(dō)shi flexion. Consequently, a new
verb or adjective-like phrase comes about.
In contrast to their non-inflecting counterparts, auxiliaries do not serve to clarify
purely grammatical connections, but are used to explain an action or condition
content-wise. They clarify the context in which a certain verb is used. Quite a number
of auxiliaries fulfil multiple functions. Each specific function is determined by the
grammatical or semantic context. Auxiliaries, moreover, may connect to other
auxiliaries or other dependent forms. However, when attached to a verbal base, only
one function applies at a time. If it is necessary to combine several functions, different
auxiliaries and particles have te be combined. It is this characteristic that led to the
Japanese language being categorized as an agglutinative language. Indeed, several
suffixes may be connected in succession, producing an impressive array of meanings
and shades of meanings.
Jodōshi can be categorized in three different ways:

a. Semantically: according to the kind of information contained by the jodōshi,

and extended to the word to which it is attached.
b. Morphologically: according to the flexional properties of the jodōshi.
Jodōshi do not uniformly follow the same flexion pattern. Some auxiliaries
have flexions similar to those adopted by verbs, whereas other auxiliaries
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inflect just like keiyōshi, or behave in the same way as keiyōdōshi, that is by
taking a copula ending. In addition, a minority of auxiliaries has a unique
flexion pattern, corresponding to none of the three above-mentioned flexions.
c. Syntactically: according to the inflected form (base) to which it is attached.
Every auxiliary has to be attached to a specific inflected form. Moreover,
certain rules regulate the order in which a succession of jodōshi are arranged.
Past-tense auxiliaries, for instance, are always placed after auxiliaries of
passive use, and never appear ahead of them.
The classification used here follows the arrangement of jodōshi according to semantic
categories.
Note: It is important to bear in mind that in contrast to Western verbal forms,
Japanese jodōshi primarily fulfil their function as words. This is to say, in
Japanese the passive is a semantic category, and therefore cannot be
grammatically isolated as distinctly as the passive voice in Western languages.
To put it oversimply, in Japan the passive is an emotion, in the West a
grammatical function. This observation more or less holds for all other jodōshi,
and underlies the present classification according to semantic criteria.

When classifying according to semantic criteria, jodōshi can be regrouped according

to the functions they fulfil into the following three major sections, which respectively
have to do with:
1. The extent to which the subject or locutor is involved in the action. This
includes such functions as passive, causative, medio-passive, potential, and
honorific uses.
Note: Each of the aforementioned functions defines the extent to which the
subject and/or speaker is involved in the action. None of them suggest a direct
factual involvement, except perhaps for the honorific suffixes. In this case, the
use of an honorific auxiliary, which can also be applied as a passive suffix, does
not express a factual, but a fictional reduction of involvement, for the subject is
a high-ranking person. Whenever dignitaries occur as subject, the use of
semantically unambiguous expressions is avoided. Finally, this led to the use of
jodōshi indicating a reduced involvement of the subject in the action.
2. The tense of the action (future, past, and present tense, terminative, and
non-terminative aspect).
3. Modality, or the speaker's subjective attitude or assessment of an action.
Moods such as doubt, hope, intention, volition, prohibition, negation,
assertion, comparison, reporting, statement, suspicion, surprise, and so on, are
all communicated by jodōshi belonging to this section.

2.1.1. Degree of involvement

a. Passive use / ukemi 受身: RU, YU, RAYU, RARU

Auxiliaries turning the verb into a passive, include ru, raru, and their Old Japanese
equivalents yu and rayu. The flexional behaviour of these suffixes can be summarized
as follows:

Flexion ru, yu, raru, rayu

base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
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Basic form

MZK*
Ø shimonid
an
MZK†
*
Yodan, nahen, and rahen verbs.
†
Ichidan, nidan kahen, and sahen verbs.

Only a few Nara jodōshi, occasionally involving some signal peculiarities, escaped the
ravages of time. Attaching yu to omou and kiku, for instance, produced omowayu 思
はゆ and kikayu 聞かゆ
, respectively, but quite soon the MZK linking vowel a turned
into an o, resulting in the forms omōyu 思ほゆ
(> oboyu 思ぼゆ
) and kikoyu . 聞こゆ
Eventually, these forms were lexicalized during the Heian period as independent
words. A similar transformation into an independent lexical item was the case for
miyu 見ゆ("to be visible; to be able to see"), which is compounded from the regular
combination of MZK + yu. Other relics of the auxiliary yu are to be discovered in a
number of adnouns, including arayuru あらゆる
, and iwayuru いはゆる
, rentaishi in
which the MZK of the verb (ara- / iwa-) is followed by the yu's RTK form.

When using ukemi, the agent as a rule is indicated by the particle ni, whereas the
subject of the passive verb appears without particle, and is usually put at the
beginning of the sentence. As for the passive mood, three situations may apply:

▪ The subject is a living being, directly subjected to the action (tadōshi):

生徒講師に叱らる
Seito kōshi ni shikararu
The student is scolded by the instructor.

か行けば人に厭はえかく行けば人に憎まえ老男はかくのみならし
Ka yukeba hito ni itowae kaku yukeba hito ni nikumae oyoshio wa kaku nomi
narashi (Man'yōshū, 5:804)
When going over there they are resented by others, and when coming over here
they are disliked by them; such is the only treatment old people get.

▪ The subject is a living being, indirectly (and negatively) affected by the action
(jidōshi / tadōshi):

長け高き人に前にをられて、見えず
Taketakaki hito ni mae ni orarete, miezu
There is a tall man in front of me, so I cannot see it.
Note: Although ori をり is a jidōshi, it is connected to hito 人 に
by using ni , which
normally indicates the agent of a tadōshi verb. Ni に is put here in order to indicate the
をり
source of a discomfort that is specified by the passive form of ori .

隣の人に窓を開けられて、安眠を得ず
Tonari no hito ni mado o akerarete, anmin o ezu
My neighbour opened the window, and I couldn't get a quiet sleep.

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Note: The difference between a "regular" passive and the indirect or "suffering" passive
used here, lies in the content of the main sentence (anmin o ezu), which suggests that the
opened window gives discomfort to the speaker. It should be noted that the suffering
passive only constitutes an additional usage of the regular passive, and is not an
independent grammatical form.

▪ The inanimate subject is directly affected by the action (tadōshi):

紙端に書かれたる物語あり
Shitan ni kakaretaru monogatari ari
There is a story written in the margin of a page.
Note: This passive use, having a grammatical subject which is not a living being, is rather
uncommon. The suffix attached to the passive auxiliary is the RTK of the jodōshi tari た
り (see below).

b. Medio­passive or spontaneity use / jihatsu 自発: RU, YU, RAYU, RARU

The medio-passive (or sometimes: middle or deponent voice) use is a grammatical
category which indicates that the action expressed by the verb happens spontaneously
or by itself. In a way, the subject is submitted to an action that lacks a visible agent. In
outward appearance, the verb is used in the passive form, but is regarded as active in
meaning. The medio-passive, in short, stands midway between active and passive,
thus mixes passive auxiliaries (ru, raru, yu, rayu) with active meanings.

筆を執れば、物書かれ、楽器を取れば、音を立てんと思ふ
fude o toreba, mono kakare, gakki o toreba, ne o taten to omou
(Tsurezuregusa, 157)
When I take my pen in hand, I jot something down, and when I clasp my
instrument, I feel like making some music.
れ る
Note: The form re of the auxiliary ru here, represents the so-called suspensive RYK.
Ru is indeed merely used as a medio-passive formation. It tries to suggest that the
speaker unconsciously, as it were, started to write whenever taking his pen in hand,
unprompted by conscious volition.

なほ梅の匂ひにぞ、いにしへの事も立ちかへり、恋しう思ひ出でらるる
Nao ume no nioi ni zo, inishie no koto mo tachikaeri, koishū omoiideraruru
(Tsurezuregusa, 19)
All the more for the fragrance of ume blossoms, things of the past come back,
and I think of them wistfully.
Note: Koishū 恋しう 恋し
is the RYK of koishi ("longing, wistful"), which dropped the /k/
in its ending due to sound change. The medio-passive phrase omoiideraru 思い出らる
takes RTK here due to the occurrence of zo ぞ (see kakarimusubi above). The use of the
medio-passive here relates to memories that spring to mind spontaneously, and are not
recalled deliberately.

瓜食めば子ども思ほゆ。栗食めばまして偲はゆ
Uri hameba kodomo omōyu kuri hameba mashite shinuwayu (Man'yōshū,
5:802)
When eating melons, my children come to mind; when eating chestnuts, I miss
them even worse.

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c. Potential use / kanō 可能: RU, YU, RAYU, RARU, BESHI, MAJI
This function is used to indicate that the subject or speaker is possibly involved in the
action, that is to say is capable of effectuating it. This usage in fact represents a
further elaboration of the medio-passive, implying that the susceptibility to a certain
event developed into the capability of a certain action. The auxiliaries ru, raru, yu,
and rayu are most frequently used as potential suffixes. In addition, the auxiliary
beshi can also be used. The negative potential is expressed by bekarazu (which
derived from a form of beshi combined with the negative auxiliary zu) or by the
jodōshi maji.

Flexion beshi, maji

base form MR
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK Flexion
Basic form K
ku­katsu
Ø Ø
yō
kari­kat
Ø () Ø Ø
suyō
SSK *
shiku­ka
Ø Ø
tsuyō
kari­kat
Ø Ø Ø
suyō
*
Words following the rahen inflexion take the RTK as base.

湖廻に満ち来る潮のいや増しに恋はまされど忘らえぬかも
Minatomi ni michikuru shio no iyamashi ni koi wa masaredo wasuraenu
kamo (Man'yōshū, 12:3159)
With the increase of the tide running full in the harbour, my longing is only
getting stronger; can I still not forget her?

妹を思ひ眠の寝らえぬに秋の野にさ牡鹿鳴きつ妻思ひかねて
Imo o omoi, i no neraenu ni aki no no ni saoshika nakitsu tsuma omoikanete
(Man'yōshū, 15:3678)
Unable to get some sleep, for yearning after his mate the stag cries in the
autumn field, I cannot but think of my beloved.

恐ろしくて寝もねられず
Osoroshikute i mo nerarezu
It was so frightening that I was unable to go to sleep

つゆまどろまれず
Tsuyu madoromarezu (Genji, "Kiritsubo")
He is unable to take a nap at all.

今宵はえ参るまじ
Koyoi wa emairumaji
I cannot go this evening.
Note: E should be considered an adverb in this case.
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羽なければ、空をも飛ぶべからず
Hane nakereba, sora o mo tobubekarazu (Hōjōki)
Having no wings, they could not fly through the air.

あなづりやすき人ならば、「後に」とてもやりつべけれど
Anazuriyasuki hito naraba, "Nochi ni" tote mo yaritsubekeredo (Makura no
sōshi, 28)
If it is someone you can easily make little of, you can no doubt dismiss him by
saying "Later".
Note: The hint of strong possibility is emphasized by the presence of the jodōshi tsu.

物はすこし覚ゆれども、腰なむ動かれぬ
Mono wa sukoshi oboyuredomo, koshi namu ugokarenu
I do feel some sensation, but I cannnot move my lower limbs.
Note: Oboyu 覚ゆ 自ヤ下二
( ) means "to sense, to feel". Namu なむ is an emphatic
particle that operates kakarimusubi, making the final inflected form turn into the RTK.
Consequently, nu ぬ ず
represents the RTK of zu . Incidentally, the phrase ugokarenu
may also be construed as a medio-passive.

d. Causative use / shieki 使役: SU, SASU, SHIMU

The causative is a function in which the subject is not directly involved in the action.
Although it causes the action, or allows it to happen, its realization is taken care of by
another operator. Shieki can be expressed by the following auxiliaries: su, sasu and
shimu.

Flexion su, sasu, shimu

base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form
MZK
*

MZK shimonid
†
an
MZK
‡
*
Yodan, nahen, and rahen verbs.
†
Ichidan, nidan, kahen, and sahen verbs.
‡
得
Kamiichidan verbs, as well as the shimonidan verb u , however, adopt the RYK followed by se (= MZK
of the verb su). E.g. miseshimu 見せしむ (to let/make see, to show).

Note: As regards the previous flexion table, it should be noted that tadōshi derived
from jidōshi, and ending in -su, follow a different flexion, viz. the "four-tier" or yodan
flexion. Also, there is a jodōshi su which adds a honorific purport, and which equally
has a yodan flexion.

いそぎまゐらせて御覧ずるに
Isogimairasete goranzuru ni (Genji, "Kiritsubo")

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He (= the emperor) summoned him to come quickly to court, and when he

inspected him ...
Note: Isogimairasete is a compound formed by the RYK of isogu "to make haste", and
the MZK of the humble verb mairu "[hum.] to go". Goranzuru is the RTK of the honorific
verb goranzu, meaning "to see"; ni here is an RTK-based conjunctive particle
(setsuzokujoshi) which operates as a connector between sentences.

教師生徒に本を読ます
Kyōshi seito ni hon o yomasu
The teacher has the student read a book.
Note: The participant who is made to perform an action by the agent is, if necessary,
に を
marked off by the particles ni , o or oshite をして
. The direct object is indicated by
を.

政府国民に教育を受けさす
Seifu kokumin ni kyōiku o ukesasu
The Government makes the people receive an education.

身を破るよりも、心いたましむるは、人を損なふことなほ甚だし
Mi o yaburu yori mo, kokoro o itamashimuru wa, hito o sokonau koto nao
hanahadashi (Tsurezuregusa, 129)
Causing someone's soul to suffer, is far more severely hurtful than harming
someone's body.
Note: An empty noun (or keishikimeishi 形式名詞 , lit. "formal noun") is omitted twice,
making the nominalizing function of the RTK be used instead: once in the case of yaburu
(他ラ四 ) and again in the causative phrase itamashimuru.

e. Honorific use / sonkei 尊敬: RU, YU, RARU, RAYU, SU, SASU, SHIMU,
SU

Honorific endings are used in order to pay respect to the subject, by suggesting its
indirect involvement in the action. By applying sonkei auxiliaries, the speaker
indicates that his position is inferior to the one held by the subject. The flexion of
most auxiliaries is already introduced above, except for the Old Japanese jodōshi su,
which takes the yodan flexion.

Flexion su
base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form
MZK* yodan
*
Yodan and sahen verbs.

This auxiliary su expresses mild respect or affection. In combination with the verbs
omou, shiru and kiku, the honorifics omowasu, shirasu, and kikasu came about, as
did their variant spellings shirosu 知ろす
, kikosu 聞こす
, and omōsu . During 思ほす
the Heian period, omōsu further modified into obosu. In the same period, su
gradually lost currency and only survived as a fossilized word part in honorific verbs
such as mesu 召す
, kikoshimesu 聞こしめす
, omōsu 思ほす
, obosu , tsukawasu 思す
遣はす , and so forth.

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Initially, and with the notable exception of the honorific verbs mesu , kesu 見す
, 着す
nasu 寝す , and koyasu 臥やす , only yodan or sahen verb MZKs served as a base for
su.

この岡に菜摘ます児家聞かな名告らさね
Kono oka ni na tsumasu ko ie kikana na norasane (Man'yōshū, 1:1)
Lass picking greens on this hill, I want to know your family, tell me your name.

葛飾の真間の井見れば立ちならし水汲ましけむ手児奈し思ほゆ
Katsushika no Mama no i mireba tachinarashi mizu kumashikemu Tegona
shi omōyu (Man'yōshū, 9:1808)
Seeing the well of Mama in Katsushika, I remember Lady Tegona, who paved a
path to that place, going to draw water, so people say.

Since Heian times, the productive use of this auxiliary finally discontinued in favour
of the passive and causative inflecting forms. Towards the late Heian period, there
were even instances of a combined use of both jodōshi, which have left their marks on
modern Japanese vocabulary, as the honorific verb irassharu いらっしゃる
入ら せ らる
(<iraseraru + + ) illustrates.

薩摩守忠度は、いづくよりか帰られたりけん
Satsuma no kami Tadanori wa izuku yori ka kaeraretariken (Heike
monogatari, 7)
Where had Tadanori, the Governor of Satsuma, returned from?
Note: The verb kaeru is suffixed by the honorific ru, and further takes the auxiliary tari,
which in turn is connected to the jodōshi ken (also spelled kemu), which indicates
conjecture or doubt (see below). Both tari and ken take the RYK as base. The particle ka
here also suggests conjecture or doubt.

いで、むつかしきことな聞こえられそ
Ide, mutsukashiki koto na­kikoerare­so (Genji, 21)
Come on, don't talk about such delicate matters!
Note: Ide is a kandōshi expressing negation, a negative exclamation etc. Na ~ so
represents some sort of negative imperative, which is circumfixed to the verb. This verb
always takes the RYK. In this example, the humble verb kikoyu ( 他ヤ下二 ) is used,
meaning "to say".

東宮四にならせ給ふに、譲り申させ給ふ
Tōgū yotsu ni narasetamau ni, yuzurimōsasetamau
When the Crown Prince reached the age of four, he [=the Emperor] announced
his abdication.
Note: This example offers a combination of different honorific forms. On the verbal level,
the honorifics mōsu and tamau are used, whereas morphologically the auxiliary su is
used to express honorific usage. The combination (sa)setamau is a turn of phrase
expressing utmost politeness. At the same time, this example makes use of humble verbs
in order to clarify the relationship between the Crown Prince and the Emperor.

帝大いに驚かせ給ひて、観ぜしめ聞こしめすこと限りなし
Mikado ōini odorokasetamaite, kanzeshime kikoshimesu koto kagiri nashi
His Majesty is greatly impressed, and listens with boundless admiration.

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Note: The construction odorokasetamaite is assembled following the usual pattern.

Kanzeshime is compounded from the Sino-Japanese verb kanzu, which means "to
sense". Shimu is attached to the MZK, and it takes the RYK in order to connect to
another verbal part of the sentence.

上は歌を作らしめ給ふ
Kami wa uta o tsukurashimetamau
The emperor composes a poem.

2.1.2. Indication of time

In Classical Japanese, the time of an action cannot be detached from other semantic
aspects. European languages tend to express time indications by using verbal forms
exclusively reserved to indicate time. In Classical Japanese, most jodōshi used to
indicate a certain time or an aspectual characteristic additionally impart a
connotation, expressing for instance the speaker's relation with regard to the action.
Classical Japanese, moreover, distinguishes between the absolute pastness of an
action (its positioning on a fixed timescale = real past tense), and pastness of an
action in relation to some other event, which itself may be situated in the future (=
past aspect).
The following passages will, step by step, elaborate on the various ways of expressing
time by using auxiliaries.

a. Present tense / genzai 現在

The default tense of all Japanese inflecting words, including verbs, is formally
undetermined. Lacking any explicit indication of time or temporal phase of action, all
inflecting forms, both independent and bound formations, are assumed to follow the
(present) indefinite tense.
The term indefinite tense is used here since, as context serves, Japanese verbs in
default of further time indication by other sentence parts such as time-indicating
words or suffixes, are indefinite: they may express both current and past actions.
They do so with much greater flexibility than European verbs do. The present
indefinite tense in Classical Japanese can be subdivided into the following four types:

▪ Actual present tense: as used in direct discourse, e.g.:

「玉の枝取りになむ罷る」と言はせて
"Tama no eda tori ni namu makaru" to iwasete (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai
no tama no eda" 蓬莱の玉の枝)
"I am leaving to fetch the jeweled branch," he made him say, ...

▪ Narration of an event from the past (historic present)

楫取り等の「北風悪し」と言へば、船出ださず
Kajitorira no "kita­kaze ashi" to ieba, fune idasazu (Tosa nikki)
The steersmen say: "Too bad, the wind is from the north," and they do not put
to sea.

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Note: Two uses of the present indefinite tense are illustrated here. The phrase
representing the steersmen's direct discourse can be compared to the previous example.
The other verbs rather refer to an event from the past using the present indefinite tense
to enhance the narrative style.

▪ Habit

もし夜静かなれば、窓の月にむかし人を偲び、猿の声に袖を潤す
Moshi yo shizuka nareba, mado no tsuki ni mukashibito o shinobi, mashira
no koe ni sode o uruosu (Hōjōki)
When the night is quiet, I think of people of long ago at the moon-lit window,
and hearing the monkeys shriek, I wet my sleeve.
Note: The introductory constituent "When ..." suggests that the action described
subsequently did not happen once, but repeatedly. Mashira is the obsolete equivalent of
他バ四
saru. The verb shinobu ( ) translates as "to recall, to think of", and should not be
mistaken for忍ぶ 他バ上二
( ), which means "to conceal; to do something secretly".

▪ Universal statement

An ageless event, action, or observation of something which is not connected to a

specific moment of time.

猫は三年の恩を三日で忘る
Neko wa sannen no on o mikka de wasuru
Cats forget three years' favour in three days.
Note: This example clearly is a saying stating a timeless truth. The disconnection
between the time aspect and the verb is clearly illustrated.

b. Future tense / mirai 未来: MU, MUZU

Auxiliaries expressing future events or actions, usually imply a sense of doubt or
intention with regard to the situation they describe. From a language-historical point
of view, it is interesting to note that in time the originally neutral indicators of future
tense more and more (instead of decreasingly) assumed connotations of doubt
whether an event actually happened, or intention to perform an action. This is why
the auxiliaries treated here also appear in sections sections discussing conjecture or
intention.
む
The jodōshi that express future tense are mu and its more emphatic correlate muzu
むず . Both auxiliaries soon got variant equivalents, n ん
and nzu んず
, which
eventually would supersede them in course of time. Muzu in fact represents the
condensed form of mutosu むとす and even transformed further during the
Kamakura and Muromachi periods into uzu .うず
Flexion mu, muzu
form Flexio
base MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
Ø Ø Ø yodan
MZK
Ø Ø Ø sahen

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Whether the auxiliaries should be read as mere indicators of future tense or otherwise
(including first-person intention or third-person conjecture), depends on the
information divulged by context. This again is an illustration of the characteristic that
Japanese endings, and jodōshi in particular, cannot be classified according to iron
rules, but only by virtue of the function they fulfil in a certain context. This
accordingly explains why one and the same jodōshi occasionally appears under
different sections in the present classification.

これを読まむ者
Kore o yomamu mono
The person who will read this.

明日雨降らむ
Asu ame furamu
It's going to rain tomorrow.

翁のあらむ限りは、斯うてもいますかりなむかし
Okina no aramu kagiri wa, kōte mo imasukarinamu kashi (Taketori
monogatari, "Tsumadoi" つまどひ)
As long as this old chap [= the speaker] is alive, you will without doubt
continue like this.
Note: Two different uses of mu む are introduced here: the first auxiliary indicates some
future prospect (the continuation of the old man's life), whereas the second is used in
combination with the jodōshi nu ぬ (perfective aspect), which shows the beginning of a
new phase. Since mu adds a future perspective, the verb altogether designates the
continuation in the future of a previously realized situation.

彼の本の国より迎へに人々参で来んず
Kano moto no kuni yori mukae ni hitobito mōdekonzu (Taketori monogatari,
天の羽衣
"Ama no hagoromo" )
From this country of origin, people will come to fetch me.
Note: This sentence is an illustration of the contracted form nzu. This alternative was
particularly popular in the Middle Ages, when it replaced mu to indicate a plain future
tense.

舟に乗らうずるにて候
Fune ni norōzuru nite sōrō (Kanze Motomasa 観世元雅, Sumidagawa 隅田川)
I am about to board the ship.

c. Past tense / kako 過去: KI, KERI

This category indicates that an action or event happened in the past. It does not
involve any indication of aspect. In order to express past tense, two jodōshi are
relevant: ki and keri.

Flexion ki, keri

form Flexio
base MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RYK Ø Ø irr.
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Ø Ø rahen

Attaching ki to the verbs ku and su, or to compound verbs derived from them, brings
in an alternative flexion pattern:

Combination kahen/sahen + ki
combinati form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
on Basic form
kahen + Ø Ø Ø Ø /* /* Ø
sahen + Ø Ø Ø
*
Less commonly used.

昨日来し人
Sakujitsu koshi/kishi hito
The man who arrived yesterday

此の地に来しかども
Kono chi ni koshika/kishikadomo
Although I came to this place

修業せし学僧
Shūgyō seshi gakusō
A learned priest who completed a course of study

参内せしかども
Sandai seshika domo
Although she entered the Court

The above-mentioned irregular forms presumably originated to avoid syllable

reduplications such as shishi or kiki. In addition to marking an action that happened
in the past, the auxiliary ki further indicates the speaker's direct involvement in this
event, and thus suggests some sort of subjectivity.

辛く都に帰りき
Karaku miyako ni kaeriki
I returned to the capital with difficulty.

粮尽きて草の根を食物としき
Kate tsukite kusa no ne o kuimono to shiki (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai no
tama no eda" 蓬莱の玉の枝)
We ran out of provisions, and used grass roots as food.

昨日買ひし書を読まむ
Sakujitsu kaishi sho o yomamu
I am going to read the book I bought yesterday.

人知らずこそ思ひそめしか
Hito shirazu koso omoisomeshika

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I fell in love without anyone knowing.

酒ありせば飲まましものを
Sake ariseba nomamashi monoo
If there had been sake, I would have drunk some.
Note: The first two examples illustrate the use of the SSK, the third shows the attributive
RTK use. The fourth example provides an illustration of the auxiliary's IZK use, here due
to kakarimusubi induced by koso. The final example illustrates the use of ki in
combination with ba in order to express a counterfactual meaning.

In Old Japanese, no mention is made of keri, except for its MZK, which only appears
in fixed combinations, for example the negation kerazu けらず
. Historically, keri is
considered to be the contraction of ki plus the verb ari. Accordingly, keri is
sometimes construed as indicating the continuation of a situation that started in the
past (see genzaikanryō); in other words, the classical equivalent of the modern
ている
Japanese constructions teiru and tearu . てある
石垣のみは今もありけれど
Ishigaki nomi wa ima mo arikeredo
Although only the stone wall remains even now.

もみじ葉神代より秋は散りけり
Momijiha kamiyo yori aki wa chirikeri
Since the age of the gods, scarlet maple leaves have fallen in Autumn.

The point that most distinguishes keri and ki, is the use of the past tense based on
transmission instead of on subjective experience/observation. Accordingly, the
auxiliary keri pre-eminently appears in tales, fairy tales, legends, poetry, and so on,
and also serves to indicate fictitiousness of the imparted content.

昔、男ありけり
Mukashi, otoko arikeri
Once upon a time there lived a man.

京へ帰りけり
Kyō e kaerikeri
He returned to the capital.

道知れる人もなくて、惑ひ行きけり
Michi shireru hito mo nakute, madoiikikeri (Ise monogatari, 9)
There was no-one who knew the way, so they went astray.
Note: Shireru is combined from the IZK of ( 他ラ四; = to know) and the RTK of ri, a
jodōshi indicating a durative aspect. See below.

An additional use of keri is for poetic emphasis. This means that the auxiliary is not
used to express past tense, but to emphasize a certain statement.

犬などもかかる心あるものなりけり
Inu nado mo kakaru kokoro aru mono narikeri (Makura no sōshi, 9)

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Dogs and their likes are also creatures having such emotions.
Note: When encountering these (and all other) jodōshi, it is important to pay attention to
context. Particular grammatical functions are expressed by specific jodōshi, but their
usages are not limited to a single grammatical category.

d. Durative (also progressive or continuous) aspect / keizoku 継続: RI,

TARI

As opposed to the grammatical categories indicating a precise moment of time, or

using a particular scale of time to indicate tenses, with what are known as aspects also
figuring in Japanese. Aspects, as the term itself suggests, are "points of view", or, to
put it simply, "the way how something looks in relation to specific periods of time." In
concrete terms, this implies that aspect is defined by reference to time, or more
specifically: to the time at which the described event happens.
Keizoku is one of various individual aspects, indicating that the action is not
terminated, thus continuing for an appreciable time. This does not mean that the
event is bound by a certain point of time. If the rest of the event is situated in the
present, then the (continuing) action indicated by the sonzoku form equally happens
in the present.
This aspect moreover covers the combination of the present tense and the perfective
aspect according to which a past event has present consequences. By English
grammar influence (see present perfect), this usage is sometimes termed genzai
kanryō 現在完了 , emphasizing the present result of a past event. In general, the
genzai kanryō would not contain references to a future development.
A verb has two possibilities to operate the durative aspect:

て
▪ Analytic construction: RYK (+ te / tsutsu つつ ) + auxiliary verb of existence
(sonzai hojodōshi 存在補助動詞 , e.g. ari あり をり
, ori , iru ゐる
, haberi はべり
). This
also includes honorific verbs.
Several authors categorize the endings after the RYK as joshi, and do not treat them
as part of the auxiliaries. This grammar nevertheless does not concur, and maintains
their discussion under the heading of jodōshi for two reasons:
つ
a. both tsutsu and te are derived from tsu , a jodōshi; and
b. describing the durative aspect here represents a very specific use
complementary to the way yodan verbs apply the auxiliary ri . り
猶「憂し」と思ひつつなんありける
Nao "ushi" to omoitsutsu nan arikeru (Ise monogatari, 4)
He was still thinking, indeed, "How sad".
Note: Nan is the shortened form of the particle namu なむ, which, like zo ぞ and koso こ
そ, expresses an emphasis. It makes the subsequent verb take the RTK. The form before
kakarimusubi thus would have read: omoitsutsu arikeri.

これをも哀れとも見で居るに、竹取の翁走り入りていはく
Kore omo aware tomo miteoru ni, Taketori no okina hashiriirite iwaku
(Taketori monogatari)
While she was reading it with regret, the old bamboo cutter dashed in and said:
...
Note: The combination of mite plus iru refers to a continuous action; the joshi に is used
here as a conjunctive particle, meaning: "while".

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黒鳥と言ふ鳥、岩の上に集まりをり
Kurodori to iu tori,iwa no ue ni atsumari­ori
The birds called kurodori have garthered on top of the rocks.

皆青き衣を着てあり
Mina aoki kinu o kite ari
They are all wearing green garments.

▪ Synthetically: attaching the jodōshi ri (only to yodan and sahen verbs) and tari.

Flexion ri
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
IZK *
rahen
*
Only the IZK of yodan verbs apply. Verbs taking sahen inflexion adopt the MZK before ri.

Similar to the instances discussed above, this form indicates a continuous

uninterrupted situation as result of an action/state or an action still in progress.

み吉野の山辺に咲ける桜花
Miyoshino no yamabe ni sakeru sakurabana (Kokinshū, 1:60)
The cherry blossoms flowering on the outskirts of the fair Yoshino hills.
Note: This example illustrates the rentaihō use of ri; the scene describes flowers that
shot forth, and that are consequently flowering now.

士卒の病み伏せりける皆起きぬ
Shisotsu no yamifuserikeru mina okinu
The soldiers, that had been lying wounded, all got up.
Note: This is a fine example illustrating the combined use of the durative aspect together
with keri, which indicates past tense here: the lying down took some time and is now
terminated by the fact that the soldiers rise. The RTK of keri is due to juntaihō or
nominalization.

薪負へる人に会ふ
Maki oeru hito ni au
To meet someone carrying wood.
Note: This example clearly indicates a continuous action: the person lifted the wood on
to his/her shoulders at some point, and is still carrying the burden at the moment of
encounter.

火すでに我が家に移れり
Hi sude ni wagaya ni utsureri
The fire has already spread to my house.

Flexion tari
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RYK rahen

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壁に書きたる字
Kabe ni kakitaru ji
The characters written on the wall.

夜涼みや川に落ちたる人の音
Yosuzumi ya kawa ni ochitaru hito no oto (Masaoka Shiki 正岡子規,
Kanzanrakuboku 寒山落木)
An evening cool, the cries of people fallen in the river.

その度、公卿の家十六焼けたり
Sono tabi, kugyō no ie jūroku yaketari (Hōjōki)
On that occasion, sixteen residences of dignitaries had burnt down.

Note: The examples clearly illustrate the genzaikanryō mechanism. All three
instances concern terminated actions (writing / falling / burning), the result of which
is still noticeable (graffiti / drowning people / charred remains).

e. Perfective aspect / kanryō 完了: NU, TSU

The perfective aspect is used to indicate the definite completion of an action or event,
regardless of whether it happened in the past, present, or future. It is moreover used
to express a short-range action, laying stress on the sudden nature, or sweeping
change of the situation

Flexion of nu, tsu

base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RYK *
nahen
shimo
RYK ­nida
n
*
Apart from some (Kamakura) exceptions, nahen verbs are not applicable.

て
Note: The conjunctive particle te is presumably directly derived from the RYK form
of tsu. As it gradually assumed specific usages, both forms are now safely considered
to represent two different existences, independent from one another. In qualifying the
difference between nu and tsu, numerous readings hold that nu is more likely
attached to jidōshi indicating a more composed completion of a situation, whereas tsu
is connected to tadōshi, signalling a more abrupt termination of an action. This is an
arguable point.

花咲きつ
Hana sakitsu
The flowers have burst into blossom.

花咲きぬ
Hana sakinu
The flowers came into blossom. / The flowers are in blossom.
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Note: If in terms of translation difference should be made between both jodōshi, the
above-stated renderings may be considered, having the first sentence suggest a more
unexpected, prompt action.

文書きてむ
Fumi kakitemu
I shall write a letter.

船は沈みなむ
Fune wa shizuminamu
The ship will go down.
Note: In both cases, the perfective jodōshi are put in the MZK and followed by the
particle mu which indicates future/intention. The perfective aspect governing both
suffixes clearly stands out: the time that the action is completely carried out or
terminated is not situated in the past but in the future. This implies both a sense of
determination and inevitability. This may cause some translation problems, since the
target language may not always have the instruments to convey this kind of nuance. The
only way to obviate this is to choose verbs that emphasize the definitive, irreversible
character of an action.

ホトトギス鳴きつる方を詠むれば、ただ有明の月ぞ残れる
Hototogisu nakitsuru kata o nagamureba, tada ariake no tsuki zo nokoreru
(Senzaishū, 3:161)
When I watched in the direction from where the little cuckoo had sung, only
the morning moon was left.
Note: Ariake is a period of the lunisolar calendar during which the morning moon is just
about visible. Zo induces the ensuing verb to take the RTK. The form mentioned here is
the RTK of nokoreri, a construction consisting of the yodan verb nokoru and the
auxiliary ri, which indicates the durative aspect (see above). As far as tsu is concerned,
this jodōshi is put after the RYK of naku. Since the entire verbal expression serves to
modify kata, RTK it obviously the appropriate form. The use of the jodōshi tsu suggests
that the cuckoo sang (perhaps only once) at a certain moment, and then remained silent.
By clear contrast, the sonzoku mode of the verb nokoru indicates that the moon has
appeared, and is still visible.

道の辺に清水流るる柳影「しばし」とてこそ立ち止まりつれ
Michi no be ni
shimizu nagaruru
yanagikage ­
"shibashi" tote koso
tachidomaritsure (Shin Kokinshū, 3:262)
On the wayside, the willow casts its shade where the clear water flows. "A little
while," I thought, and I stopped.
Note: In this example taken from the eighth imperial anthology of waka poetry,
nagaruru functions as a modification to yanagikage. The combination cannot be
translated literally; only a descriptive rendering, suggesting the close relation between
the willow's shadow and the water, can be used as a way out. As is often the case in
Classical Japanese, tote is used here as the shortened form of to iite, to omoite, etc. Tsu,
the focus of attention here, marks an abrupt turn in the action: while having a stroll, the
speaker suddenly decides to have a break.

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秋来ぬと目には清かに見えねども、風の音にぞ驚かれぬる
Aki kinu to me niwa sayakani mienedomo, kaze no oto ni zo odorokarenuru
(Kokinshū, 4:169)
Although it is not clearly visible to the eye that autumn has arrived, it definitely
struck me through the sound of the wind.
Note: The case particle to goes in fixed position with the verb miyu ( 自ヤ下二 = to be
visible). Ne is the IZK of zu. The construction odorokaru 驚かる is used medio-passive
(see above). The jodōshi expressing the perfective aspect, nu, connects to the RYK of
odorakaru, and assumes the RTK due to kakarimusubi of zo. The reduplication of the
perfective aspect suggests the abrupt nature of the change: suddenly autumn has come,
and all of a sudden the speaker is aware of it through the howling wind.

As the examples above already demonstrate, both auxiliaries may also be used to
emphasize situations or actions; in Old Japanese they can display this feature singly,
but in time the emphasis function became more and more limited to a combined use
together with modal jodōshi (which express the mood of the speaker). For example:

明日こそ友の来つべけれ
Asu koso tomo no kitsubekere
Tomorrow my friend will definitely come.

神前の酒を取りて、飲みなむとす
Kami mae no sake o torite nominamu to su
He took the sacred sake and was about to drink it!
Note: Beshi is a jodōshi that is attached to the SSK, and indicates the speaker's intention
or the necessary occurrence of an event. The IZK form bekere is due to kakarimusubi
with koso. The emphasis on the fact that the friend is actually coming the next day, is
communicated on two levels: first by using the particle koso, and additionally by adding
the auxiliary tsu. As already mentioned, the construction mutosu is inserted to express a
future situation, or the intention to perform specific actions. Na (i.e. the MZK of nu) is
put in to stress the real, irreversible nature of an action. Similar to all previous examples,
context once more is a primordial factor when it comes to interpreting the intention that
the writer or speaker wants to transmit by using particular jodōshi.

A third use of the perfective auxiliaries is connecting constituents, expressing the

alternation or simultaneous termination of two or more actions. This function only
emerged in the Middle Ages, and can be compared to tsutsu つつ
, or the modern
たり する
Japanese tari … suru … .

泣きつ笑ひつ物語る
Nakitsu waraitsu mono kataru
With a laugh and a tear, he tells a story.

泣きぬ笑ひぬし給ふ
Nakinu warainu shi­tamau
He cries and he laughs
Note: The origin of this use that developed from the perfective aspect is clearly visible: it
applies to actions that time and again carry on a short while, and then cease in favour of
another event. The co-ordinated actions thereby each respond to the criteria of the
perfective aspect.

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2.1.3. Modality

The following grammatical categories are closely connected to feelings, utterances of

will, and judgments expressed by the subject and/or speaker. Since the kind of
attitude is what matters here, the various categories can be compared to moods, a
term that first appeared in Latin grammar. Consequently, they can be referred to as
"modal jodōshi".

a. Doubt or conjecture / suiryō 推量

: MU, MUZU, RAMU (RAN), KEMU
(KEN), MASHI, RASHI, BESHI, BERANARI, MERI en NARI

In classical Japanese, the dubitative mood is marked by suffixing jodōshi that express
the speaker's doubt about a state, situation, action or event to the verbal stem. A great
variety of auxiliaries can be used to this intent: mu, muzu, ramu (ran), kemu (ken),
mashi, rashi, beshi, beranari, meri, and nari. These suffixes mainly differ from one
another in terms of time they refer to.

Flexion mu, muzu

base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
Ø Ø Ø yodan
MZK
Ø Ø Ø sahen

These jodōshi have already been treated under the section of auxiliaries indicating
future. In the usage presented here, the auxiliaries express the speaker's conjecture
and/or doubt about an actual or future event.

明日雨降らむ
Asu ame furamu
It may rain tomorrow [but it is not sure].

今日人多からむ
Kyō hito ōkaramu
There will be a lot of people today.

花咲き居らむ
Hana sakioramu
The blossoms will be flowering.

The use of mu in the the dubitative conjectural mood is most clearly illustrated in
interrogative sentences:

少納言よ、香炉峰の雪、いかならむ
Shōnagon yo, Kōrohō no yuki, ika naramu (Makura no sōshi, 299)
Lady Shōnagon, how is the snow on Mount Kōro?

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Mu is also frequently used to reduce the categoric nature of an utterance, in which

usage it hardly retains any meaning worth mentioning. This often happens when it is
applied in rentaihō.

この鳥、姿醜けれども、鳴かむ声は愛らし
Kono tori, sugata minikukeredomo, nakamu koe wa airashi
This bird is unshapely; it does have a lovely singing voice, though.

Flexion ramu
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
SSK* Ø Ø Ø yodan
*
Words following the rahen flexion take the RTK before the ramu.

The auxiliary ramu indicates doubt or uncertainty about an event or state in the
present (from the speaker's perspective). The state or situation concerned is beyond
the speaker's powers of observation, or is not transparent. From the Heian literature
onwards, ran らん emerges as a variant formation. For example:

山は今美しかるらむ
Yama wa ima utsukushikaruramu
The mountains must be beautiful now.
Note: The construction utsukushikaruramu combines a kari flexion keiyōshi with ramu,
which, as indicated above, connects to the RTK. Nite is a particle (joshi) used to
accompany an adverbial modification, in this case of place.

家にて泣くらむ子を思ふ
Ie nite nakuramu ko o omou
I am worried about my child that may be crying at home right now.

白露の色は一つを、いかにして秋の木の葉を千々に染むらん
Shiratsuyu no iro wa hitotsu o, ikanishite aki no konoha o chiji ni somuran
(Kokinshū, 5:257)
The white dew has only one colour, how is it that it dyes the autumnal leaves in
thousands of ways?
Note: O を is used here as a conjunctive particle (setsuzokujoshi) indicating the
contrastive connection between two sentences.

鶴は 鳴く声雲居まで聞こゆらん
…
Tsuru wa [...] naku koe kumoi made kikoyuran (Makura no sōshi, 41)
The crying voice of the crane [...] can perhaps be heard as far as the clouds.

Flexion kemu
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RYK Ø Ø Ø yodan

Since the Heian era, kemu was often written and/or read as ken けん. Etymologically,
kemu is construed to be a contraction of a former MZK of ki (= ke け) and mu む. This
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auxiliary is used to express uncertainty about an event that happened in the past. In
certain cases, it is also utilized to mark transmission, or situations told by others
(denbun 伝聞 ). For example:

京は暑かりけむ
Kyō wa atsukarikemu
It must have been hot in the capital.

我が妻のありけむ家へ案内せよ
Wagatsuma no arikemu ie e annai seyo
Direct me to the house where my wife was said to be staying.

この文書きたるは紫にこそありけめ
Kono bun kakitaru wa Murasaki ni koso arikeme
The one who wrote this text must have been the Murasaki.

など故郷に我帰りけむ
Nado furusato ni ware kaerikemu
Why did I return to my home?

Flexion mashi
base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form

MZK Ø Ø irr.

Among the auxiliaries representing conjecture, mashi expresses the greatest level of
uncertainty: by using mashi the speaker suggests that he considers a statement very
unlikely. Mase, an ancient MZK form, was still productively used in Nara literature,
but gradually left the field to the younger MZK variation mashika. The auxiliary
mashi covers three usages: counterfactual statement, conjecture and intention. For
example:

試験なからましかばと思ふ
Shiken nakaramashikaba to omou
I would that there were no examinations.

たれか言はまし
Tare ka iwamashi
Who would tell me (no-one, right?)

In a counterfactual statement, the speaker projects a situation that is at variance with

reality. Mashi may appear both in the main sentence introducing a hypothetical
situation, and as part of a subordinate clause which describes the effects of the
hypothetical situation. In counterfactual use, mashi is often followed by the particles
o を or monoo ものを , which both emphasize the unreal nature of the situation
described.

あの山なからましかば月もかくれざらましを
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Ano yama nakaramashikaba tsuki mo kakurezaramashi o

Were it not for that mountain, the moon would not be hidden.

If mashi expresses a conjecture, the nuance of strong uncertainty comes across in the
statement. This use very frequently appears in an interior monologue or as part of a
rhetorical question.

敵の近きを誰か知らまし
Teki no chikaki o tareka shiramashi
Is anybody actually aware that the enemy is close at hand?

As a suffix indicating an intention, mashi particularly stresses the uncertain character

of the intention.

これに何を書かまし
Kore ni nani o kakamashi
What would I write down here?

誘ひあらば行かまし
Sasoi araba ikamashi
If invited, I might go.

Flexion rashi
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
Ø Ø Ø irr.
shiku­
Ø Ø Ø katsuy
SSK* ō†
kari­k
Ø Ø atsuyō
†

*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before rashi.
†
Flexions that have only gained currency since the Muromachi period.

Rashi formulates a conjecture about an actual event (genzaisuiryō ). In現在推量

contrast to ramu, rashi involves a more solidly based surmise, which relies on
circumstances within empiric reach of the speaker. From the 13th century onward,
rashi increasingly behaved as an adjective, and, the absence of IZK and MRK forms
notwithstanding, assumed an adjective-like flexion pattern (shiku and kari flexions).
For example:

遊びあるらし
Asobi arurashi
It seems there is going to be a concert.

かの舟をこそ出だすらし
Kano fune o koso idasurashi
Apparently, they are going to despatch that ship.

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寒からし
Samukarashi
It must be very cold.

冬過ぎて春来たるらし
Fuyu sugite haru kitarurashi
It seems that winter has passed and spring has come.

Flexion beshi
base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form
ku­katsu
Ø / / Ø
yō
SSK*
kari­kats
Ø () Ø Ø
uyō
*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before beshi.

When attaching beshi flexional forms, classical authors often avail themselves of
syncopated forms. This is for instance the case for the RTK, which has bei べい as the
shortened version of beki べき
, and which features bekameri べかめり
and bekanari
べかなり that replace the regular constructions bekarumeri べかるめり and
bekarunari べかるなり . Similar variation is also shown by the RYK in which byō べう
is syncopated for bekuべく .
The jodōshi beshi has a rich array of functions, and the one relevant to a given
situation is to be derived from the context. In addition to its potential mood already
discussed above, beshi may indicate doubt or uncertainty. This auxiliary particularly
refers to the probability or improbability that an action is going to happen. In other
words, beshi represents a form of possibility bound by uncertainty (see potential), or
a dubitative form which expresses a larger probability than mu does.

死ぬべき者
Shinubeki mono
The mortal ones.

さあるべくば
Sa arubekuba
Such being the case ...

車より落ちぬべう惑ひ給ふ
Kuruma yori ochinubyō madoi­tamau
She is so confused that she may fall from the carriage.

Flexion beranari
base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form
nari­kat
SSK* Ø Ø
suyō
*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before beranari.

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This auxiliary expresses a conjecture generally based on visual impressions. The term
beranari originated from be, the stem of the previous jodōshi beshi, which became
connected to the copula nari by means of the adjectival suffix ra. The term was first
introduced in early Heian-period kanbun kundoku 漢文訓読 (Chinese texts
paraphrased in Japanese), and was adopted by tanka authors while being kept out of
diary or monogatari literature. This suggests that it belonged to the register of
informal male speech. Finally, this construction lost validity following the Muromachi
period. For example:

秋の夜の月のひかりしあかければくらぶの山も越えぬべら也
Aki no yo no tsuki no hikari shi akakereba Kurabu no yama mo koenu
beranari (Kokinshū, 4:195)
The light of the autumnal evening moon is so bright that one could even cross
Mount Kurabu by it.

鳴き止むる花しなければ鶯も果てはもの憂くなりぬべらなり
Nakitomuru hana shi nakereba uguisu mo hate wa monouku narinu beranari
(Kokinshū, 128)
Now that they are gone, the blossoms he wanted to hold up with his song, the
bush warbler too seems finally to be through with it.

久方の天つ空にも住まなくに人はよそにぞ思ふべらなる
Hisakata no amatsusora ni mo sumanaku ni hito wa yoso ni zo omou
beranaru (Kokinshū, 15:751)
Though I do not live in a heavenly sphere far from earth, people seem to
consider me from outer space!

Flexion meri
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
SSK* Ø Ø rahen
*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before meri.

Analogous to beshi, syncopation is possible when attaching meri. This particularly

happens when meri is preceded by a base ending in -ru, which makes it transform
into an n (e.g. anmeri あんめり
) or even disappear altogether (e.g. ameri あめり).
The auxiliary meri is only present in Heian and Kamakura writings, and presumably
む
originated from the fusion between the words mu and ari あり.
Meri communicates a slight uncertainty about an event or action in the present, or
may indicate an extratemporal observation. This uncertainty is often so slight, that
meri seems to act as a mitigating auxiliary, that is, trying to tone down the apodictic
き
character of a statement. Meri may be connected to ki , in which case it serves to
suggest doubt or uncertainty about an event in the past. For example:

花を取らすめり
Hana o torasumeri
Apparently, he makes them pick flowers.

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木の下にて童ぞ泣くめる
Konoshita nite warawa zo nakumeru
It seems as though a child is crying under the tree!

龍田川紅葉乱れて流るめり
Tatsutagawa momiji midarete nagarumeri (Kokinshū, 5:283)
On Tatsuta River, scarlet leaves flow without apparent order.
Note: It is clear that the connotation of uncertainty or doubt is not strongly emphasized.
The first example presents a delicate and facultative indication of uncertainty, whereas in
the third example the jodōshi can hardly be translated, unless by distorting the rhythm of
the original.

Flexion nari
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
SSK* Ø Ø rahen
*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before nari.

Nari expresses a conjecture based on second-hand information. This jodōshi may

equally indicate that the speaker directly heard some information. At any rate, both
aspects have in common that information is based on auditory sources. Verbs
preceding nari will accordingly include some sort of acoustic element or refer to direct
quotation or to rumour in general. Apart from the missing MZK, MRK, and chūshikei,
its flexion integrally coincides with the copular verb nari. It takes however the SSK as
base, maintaining the usual exception for rahen verbs, which assume the RTK before
the auxiliary. For example:

柿くへば鐘が鳴るなり法隆寺
Kaki kueba kane ga naru nari Hōryūji (Masaoka Shiki, Kanzanrakuboku)
Eating a persimmon, I hear bells sounding,- Hōryūji

よしよし、とのゐ人もみな起きぬなり
Yoshi yoshi, tonoibito mo mina okinu nari (Genji, "Ukifune")
Fine, all the members of the guard seem to be awake as well

男もすなる日記といふもの
Otoko mo su naru nikki to iu mono (Tosa nikki, 20:27)
Things called diaries, which men are said to write.

京に上るなりき
Miyako ni noboru nariki.
It is reported that he goes to the capital.

b. Desiderative use / kibō 希望: MAHOSHI, TASHI, MŌSHI

Flexion mahoshi, tashi
form Flexio
base Basic MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
form
n

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shiku­
Ø - - - Ø katsuy
MZK ō
kari­k
- - Ø - Ø Ø
atsuyō
ku­kat
Ø
suyō
RYK
kari­k
Ø Ø Ø
atsuyō

The desiderative or mood expressing desire, was formulated in Classical Japanese by

using the auxiliaries mahoshi or tashi. The former, derived from maku (a
nominalized form of the intention particle mu) plus the shiku adjective hoshi, and
compared to tashi of a much older pedigree, attaches to the MZK and follows the
shiku adjective inflexion.
Tashi, which is characterized by a ku flexion, follows the RYK just like the modern
equivalent tai たい . In contrast to its modern equivalent tai, both auxiliaries may
express the speaker's desire that the addressee or someone else perform a certain
action. For example:

京に上らまほし / 京に上りたし
Miyako ni noboramahoshi / Miyako ni noboritashi
I want to go to the capital.

本日京へ立たれたし
Honjitsu Miyako e tataretashi
I want you to leave for the capital today.

あらまほしきは梅が香を
Aramahoshiki wa umegaka o (Enkyokushū 宴曲集, 1: "Haru" 春)
What I want is the scent of apricot blossoms.

篳篥はいとかしがましく、秋の虫をいはば、くつわむしなどの心地して、う
たてけぢかく聞かまほしからず
Hichiriki wa ito kashigamashiku, aki no mushi o iwaba, kutsuwamushi nado
no kokochi shite, utate kejikaku kikamahoshikarazu (Makura no sōshi, 9)
The flageolet is terribly noisy; it feels just like a giant katydid, if I were to liken
it to autumn insects. Sorry, but I'd rather not hear it close by.

Flexion mōshi
base form MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK Flexion
Basic form
ku­katsu
MZK Ø Ø
yō

The wish for something not to happen is expressed by the auxiliary mōshi. For
example:

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この君の御童姿いと変へまうく思せど、十二にて御元服し給ふ
Kono Kimi no ōnwarawasugata, ito kaemōku obosedo, jūni nite ōngenpuku
shitamau (Genji, "Kiritsubo")
He did not want to have this prince's infant attire changed at all, but at twelve
years old he had his coming-of-age ceremony.

c. Negation / uchikeshi 打消 = hitei 否定: ZU

While the Classical Japanese language lacks conceptions to indicate affirmation or
confirmation, it possesses two operators to negate the content of a sentence or
constituent. Negation is most frequently expressed by using a negative ending, such
as the jodōshi zu , ji ず じ and maji まじ
. These elements of negation may however
imply much more than a mere negation. The latter two negation auxiliaries for
instance communicate the subject's dubitative respectively intentional attitude.
Besides applying morphological transformations, negation can equally be established
lexically. Particularly the negation adjective nashi なし("to be absent, to be lacking,
ぬ
to be no more"; incidentally etymologically related to the jodōshi nu , see below)
can be mentioned in this respect. Nashi negates the meaning of a taigen and can be
called the opposite counterpart of ari あり("to be, to have, to exist"). Nevertheless,
the so-called uchikeshi no jodōshi 打消の助動詞 constitute the major part of the
negation formatives.

Flexion zu
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
() / [] Ø irr.
MZK
Ø rahen

The zu irregular flexion of this dual flexion pattern is most often applied in
combination with particles (like ba, te, do, etcetera), or in places where zu concludes a
sentence. The rahen flexion initially served as a base for other jodōshi, and
particularly superseded the irregular zu variation from the MZK and MRK
formations. In time, both flexions became to be used indiscriminately, enabling pairs
such as neba ねば vs. zareba ざればand nedo ねどvs. zaredoざれど .

The hybrid nature of the irregular flexion, which incorporates traces of an obscure
negation auxiliary reconstructed as nu ぬ
, is quite remarkable. Nara texts
demonstrate that it took na な
and ni に
for its MZK and RYK forms respectively,
suggesting that it was ruled by a yodan flexion. Remnants of this archaic negation
form are found in more recent texts, for example in the discontinuous (or
circumfixing) structure na ~ so な～そ
, which concerns a negative imperative. Other
instances are naranaku ni ならなくに("despite being absent"; -ku here operates as
an archaic nominalizing suffix attached to the MZK), and shirani 知らに("not
knowing"; the suspensive variant of the more commonly used shirazu 知らず ).
Examples of the "more modern" zu in context are:

国のため君のために、止むことを得ずしてなすべき事多し
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Kuni no tame kimi no tame ni, yamu koto o ezu shite nasu beki koto ōshi
(Tsurezuregusa, 123)
There are many affairs one must inevitably see to for Lord and country.

義を見てせざるは勇無き也
Gi o mite sezaru wa yū naki nari (Rongo)
Knowing what is right and not doing it is want of courage.

松が枝の地に着くまで降る雪を見ずてや妹が隠り居るらむ
Matsugae no tsuchi ni tsuku made furu yuki o mizute ya imo ga komori
oruramu (Man'yōshū, 20:4439)
Do you stay indoors, not seeing how the snow is falling so heavily that the
branches of the pine tree are reaching the ground?

Finally, the rhetorical device of litotes, a stylistical usage also common in Western
languages, should be mentioned. Using this figure, a speaker does not intend a
negation as such, but rather tries to obtain a stronger affirmative effect by stating the
negative of the contrary. For example:

故なきにあらず
Yue naki ni arazu
It is not without reason.

書を読まざるべからず
Sho o yomazaru bekarazu
You cannot leave the book unread.

d. Negative doubt or conjecture / uchikeshisuiryō 打消し推量: JI, MAJI,

MASHIJI

Flexion ji
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
MZK Ø Ø Ø irr.

Negative doubt is indicated by the auxiliary ji, which is inflected statically, in other
words remains unchanged. Ji ranked as the negative equivalent of mu, making it
cover various uses besides negative doubt, such as negative intention, will or desire
(uchikeshiishi 打消し意志 ). Ji suggests that an event "is not likely to happen"
(dubitative mood), or that the speaker "does not intend, does not want" to perform an
action in the future. Until the Heian period, ji remained valid in Japanese, and it only
started to be considered archaic during the Kamakura period. For example:

風にこそ知られじ
Kaze ni koso shirareji (Shinshokukokin wakashū, 153)
It is not something known to the wind alone.

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一生の恥、これに過ぐるはあらじ
Isshō no haji, kore ni suguru wa araji (Taketori monogatari)
Of all the disgraces in my life, none will exceed this.

法師ばかりうらやましからぬものはあらじ
Hōshi bakari urayamashikaranu mono wa araji (Tsurezuregusa, 1)
You cannot find anyone as unenvied as a priest.

家の辺りだに今は通らじ
Ie no atari dani ima wa tōraji (Taketori monogatari)
We don't mean to pass even the vicinity of the house now.

明日は外に出でじ
Asu wa soto ni ideji
I don't intend to go out tomorrow.

Flexion maji, mashiji

base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
shiku­
Ø Ø katsu
yō
kari­k
SSK* Ø Ø Ø atsuy
ō
shiku­
Ø Ø Ø Ø katsu
yō
*
Rahen verbs take the RTK before maji and mashiji.

The auxiliary maji, which is derived from the Old Japanese prototype mashiji,
represents the negative counterpart of beshi, and consequently covers a broad array
of subjective attitudes (modalities), including negative doubt, most importantly, but
also negative intention, scepticism, impossibility, reluctance, needlessness,
impropriety, and prohibition. Historically, maji goes back to a combination of ma, the
MZK of the suiryō auxiliary mu, followed by the conjectural auxiliary ji. In contrast to
this morpheme, maji managed to survive in the Japanese language, and developed
まい
into the modern, albeit literary variant mai .

堀江越え遠き里まで送りる君が心は忘らゆましじ
Horie koe tōki sato made okurikeru kimi ga kokoro wa wasurayu mashiji
(Man'yōshū, 20:4482)
How could I forget your kindness, having seen me off as far as this distant
village, across the canals.

さて冬枯のけしきこそ、秋にはをさ／＼劣るまじけれ
Sate fuyugare no keshiki koso aki ni wa osaosa otorumajikere
(Tsurezuregusa, 19)
Really, the desolate wintry landscape is scarcely inferior to that of autumn.
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容易く人寄り来まじき家を作りて
Tayasuku hito yorikumajiki ie o tsukurite (Taketori monogatari)
He built a house that could not easily be approached by people, and …

猶仕う奉るまじき事を、参りて申さむ
Nao tsukōmatsurumajiki koto o, mairite mōsamu (Taketori monogatari)
I will go to give notice that I still have no intention to serve (at court).

今日の見参は有るまじかりつるを
Kyō no kenzan wa arumajikaritsuru o (Hiramatsukebon Heike monogatari
平松家本平家物語, 1: "Giō" 義王)
Although our meeting today should not have taken place.

In addition to the above-mentioned negative constructions involving the jodōshi zu,

ji, maji, and the keiyōshi nashi, the setsuzokujoshi de で
can equally convey a
negation. This particle is often construed to be the merged form of the setsuzokujoshi
て に
te , attached to ni , the RYK of the jodōshi nu ぬ
(see above). Towards the Heian
period, nite にて
had eventually assimilated into de. The particle follows the MZK and
can be put in the middle of a sentence or in sentence-final position. For example:

思ふこと成らでは、世の中に生きてなにかせん、と思ひしかば、ただ空しき
風にまかせてありく
Omou koto naradewa, yo no naka ni ikite nani ka sen, to omoishikaba, tada
munashiki kaze ni makasete ariku (Taketori monogatari)
"What is the use of living in this world, now that my expectations fall short," I
thought, and wandering I just committed myself to the vain wind.
Note: The construction omoishikaba shows the use of the IZK before the particle ba,
which expresses a causal or consecutive relation.

e. Comparative use / hikyō 比況: GOTOSHI, GOTOKUNARI

In Classical Japanese, correspondence or similarity is expressed by the jodōshi
gotoshi 如し 若し
/ , which in time got to be used to refer to concepts in an indirect
and paraphrastic way (that is, as a periphrasis), or to mark the termination of a series
of examples. Except for the IZK and the MRK, which are both lacking, gotoshi
conforms to the adjectival ku flexion.

Flexion gotoshi
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RTK /
ku­ka
taige Ø Ø Ø
tsuyō
n*
*
Both bases are often followed by the particle ga が; taigen can also be followed by no の.
我がごとく京に参れ
Wa ga gotoku Miyako ni maire
Come to the capital just like me.

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おごれる人も久しからず，ただ春の夜の夢のごとし
Ogoreru hito mo hisashikarazu, tada haru no yo no yume no gotoshi (Heike,
1: "Gion shōja" 祇園精舎)
The proud ones, too, do not last long; they are but like a dream on a spring
night.

涙，雨の脚のごとくこぼる
Namida, ame no ashi no gotoku koboru (Utsubo monogatari, 7)
Tears fell like torrents of rain.

黒き革籠三合を置けり。すなはち和歌・管絃・往生要集ごときの抄物を入れ
たり
Kuroki kawago sangō o okeri. Sunawachi waka, kangen, Ōjōyōshū gotoki no
shōmotsu o iretari (Hōjōki)
I had placed three black-leather boxes. Placed in them are, namely, selections
from waka, musical scores, the Ōjōyōshū and the like.

松島は笑ふが如く，象潟はうらむがごとし
Matsushima wa warau ga gotoku, Kisagata wa uramu ga gotoshi (Oku no
hosomichi)
Matsushima is like laughter, whereas Kisagata resembles grudging.

Flexion gotokunari
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
RTK / nari­k
taige / atsuy
n* ō
*
Both bases are often followed by the particle ga が; taigen can also be followed by no の.
Gotokunari 如くなり
assembled from the combination of gotoku (the RYK of
gotoshi), and the copula nari. It expresses equality, similarity or comparability
between two entities.

海の上、昨日のごとくに風波見えず
Umi no ue, kinō no gotoku ni kazenami miezu (Tosa nikki)
At sea there was, like yesterday, neither wind nor undulation to be found.

即ちを掘りて封を開く。封、皆替はらずして本の如く也
Sunawachi ji o horite fū o hiraku. Fū mina kawarazu shite moto no gotoku
nari (Konjaku monogatari, 9:37)
They immediately excavated the sealed pots and opened them. They were all
intact and in their original condition.

松の色は青く、磯の波は雪のごとくに
Matsu no iro wa aoku, iso no nami wa yuki no gotoku ni (Tosa nikki)
The colour of the pine trees is green, and the waves near the shore are as white
as snow.
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富の来たること、火の乾けるにつき、水のくだれるに従ふがごとくなるべし
Tomi no kitaru koto, hi no kawakeru ni tsuki, mizu no kudareru ni shitagau
ga gotoku naru beshi (Tsurezuregusa, 217)
Getting wealth is just like dry things catching fire, or water running downhill.

f. Repetitive use / hanpuku 反復: U

Flexion u
base form Flexio
MZK RYK SSK RTK IZK MRK
Basic form n
MZK yodan

The Nara morpheme u is attached to the MZK of yodan verbs, and expresses
repetition, duration, or progression. Due to its suffix-like behaviour, this morpheme
is usually ranked among the category of suffixes. Incidentally, it is not exceptional
that upon attaching u, the MZK base undergoes sound shift. Spelling, accordingly,
respects the then pronunciation practice, making a sounds switch to o by virtue of
attaching /u/. For example, uchisusurou うちすすろふ (to snivel), utsurou 移ろふ (to
change).

2.2. Particles: joshi 助詞

This category is the final, and also most important category of invariable bound
words. Simply put, joshi are function words clarifying connections between words,
clauses, or sentences, or they refine the meaning of a statement by evoking a certain
feeling or emotive attitude. As postpositions, Japanese particles are attached either to
yōgen or taigen. Considering the whole range of possible bases, the connection with
the word to which they are attached is much looser compared with jodōshi, and their
spectrum of functions is much richer.
Joshi classification is controversial among Japanese linguists. Most school grammars
use a categorization based on a mix of semantic and functional criteria. In order to
comply as much as possible with the Japanese grammatical approach, which mostly
relies on views propounded by Yamada Yoshio 山田孝雄 (1873-1958), and other
linguists, present grammar adopted a hybrid classification, dividing the joshi into
eight major categories.

2.2.1. Case particles: kakujoshi 格助詞

These particles, as defined by Yamada Yoshio, are attached to taigen or quasi-taigen
expressions, and suggest a relative connection (quality/condition) between a word
(group) and another clause. The oldest kakujoshi are found in Nara texts, and include
the particles tsu つ な
and na (realizing an attributive qualification [rentaikaku 連体
格 ゆ
]), yu , yuri ゆり よ , yo (following words that indicate a point of departure,
means, or method), and te て (quotation). The group of Middle Japanese case
が の を に へ と
particles is fairly large, and includes the particles ga , no , o , ni , e , to ,
yori より , kara から にて
, nite , and shite して . Sometimes, a subset is identified

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within this category, comprising what are called rentaijoshi 連体助詞 or attributive
準副体助詞
particles (also called quasi-adnominal particles or junfukutaijoshi ). This
set is composed of the particles no, ga, and tsu, which in combination with the
preceding word fulfil a rentaishi-like modifying function.

a. tsu つ
Tsu is an Old Japanese particle that is attached to a taigen or put after a keiyōshi
stem. Tsu turns its base into an attributive modifier, expressing possession:

野つ鳥
notsutori
wild birds; pheasants

かしふ江に鶴鳴き渡る志賀の浦に沖つ白波立ちし来らしも
Kashifue ni tazu nakiwataru Shika no ura ni oki tsu shiranami tachishi
kurashi mo (Man'yōshū, 15:3654)
Cranes cry as they cross to Kashifu Bay; white-crested waves off Shika shores
fiercely threaten to get near.

天つ風雲の通ひ路吹きとぢよ乙女の姿しばしとどめむ
Amatsukaze kumo no kayoiji fukitojiyo otome no sugata shibashi todomemu
遍昭
(Priest Henjō , KKS, var. 1:872)
Heavenly winds, blow shut the path of clouds; I just want to keep sight of the
girls.

の
Similar to the modern Japanese particle no , tsu establishes an attributive clause
that modifies a taigen, although its usage, compared to no, is rather limited. The
particle features in toponyms (Shimotsukeno 下毛野 , afterwards named Shimotsuke
下野 ), or in the general vocabulary: amatsukami 天つ神 ("heavenly gods"),
kunitsukami 国つ神 ("earthly gods"), sakitsukoro 先つ頃 ("just a while ago"),
yūtsukata 夕つ方 秋つ方
("evening"), akitsukata ("Autumn time"), okutsukata 奥つ
方 ("inner room; recess"), tōtsukuni 遠つ国 ("faraway country; next world"), okitsumo
沖つ藻 奴
("seaweed from the offing"), yatsuko ("slaves"; originally yatsuko家つ子 ,
"housemates"). In time, however, the particle lost its autonomy, and after the Heian
period combinations based on tsu were no longer considered to be compounds.
Accordingly, the original function of tsu faded away from combinations such as
matsuge 睫 ("eyelashes"; orig. 目つ毛 ), tokitsukaze 時つ風 ("well-timed wind;
following wind"), tanabatatsume 棚機つ女 ("weaver woman"), and so forth.

b. na な
By definition, na follows taigen or words behaving as taigen, producing an attributive
phrase as a result.

大き海の水な底深く思ひつつ裳引き平しし菅原の里
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Ōki umi no mi na soko fukaku omoi tsutsu mobiki narashishi Sugawara no

sato (Man'yōshū, 20:4491)
As deep as the bottom of the ocean waters, I think of you, and trailing my train
I pave the way, along Sugawara's native place

Other instances illustrating this particle are rather limited: naminato 波な音
("rustling of the waves"), nunato 瓊な音 ("jingling of beads"), manakai 眼な交ひ
("reach of the eye"), momonahito 百な人 ("one hundred people"), tanasue 手な末
("fingertips"); but the place name Tanakami 田な上 (literally "upper part of a field")
can also serve as an example. Analogously to the phenomenon that determined the
fate of tsu, the particle na equally lost currency following the Heian period, and
expressions featuring this joshi came to be considered as one integrated unit: minato
港 ("harbour"; etymology: 水な門 ), minamoto 源 ("source"; etymology: 水な元 ),
manako 眼 ("pupil of the eye"; etymology: 目な子 ), manajiri 眦 ("corner of the eye",
etymology:目な尻 ), tanagokoro/tanaura 掌 ("palm of the hand"; etymology: 手な心
or 手な裏 respectively).

c. yu ゆ

The particle yu takes the same base as na. In terms of semantics, yu is closely related
よ
to the particles yo , yori より , and yuri ゆり , but in practical usage the particle fell
into neglect and, from the Heian period, finally vanished from the written literature,
to be replaced by yori. As yo, the very rare references preserved in Nara fragments all
belong to the poetic register. A number of uta accordingly show the use of yu in
context. On closer inspection, four major uses can be discerned.

▪ Indicating a point of departure, situated in both space and time. This use passed to
kara から in the Heian period:

天地の別れし時ゆ神さびて高く貴き駿河なる富士の高嶺を
Ametsuchi no wakareshi toki yu kamusabite takaku tōtoki Suruga naru Fuji
no takane o (Man'yōshū, 3:317)
Oh lofty peak of Fuji in Suruga, which since the time that heaven and earth
separated rises divinely, highly and nobly!

▪ Indicating a point of transition or the backdrop of an action:

田子の浦ゆうち出でて見れば真白にぞ富士の高嶺に雪は降りける
Tago no ura yu uchiidete mireba mashiro ni zo Fuji no takane ni yuki wa
furikeru (Man'yōshū, 3:318)
Setting out from Tago Coast, it was all pure white when we looked; snow was
falling on the lofty peak of Fuji.

▪ Indicating a means or method:

小筑波の繁き木の間よ立つ鳥の目ゆか汝を見むさ寝ざらなくに
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Ozukuha no shigeki konoma yo tatsu tori no me yu ka na o mimu sa

nezaranaku ni (Man'yōshū, 14:3396)
Would I look at you with the glance of a bird flying up from the dense wood of
Tsukuba; while having slept together?

▪ Indicating the criterion by which something is compared:

人言は暫しぞ我妹綱手引く海ゆまさりて深くしぞ思ふ
Hitogoto wa shimashi zo wagimo tsunade hiku umi yu masarite fukakushi zo
omou (Man'yōshū, 11:2438)
People's talk lasts just a short while; much more than the sea dragging the
towing-lines, I bear you deep in mind, my love.

d. yuri ゆり
In terms of use and integration in the sentence, the particle yuri ゆり fully coincides
with the first use of the previous particle. Like yu, the particle fell into disuse from the
Heian period, and made way for yori.

押し照るや難波の津ゆり船装ひ我は漕ぎぬと妹に告ぎこそ
Oshiteruya Naniwa no tsu yuri funa yosoi are wa koginu to imo ni tsugi koso
(Man'yōshū, 20:4365)
Tell my wife that I rigged the ship, and rowed out of the all-dazzling harbour of
Naniwa.

明日ゆりや草がむた寝む妹無しにして
Asu yuri ya kae ga muta nemu imu nashi ni shite (Man'yōshū, 20:4321)
Am I to sleep together with the grass as of tomorrow, without my wife?

e. yo よ
The kakujoshi yo (no longer in use following its integration in the particle yori during
the Heian period) can be considered as a phonic variant of yu(ri). The same four
major uses are fully applicable. Except for a couple of uta, no further references to
this kakujoshi are available.

▪ Indicating a point of departure:

天地の遠き初めよ世間は常なきものと語り継ぎ長らへ来たれ
Ametsuchi no tōki hajime yo yononaka wa tsune naki mono to kataritsugi
nagara e kitare (Man'yōshū, 19:4160)
Though since the beginning long ago of heaven and earth, man's life in the
world for a long time came to be handed down as something transient,...

吾家の方よ雲居起ち来も
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中
Wagie no kata yo kumoi tachiku mo (Kojiki, Chū , Kayō 歌謡)
Clouds showed up from the direction of my house!

▪ Indicating a point of transition:

ほととぎすこよ鳴き渡れともし火を月夜に準へその影も見む
Hototogisu ko yo nakiwatare tomoshihi o tsukuyo ni nasoe sono kage mo
mimu (Man'yōshū, 18:4054)
Little cuckoo! Come whistling across here; taking the light put on for
moonlight, I try to gain sight of you.

▪ Indicating a means/method:

鈴が音の早馬駅家の堤井の水をたまへな妹が直手よ
Suzugane no hayumaumaya no tsutsumii no mizu o tamae na imo ga tadate
yo (Man'yōshū, 14:3439)
Pour me some water from the well of the bell-ringing swift-horse inn, straight
from your hands.

▪ Indicating a criterion:

上野伊奈良の沼の大藺草よそに見しよは今こそまされ
Kamitsukeno Inara no numa no ōigusa yoso ni mishi yo wa ima koso masare
(Man'yōshū, 14:3417)
I now miss you even more than when from afar I saw the large rushes of Inara
Moors in Kōzuke.

f. ga が
Using five semantic functions, the case particle ga can combine a taigen with the rest
of the sentence. This particle may indicate an attributive adjunct (rentai 連体
function), a subject (shukaku 主格 function), an elliptic nominalization (juntai 準体
function), an apposition (dōkaku 同格 function), or refer to the desires/preferences of
the subject. The use of ga by and large resembles the modern Japanese case particle
の
no , which equally establishes an attributive relation between two taigen. It is
assumed that the juntai and dōkaku uses directly evolved from ga's primary function
(that is, making a bridge between attributive adjunct and taigen). As illustrated by the
following table, the primary use (left column) may have been at the basis of the
shukaku function (right column):

梅が枝 梅が咲ける枝 梅が咲ける

（枝）
umegae ume ga sakeru ume ga sakeru
→ →
e (e)

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the Japanese the apricot's the apricot's

apricot's flowering flowering
boughs boughs (boughs)

Although the combination of ga with a sentence-final predicate in the SSK (for

example hana ga utsukushi 花が美し ) was quite uncommon until about the late
Heian period, the shukaku function still continued developing. It was only in
medieval texts that the shukaku use and the use of ga indicating the object of
desire/preference gained wide support, which eventually led to present-time use
where ga above all indicates the subject or the object of desire, whereas no rather
concludes an attributive adjunct, that is, fulfils the rentai function.
Grammars that adopted functional criteria for joshi classification sometimes qualify
the primary function of ga, just like no and tsu, as a rentaijoshi. In functional terms,
the third use of ga is construed as a juntaijoshi.
Although the case particles ga and no have many points in common, there are still
some differences to be pointed out. As for its base of attachment, ga is mainly put
after taigen and RTK forms, whereas no is variously affixed to taigen, fukushi, a
number of joshi, and keiyō(dō)shi stems. The combination RTK form plus no is not
documented in writing before the end of the Muromachi era. If the particle is
attached to a taigen referring to a person, the variation using no relatively expresses
stronger respect, than the combination with ga, which mainly conveys affection but
also connotations of humility or even deprecation.

▪ Indicating an attributive adjunct

我が国
wa ga kuni
my/our country
Note: Ga here bears a resemblance to what is called an attributive genitive in Western
languages. Note for instance the subtle difference between Masamune ga katana 正宗が
刀 (Masamune's sword) and Masamune no gatana 正宗の刀 (Masamune swords).

秀衡が跡は田野になりて
Hidehira ga ato wa den'ya ni narite (Oku no hosomichi, "Hiraizumi")
Hidehira's remains became paddies and fields.
Note: Ga here construes an attributive genitive.

生まれしも帰らぬものを我が宿に小松のあるを見るが悲しさ
Mumare shimo kaeranu mono o wagayado ni komatsu no aru o miru ga
kanashisa (Tosa nikki, 16.2.935)
How sad it is to see that there are little pine trees at home, and that you don't
return although being born here.
Note: When ga is followed by a keiyōshi stem suffixed with -sa, some kind of
exclamation is expressed.

松島は笑ふがごとく、象潟は恨むがごとし
Matsushima wa warau ga gotoku Kisakata wa uramu ga gotoshi (Oku no
hosomichi)
Matsushima is like laughing, Kisakata resembles moping.

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Note: Embedded in the rentai function, ga may appear in fixed combination with words
such as kara から
, manimani まにまに and gotoshiごとし .

▪ Indicating the subject:

まいて、雁などの連ねたるがいと小さく見ゆるは、いとをかし
Maite, kari nado no tsuranetaru ga ito chiisaku miyuru wa ito okashi
(Makura no sōshi, 1)
More enchanting still is a skein of wild geese, appearing as very little spots in
the sky.

▪ Juntai function: the sentence part modified by taigen plus ga is left unsaid:

この歌は、ある人のいはく、柿本人麻呂がなり
Kono uta wa, aru hito no iwaku, Kakinomoto no Hitomaro ga nari
(Kokinshū, "Fuyu", 334)
This poem is, as some would have it, one by Kakinomoto no Hitomaro.

▪ Indicating a declarative addition (apposition):

いとやむごとなき際にはあらぬが、すぐれて時めき給ふありけり
Ito yamugotonaki kiwa ni wa aranu ga sugurete tokimeki tamau arikeri
(Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Although she didn't hold a very noble status, she particularly prospered [that
is, stood high in His Majesty's favour]

▪ Indicating the object of desire/preference:

「何、おのれ、命が助かりたいか」「なかなか、命が助かりたうござる」
"Nani, onore, inochi ga tasukaritaika" "nakanaka, inochi ga tasukaritō
gozaru" (Obagasake 伯母酒)
"Why, you, do you want to be saved?" "Yes, I want you to save me."

g. no の
Seven major uses of the kakujoshi particle no can be distinguished, according to its
function in the sentence. Four of them parallel the uses treated under ga, notably the
rentai, shukaku, juntai, and dōkaku functions. Additionally, this particle may
indicate a simile or metaphor (hiyu function), concession (gyakusetsu function), or
co-ordination (heiretsu function). A number of grammars categorize no under the
rentaijoshi, due to its primordial use (see kakujoshi ga), or create separate
juntaijoshi and heiretsujoshi categories for the respective juntai and heiretsu
functions which no may assume.

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▪ Indicating an attributive adjunct:

あちらの家
achira no ie
the house over there

今の民
ima no tami
the people at the present time

兄の家
ani no ie
my brother's house

その沢のほとりの木の陰に下りゐて、乾飯食ひけり
Sono sawa no hotori no konokage ni oriite, kareii kuikeri (Ise monogatari, 9)
He dismounted in the shade of a tree close by that moor, and ate dried boiled
rice.

秋風にたなびく雲の絶え間よりも漏れ出づる月の影のさやけさ
Akikaze ni tanabiku kumo no taema yori moreizuru tsuki no kage no
sayakesa (Shinkokinwakashū, "Aki jō", 413)
How clear the moonlight is, breaking through the rift in the clouds trailing on
the autumn wind

蟻のごとくに集まりて、東西に急ぎ、南北に走る
Ari no gotoku ni atsumarite, tōzai ni isogi, nanboku ni washiru
(Tsurezuregusa, 74)
Gathered together like ants, we hurry from east to west and rush from north to
south.

ある時は、・・・・・・鬼のやうなるもの出で来て
aru toki wa ~ oni no yō naru mono idekite (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai no
tama no eda")
At one point [...] devilish creatures came out.

Note: In addition to the general rule stipulating that kakujoshi connect to taigen or
taigen-like words, a number of examples illustrating no as an attributive adjunct
demonstrate that the particle may follow a fukushi or the stem of a keiyōshi. In a
similar way to ga, no may express a certain possessive relation, that is indicate an
attributive genitive, but the exclamatory construction in which the particle ga is
followed by a keiyōshi stem plus suffix -sa also applies to no. The final two examples
illustrate the rentai function of no in combination with karani からに , manimani ま
にまに ごとし
, gotoshi and yōnari やうなり . Sice all four forms evolved out of taigen
(to wit, kara から ま , ma , goto ごと やう
, and yō , respectively) the use of no here can
be interpreted as a special form of attributive modification (rentaishūshoku 連体修
飾 ).

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▪ Indicating a subject (clause):

多くの工の心をつくしてみがきたて
Ōku no takumi no kokoro o tsukushite migakitate (Tsurezuregusa, 10)
Polished up through the labours of many carpenters.

手のわろき人の、はばからず文書き散らすはよし
Te no waroki hito no, habakarazu fumi kakichirasu wa yoshi (Tsurezuregusa,
35)
It'll be good for people with poor handwriting to scribble letters without
scruple.

▪ Nominalization by omitting the modificand:

草の花は、なでしこ。唐のはさらなり、大和のもいとめでたし
Kusa no hana wa, nadeshiko. Kara no wa sara nari, Yamato no mo ito
medetashi (Makura no sōshi, "Kusa no hana wa")
As for herbal flowers, I prefer the fringed pink. The Chinese ones go without
saying, but the Japanese ones too are very nice.

まことにかばかりのは見えざりつ
Makoto ni kabakari no wa miezaritsu (Makura no sōshi, "Chūnagon
mairitamaite")
Really, I have never seen such a thing.

▪ Indicating an apposition:

春の日のいと寒き夜
Haru no hi no ito samuki yo
A very cold night on a spring day.

富士の山
Fuji no yama
the Mount of Fuji

兄の太郎
Ani no Tarō
his elder brother Tarō

花の都
Hana no miyako
the flowery/blossoming capital

風まじり雨降る夜の雨まじり雪降る夜は
Kaze majiri ame furu yo no ame majiri yuki furu yo wa (Man'yōshū, 5:892)

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Nights when rain falls mixed with wind, nights when snow mixed with rain
falls

青き瓶の大きなるを据ゑて、桜のいみじうおもしろき枝の五尺ばかりなる
を、いと多く挿したれば
Aoki kame no ōkinaru o suete, sakura no imijū omoshiroki eda no goshaku
bakari naru o, ito ōku sashitareba (Makura no sōshi, "Seiryōden no")
When they placed a big sort of blue jar, containing a great many particularly
splendid cherry branches measuring up to five shaku, ...

Note: Technically, this use may be regarded as a special form of attributive

modification, in which no forges the connection between two taigen that clarify one
another. Sometimes modifier and modificand coincide (the double use of yo 夜 in
Man'yōshū, 5:892, for instance), making a classification as "attributive modification"
untenable. From the Heian period onwards, it eventually became customary to avoid
the double use of a taigen functioning as modifier/modificand (see the ellipsis of
kame after ōkinaru in Makura no sōshi, "Seiryōden no").

▪ Indicating similarity/metaphor:

紫のにほへる妹を憎くあらば人妻ゆゑに我れ恋ひめやも
Murasaki no nioeru imo o nikuku araba hitozuma yue ni ware koime yamo
(Man'yōshū, 1:21)
If you, bright like a gromwell as you are, were detestable to me, would I
languish for you now you're someone else's wife?

日暮るるほど、例の集まりぬ
Hi kururu hodo, rei no atsumarinu (Taketori monogatari, "Kikōshitachi no
kyūkon")
As the sun went down, they came together as usual.

ありさりて後も逢はむと思へこそ露の命も継ぎつつ渡れ
Arisarite nochi mo awamu to omoe koso tsuyu no inochi mo tsugi tsutsu
watare (Man'yōshū, 17:3933)
Taking things as they are, I hope I will see you again one day; and that is
exactly why I keep on going through this ephemeral world.

▪ Concessive use:

国の親となりて、帝王の上なき位に登るべき相おはします人の、そなたにて
見れば、乱れ憂ふることやあらむ
Kuni no oya to narite, teiō no kami naki kurai ni noboru beki sō owashimasu
hito no, sonata nite mireba, midareureuru koto ya aramu (Genji monogatari,
"Kiritsubo")
He has the traits of someone who should ascend the paramount imperial
throne and be the father to the nation. But to take it for such, would mean
disorder and grief.

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かりそめの茅屋の、蔀などもなし
Karisome no kayaya no, shitomi nado mo nashi (Sarashina nikki, "Kadode")
Having a temporary thatched cottage, I still miss some latticed shutters
though.

▪ Co-ordinative use (first attested in late Muromachi texts):

明日は、掃除の用意のというて、忙しいによって
Asu wa, sōji no yōi no to iute, isogashii ni yotte (Yamatachimuko 山立婿
)
For tomorrow I will be busy doing some cleaning, some preparations and so on

h. o を
Nine major uses can be attributed to the particle o. Only three of them survive in
modern Japanese, namely o marking a direct object (this is its primary function),
indicating a point of departure or place of transition, and expressing a span of time.
Additionally, classical texts produced instances illustrating o used as a fixed particle
to specific verbs, as a subject-indicating particle to certain jidōshi, as a particle
marking the object of hope/preference, as a fixed particle in the constructions o ... ni /
o ... nite, o ... mi, and as a static element in expressions representing a saying.
Etymologically speaking, the particle can be referred to the homonymic interjection
(kandōshi) that embodied an exclamation. In turn, the kakujoshi o itself was, due to
its combinability with RTK forms, the basis of the setsuzokujoshi o. In general the
joshi is not omitted, but when this — not infrequently — does happen, its function can
easily be derived from the context, as is illustrated for example by mizu nomu 水飲む
(to drink water), and hana miru 花見る (to view blossoms).

▪ Indicating the direct object:

富士の山を見れば、五月のつごもりに、雪いと白う降れり
Fuji no yama o mireba, satsuki no tsugomori ni, yuki ito shirō fureri (Ise
monogatari, 9)
Seeing Mount Fuji, at the end of the fifth month, a very white snow had fallen.

▪ Indicating the point of departure/transition (the perlative function):

さびしさに宿を立ち出でてながむればいづくも同じ秋の夕暮れ
Sabishisa ni yado o tachiidete nagamureba izuku mo onaji aki no yūgure
(Goshūiwakashū, "Aki jō")
Leaving my abode in loneliness, I take a view, to see an autumn evening the
same as everywhere

▪ Indicating a span of time/period:

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世俗の事にたづさはりて生涯を暮らすは、下愚の人なり
Sezoku no koto ni tazusawarite shōgai o kurasu wa, kagu no hito nari
(Tsurezuregusa, 151)
He is a foolish man, who spends his life taking part in worldly affairs.

▪ Fixed particle accompanying the verbs wakaru 別る, au 会ふ, and somuku 背く:
逢坂にて人を別れける時に詠める
Ōsaka nite hito o wakarekeru toki ni yomeru (Kokinshū, "Ribetsu", 374)
Composed when parting from people at Ōsaka Barrier

かぐや姫を必ず逢はむ設けして、ひとり明かし暮らし給ふ
Kaguya hime o kanarazu awamu mōke shite, hitori akashikurashitamau
(Taketori monogatari, "Tatsu no kubi no tama")
Certainly planning to marry Princess Kaguya, he lived a solitary life.

▪ Combined with specific jidōshi, indicating a subject:

あながちに志を見えありく
Anagachi ni kokorozashi o mie ariku (Taketori monogatari, "Kikōshitachi no
kyūkon")
They wandered about, making their passion particularly visible.

▪ Indicating the object of desire/preference:

この翁は、かぐや姫のやもめなるを嘆かしければ
Kono okina wa, Kaguya hime no yamome naru o nagekashikereba (Taketori
monogatari, "Hinezumi no kawaginu")
Since the old man lamented that Princess Kaguya was single.

を に or ...を...にて:
▪ Fixed part of the constructions ... ...

かたじけなき御心ばへのたぐひなきを頼みにてまじらひ給ふ
Katajikenaki mikokorobae no tagui naki o tanomi nite majiraitamau (Genji
monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Relying on the incomparableness of his gracious favours, she was at his
disposal

足を空に思ひまどふ人多かり
Ashi o sora ni omoimadou hito ōkari (Genji monogatari, "Sakaki")
There were many people who rushed about in confusion.

を み
▪ Fixed part of the construction ... ... :

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瀬を速み岩にせかるる滝川の割れても末に逢はむとぞ思ふ
Se o hayami iwa ni sekaruru takigawa no waretemo sue ni awamu to zo
omou (Shikawakashū, "Koi Jō")
I meditated that although the mountain torrent, blocked at full speed by a rock,
is split in two, it will eventually come together.

▪ Part of an idiomatic turn of phrase:

ながめがちに音をのみ泣き給ふ
Nagamegachi ni ne o nomi nakitamau (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
While worrying, he set up cries.

昼は日一日、寝をのみ寝暮らし、夜はすくよかに起き居て
Hiru wa hi hitohi, i o nomi nekurashi, yo wa sukuyokani okiite (Genji
monogatari, "Akashi")
While I spend my entire noons on sleeping, at night I am cheerfully awake.

i. ni に
The case particle ni likewise displays a whole range of usages.

▪ Indicating time/place:

朝に死に、夕べに生まるるならひ
Ashita ni shini, yūbe ni umaruru narai (Hōjōki, "Yuku kawa")
That's the way it is: some die in the morning, others are born in the evening.

田子の浦にうち出でて見れば白妙の富士の高嶺に雪は降りつつ
Tago no ura ni uchiidete mireba shirotae no Fuji no takane ni yuki wa
furitsutsu (Shinkokinwakashū, "Fuyu", 675)
Setting out at Tago Coast, I spotted that snow was falling on the lofty peak of
snow-mantled Fuji.

▪ Indicating direction:

東西に急ぎ、南北に走る
Tōzai ni isogi, nanboku ni washiru (Tsurezuregusa, 74)
We hurry from east to west and rush from north to south.

つれづれなるままに、日暮らし、硯に向かひて
Tsurezure naru mama ni higurashi, suzuri ni mukaite (Tsurezuregusa, "Jo")
Leisurely as I am, I spend my days facing my inkstone.

▪ Indicating the indirect object:

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「かれは何ぞ」となむ、男に問ひける
"Kare wa nani zo" to namu, otoko ni toikeru (Ise monogatari, 6)
"What is that over there?" she asked the man.

▪ Indicating cause/reason:

近き火などに逃ぐる人は、「しばし」とや言ふ
Chikaki hi nado ni niguru hito wa, "shibashi" to ya iu (Tsurezuregusa, 59)
Will someone fleeing from a nearby fire say, "Let's wait a little?"

▪ Indicating result:

昼になりて、ぬるくゆるびもていけば、火桶の火も白き灰がちになりて、わ
ろし
Hiru ni narite, nuruku yurubi moteikeba, hioke no hi mo shiroki haigachi ni
narite, waroshi (Makura no sōshi, "Haru wa akebono")
Toward noon, when the cold is slightly giving way, the fire in the brazier too
has turned into white ashes, how unpleasant.

嵐にむせびし松も、千年を待たで薪にくだかれ
Arashi ni musebishi matsu mo, chitose o matade takigi ni kudakare
(Tsurezuregusa, 30)
The pine tree too, choked in the tempest, didn't bide its thousand years, but is
smashed to firewood.

▪ Indicating an objective:

奈良の京、春日の里に領る由して、狩りに往にけり
Nara no kyō, Kasuga no sato ni shiru yoshi shite, kari ni inikeri (Ise
monogatari, 1)
Having preserves in the capital of Nara, and in the village of Kasuga, he went
out hunting.

白馬見にとて、里人は車清げにしたてて見に行く
Aomuma mi ni tote, satobito wa kuruma kiyoge ni shitatete mi ni yuku
(Makura no sōshi, "Shōgatsu tsuitachi wa")
To see the bluish dark horses, they went out for a look after the villagers had
handsomely prepared their carriages.

▪ Indicating the agent:

ありがたきもの。舅にほめらる婿、また姑に思はるる嫁の君
Arigataki mono. Shūto ni homeraru muko, mata shūtome ni omowaruru
yome no kimi (Makura no sōshi, "Arigataki mono")
Rare things. A son-in-law praised by his father-in-law, and a daughter-in-law
appreciated by her mother-in-law.

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▪ Indicating an instrument/method:

この皮衣は、火に焼かむに、焼けずはこそ真ならめ
Kono kawaginu wa, hi ni yakamu ni, yakezu wa koso makoto narame
(Taketori monogatari, "Hinezumi no kawaginu")
This fur robe is genuine as long as it doesn't burn when committed to fire.

などか、翁の手におほし立てたらむものを、心に任せざらむ
Nado ka, okina no te ni ōshitatetaramu mono o, kokoro ni makasezaramu
(Taketori monogatari, "Mikado no kyūkon")
Why wouldn't she obey you, for she is raised by your own hands?

▪ Indicating a state of mind:

この継母の有様をあたらしきものに思ひて
Kono mamahaha no arisama o atarashiki mono ni omoite (Genji monogatari,
"Hahakigi")
He found his stepmother's presence quite appealing.

▪ Indicating a point of reference:

子の時ばかりに、家のあたり昼の明かさにも過ぎて光りわたり
Ne no toki bakari ni, ie no atari hiru no sayakasa ni mo sugite hikari watari
(Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
Near midnight, the vicinity of the house was covered by a light even brighter
than noonday.

この人々の深き心は、この海にも劣らざるべし
Kono hitobito no fukaki kokoro wa, kono umi ni mo otorazaru beshi (Tosa
nikki, 9.1)
The profundity of these people should not be inferior to that of this sea.

▪ Indicating the subject:

御前にもいみじううち笑はせ給ふ。...上にも聞こしめして、渡りおはしました
り
Omae ni mo imijū uchiwarawasetamau. ... ue ni mo kikoshimeshite,
watariowashimashitari (Makura no sōshi, "Ue ni saburau mineko wa")
His Majesty too will laugh with abandon. ... and the Emperor too
acknowledged, and went on his way.

そこにこそ、多く集へ給ふらめ
Soko ni koso, ōku tsudoetamau rame (Genji monogatari, "Hahakigi")
You must have collected a huge amount of them.

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▪ Indicating a simile:

幾世しもあらじ我が身をなぞもかく海人の刈る藻に思ひ乱るる
Ikuyo shi mo araji wagami o nazo mo kaku ama no karu mo ni
omoimidaruru (Kokinwakashū, "Zō ge", 934)
My life will not last that long now, but why do I have such confused thoughts,
like seaweed harvested by fishermen?

▪ Indicating emphasis:

閉て籠めたる所の戸、すなはちただ開きに開きぬ
Tate kometaru tokoro no to, sunawachi tada aki ni akinu (Taketori
monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
The door of the place in which she was confined flew open all of a sudden.

j. e へ
The case particle e has three uses.

▪ Indicating direction:

京へ帰るに、女子のなきのみぞ悲しび恋ふる
Miyako e kaeru ni, onnago no naki nomi zo kanashibi kouru (Tosa nikki,
27.12)
On my way back to the capital, all I could sorrowfully languish for was my little
girl who had died.

▪ Indicating the point of arrival:

敗軍の兵ども仙山へ帰りければ
Haigun no tsuwamonodomo Somayama e kaerikereba (Taiheiki, 18:5)
As the soldiers of the defeated army had returned to Somayama, ...

▪ Indicating the indirect object:

東国・西国へ御教書を成し下され候はんに、誰か応じ申さぬ者候ふべき
Tōgoku Saikoku e migyōsho o nashikudasare saburawan ni, tare ka
ōjimōsanu mono saburau beki (Taiheiki, 30:2)
Having been served a warrant on the Eastern and Western Provinces, who
would dare not to respond?

k. to と
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Apart from taigen or taigen-like constructions, RTK expressions may equally serve as
a base to the particle to. When the particle follows a quote, or indicates a particular
objective (uses 5 and 6 respectively) a full sentence usually precedes to.

▪ Indicating a party involved in the action:

何事ぞや。童べと腹立ち給へるか
Nanigoto zo ya. Warawabe to haradachitamaeru ka (Genji monogatari,
"Wakamurasaki")
What is the matter? Have you been arguing with the kids?

同じ心ならむ人としめやかに物語して
Onaji kokoro naramu hito to shimeyakani monogatari shite (Tsurezuregusa,
12)
Having a confidential chat with someone of kindred spirit

▪ Indicating the result of a change:

古き墳はすかれて田となりぬ
Furuki tsuka wa sukarete ta to narinu (Tsurezuregusa, 30)
The old burial mound has been ploughed up into a rice field.

▪ Indicating a simile:

駒並めていざ見に行かむ故里は雪とのみこそ花は散るらめ
Koma namete iza mi ni ikamu furusato wa yuki to nomi koso hana wa chiru
rame (Kokinwakashū, "Haru ge", 111)
Come, let's yoke the horses and pay a visit; the blossoms will be scattering like
snowflakes in the old capital.

▪ Indicating a point of reference:

かたちなどは、かの昔の夕顔と劣らじや
Katachi nado wa, kano mukashi no Yūgao to otoraja (Genji monogatari,
"Tamakazura")
Her face compared quite well to the late Lady Yūgao's.

▪ Indicating a quote:

草の上に置きたりける露を、「かれは何ぞ」となむ男に問ひける
Kusa no ue ni okitarikeru tsuyu o, "Kare wa nani zo" to namu otoko ni toikeru
(Ise monogatari, 6)
Seeing the dew lying on the grass, she asked the man: "What is that?"

かくてもあられけるよと、あはれに見るほどに
Kakute mo ararekeru yo to, aware ni miru hodo ni (Tsurezuregusa, 11)

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As I looked with sympathy how one can live like this...

▪ Indicating an objective/cause/reason, particularly in the constructions to omotte と

思って と言って として
, to itte , to shite etc.

母北の方、「同じ煙に上りなむ」と泣きこがれ給ひて
Haha Kita­no­kata, "Onaji keburi ni nobori namu" to nakikogaretamaite
(Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Her mother the Lady Kita sobbed yearningly: "If only I could ascend to heaven
simultaneously with this smoke!"

▪ Indicating emphasis when inserted between two flexion forms of the same verb:

生きとし生けるもの、いづれか歌を詠まざりける
Iki to shi ikeru mono, izureka uta o yomazarikeru (Kokinwakashū, "Kanajo")
Of all living creatures, which were the ones not composing a tanka about it?

人を殺すこと、懲りとも懲りぬ
Hito o korosu koto, kori tomo korinu (Ujishūi monogatari, 10:6)
Killing people, I have had enough of it!

l. te て
This particle is predominantly attested in texts written in the Eastern vernacular, and
may be considered to be the Old Japanese counterpart of the kakujoshi to.

父母が頭かき撫で幸くあれて言ひし言葉ぜ忘れかねつる
Chichihaha ga kashira kaki nade, "Saku are!" te iishi ketoba ze
wasurekanetsuru (Man'yōshū, 20:4346)
Caressing me on the head, my parents bade me "A safe journey!"; words I
cannot forget.

m. yori より
Since the Heian period, as pointed out above, this particle replaced the Old Japanese
よ
equivalents yo , yu ゆ and yuri ゆり , assuming almost entirely the usages covered
by these particles. Starting from about the Muromachi period, yori in turn left the
field to the particle kara から , with which it had much ground in common in terms of
meaning and use. About six usages of the particle yori can be identified.

▪ Indicating a point of departure:

知らず、生まれ死ぬる人、いづかたより来たりて、いづかたへか去る
Shirazu, umare shinuru hito, izukata yori kitarite, izukata e ka saru (Hōjōki,
"Yuku kawa")
People who, unbeknown to me, are born and die; where do they come from and
where do they go to?

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志賀の浦や遠ざかりゆく波間より凍りて出づる有明の月
Shika no ura ya tōzakari yuku namima yori kōrite izuru ariake no tsuki
(Shinkokinwakashū, "Fuyu", 639)
The coast of Shika; the frozen wan morning moon rises from between the
retreating waves.

▪ Indicating a point of transition:

門よりもえ入らで、童べの踏みあけたる築地のくづれより通ひけり
Kado yori moeirade, warawabe no fumiaketaru tsuihiji no kuzure yori
kayoikeri (Ise monogatari, 5)
Incapable of squeezing through the gate, the children thread their way through
a slide cleared in the mud-wall

▪ Indicating a means/method:

ある時思ひ立ちて、ただひとり、徒歩よりまうでけり
Aru toki omoitachite, tada hitori, kachi yori mōdekeri (Tsurezuregusa, 52)
At one time, he [= a certain priest of the Ninna temple 仁和寺 ] made up his
mind to make a pilgrimage [to the shrine of Hachiman 八幡宮 in Iwashimizu
岩清水 ] on foot all by himself.

▪ Indicating a point of reference:

常よりも物思ひたるさまなり
Tsune yori mo monoomoitaru sama nari (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime
no shōten")
She seems to be in a more pensive mood than usual.

東路の道の果てよりも、なほ奥つ方に生ひ出でたる人
Azumaji no michi no hate yori mo, nao okutsukata ni oiidetaru hito
(Sarashina nikki, "Kadode")
A person born and bred in a region further inland than the recesses of the
Eastern Road

ほか or uchi うち:
▪ Indicating a limitation when followed by hoka

ひぐらしの鳴く山里の夕暮れは風よりほかに訪ふ人もなし
Higurashi no naku yamazato no yūgure wa kaze yori hoka ni tou hito mo
nashi (Kokinwakashū, "Aki jō", 205)
An evening twilight in a mountain village where cicadas are droning; except for
the wind, there is no-one paying a visit.

▪ Indicating a prompt reaction, in the construction RTK + yori:

名を聞くより、やがて面影は推しはからるる心地するを
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Na o kiku yori, yagate omokage wa oshi hakararuru kokochi suru o

(Tsurezuregusa, 71)
Upon hearing someone's name, I instantly feel like speculating what he may
look like.

n. kara から
Instances of attachment to the RTK can equally be mentioned with regard to the
particle kara. Some Old Japanese examples, in which kara is connected to the
particles no or ga, suggest a denominal origin (that is, being formed or derived from a
noun), according to which the noun kara 故 (literally: "reason") should be the
presumptive etymon of the particle.

故郷は遠くもあらず一重山越ゆるがからに思ひぞ我がせし
Furusato wa tōku mo arazu hitoeyama koyuru ga kara ni omoi zo a ga seshi
(Man'yōshū, 6:1038)
Home wasn't far away, and as there was only one mountain to cross, I was
bursting with impatience.

Since the Muromachi period, the particle kara has been used profusely, particularly
in the next four main categories.

▪ Indicating a cause/reason:

何心なき空の気色も、ただ見る人から、艶にもすごくも見ゆるなりけり
Nanigokoro naki sora no keshiki mo, tada miru hito kara, en ni mo sugoku
mo miyuru nari keri (Genji monogatari, "Hahakigi")
Even the sight of the casual sky looked, depending on those viewing, either
charming or horrid.

▪ Indicating a point of trasition:

月夜良み妹に逢はむと直道から我は来つれど夜ぞ更けにける
Tsukuyo yomi imo ni awamu to tadachi kara ware wa kitsuredo yo zo fuke ni
keru (Man'yōshū, 11:2618)
Hoping to meet you this fine moonlit evening, I came across the shortest way,
and still it has grown this late!

▪ Indicating a point of departure:

去年から山籠りして侍るなり
Kozo kara yamagomori shite haberu nari (Kagerō nikki, "Ge", 972)
Since last year, I have been practising mountain asceticism.

▪ Indicating a means/method:

徒歩から罷りて
Kachi kara makarite (Ochikubo monogatari, 1)

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Left on foot, ...

o. nite にて
This particle may be construed as a compound from the kakujoshi ni and the
て
conjunctive particle te . As this particle may easily be mistaken for the homonym
combining ni (RYK of the jodōshi nari) + the conjunctive particle te て (see main
usage 4), particular attention should be paid to the context in which the word is used.
Four main uses can be discerned.

▪ Indicating a place/time:

京にて生まれたりし女児
Miyako nite umaretarishi onnago (Tosa nikki, 27.12.935)
A girl born in Kyoto.

潮海のほとりにてあざれあへり
Shioumi no hotori nite azareaeri (Tosa nikki, 22.12)
They were frolicking with each other nearby the briny sea.

長くとも、四十に足らぬほどにて死なむこそ、めやすかるべけれ
Nagakutomo, yosoji ni taranu hodo nite shinamu koso, meyasukaru bekere
(Tsurezuregusa, 7)
It should be considered decent to die before one is aged forty, at the latest.

▪ Indicating a means/method:

深き川を舟にて渡る
Fukaki kawa o fune nite wataru (Sarashina nikki, "Kadode")
To cross a deep river by boat.

女のはける足駄にて作れる笛には、秋の鹿、必ず寄るとぞ言ひ伝へ侍る
Onna no hakeru ashida nite tsukureru fue ni wa, aki no shika, kanarazu yoru
to zo iitsutae haberu (Tsurezuregusa, 9)
It is indeed traditionally said that stags in autumn infallibly approach a whistle
made from a rain clog that has been worn by a lady.

▪ Indicating a cause/reason:

我、朝ごと夕ごとに見る竹の中におはするにて、知りぬ
Ware, asagoto yūgoto ni miru take no naka ni owasuru nite, shirinu
(Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no oitachi")
I have detected you because you are here, in this bamboo which I inspect every
morning and evening.

御物の怪にて時々悩ませ給ふこともありつれど
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Omono no ke nite tokidoki nayamasetamau koto mo aritsuredo (Genji

monogatari, "Wakana Jō")
Due to the evil spirit, it sometimes happened that she fell ill, but ...

▪ Indicating a qualification/circumstance:

In this usage, nite is sometimes read as a combination of ni, the RYK of the
dantei­jodōshi nari and te. In its modern Japanese translation, this dantei variant is
rendered as deatte ("being"), whereas the traditional interpretation of nite as a
kakujoshi rather corresponds to the modern toshite ("as").

昔、男、伊勢の斎宮に、内裏の御使にて参れりければ
Mukashi, otoko, Ise no Saigū, uchi no otsukai nite mairerikereba (Ise
monogatari, 71)
Long ago, a man arrived as a court messenger at the Shrine of the Ise
priestesses.

ただ人にて朝廷の御後見をするなむ、行く先も頼もしげなめること
Tada udo nite ōyake no on'ushiromi o suru namu, yuku saki mo tanomoshige
nameru koto (Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
As a commoner assisting the imperial court, a promising future was to be his
part.

p. shite して
The particle shite too originated from a compound, namely shi as the RYK of su
て
connected to the conjunctive particle te . Case particles ni and o may precede this
particle, resulting in a construction which is usually construed as one particle.
Accordingly, nishite is used to express time or place, whereas oshitei often occurs in
the combination ... oshite ... (se)shimu, marking the causee, that is, participant in a
causative who is made to perform the action.

桑門の蓮胤、外山の庵にしてこれを記す
Sōmon no Ren'in, Toyama no iori nishite kore o shirusu (Hōjōki, "Mizukara
kokoro ni tou")
I, śramaṇa Ren'in, am writing this in my hut on Toyama Hill.

人をしてかかる目を見すること、慈悲もなく、礼儀にもそむけり
Hito oshite kakaru me o misuru koto, jihi mo naku, reigi ni mo somukeri
(Tsurezuregusa, 175)
To make another undergo such experience, is both unmerciful and goes against
etiquette.

In terms of function, shite can be categorized into three uses:

▪ Indicating the causee in the causative use:

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人して惟光召させて
Hito shite Koremitsu mesasete (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
He sent someone for Koremitsu.

▪ Indicating a means/method:

そこなりける岩に、指の血して書きつけける
Soko narikeru iwa ni, oyobi no chi shite kakitsukekeru (Ise monogatari, 24)
With the blood of her finger, she wrote on a rock there: ...

長き爪して眼を掴み潰さむ
Nagaki tsume shite manako o tsukami tsubusamu (Taketori monogatari)
With my long nails, I'll scratch out and crush their eyes.

▪ Indicating a co-operating group:

もとより友とする人一人二人して行きけり
Moto yori tomo to suru hito hitori futari shite yukikeri (Ise monogatari, 9)
With one or two people whom he befriended from before, he went along.

2.2.2. Conjunctive particles: setsuzokujoshi 接続助詞

According to Yamada Yoshio, this category covers particles that are attached to yōgen
or jodōshi, and that establish a certain relation between the clauses they connect.
Except for one Old Japanese specimen (that is, nae なへ ), examples illustrating the
use of conjunctive particles are predominantly found in Middle Japanese texts. The
ば
following particles belong to the set of setsuzokujoshi: ba , baya ばや と , to , tomo
とも ど , do , domo ども が に を ものの
, ga , ni , o , monono , mono'o ものを , monokara
ものから , monoyue ものゆゑ て して つつ
, te , shite , tsutsu ながら で
, nagara , de ,
kara から , gatera がてら がてり
, and gateri .

a. nae なへ

This Old Japanese particle connects to the RTK of yōgen. Nae expresses simultaneity
of the clauses it connects.

秋風の寒く吹くなへわが宿の浅茅がもとにこほろぎ鳴くも1
Akikaze no samuku fuku nae wagayado no asaji ga moto ni kōrogi naku mo
(Man'yōshū, 10:2158)
As the autumn wind coldly blows, a cricket chirps at the root of sparsely
growing cogon grass near my abode.

b. ba ば
Both MZK and IZK bases can precede this conjunctive particle. The so-called rhetoric
hypothesis (shūjiteki katei 修辞的仮定 ) for instance makes use of the MZK + ba

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combination, and implies a real fact temporarily presented as a hypothetical

たら
circumstance. Its modern Japanese equivalent is the particle tara :

待てと言はば寝ても行かなむ強ひて行く駒の足折れ前の棚橋
Mate to iwaba netemo yukanamu shiite yuku koma no ashi ore mae no
tanahashi (Kokinwakashū, "Koi 4", 739)
I said "Wait." Ah, if only he would rest a while before leaving. Duckboard
bridge in front, break his horse's legs, now he is eager to leave!

The IZK combination, usually adopted to express a hypothetical condition, was first
observed in medieval literature, and gradually came into general use during the
Muromachi and Edo periods. The MZK plus ba combination, by contrast, showed a
reverse trend, as it gradually lost ground and eventually disappeared from the written
language.
The following is an illustration of ba, preceded by a MZK, as a hypothetical condition:

狂人のまねとて大路を走らば、すなはち狂人なり。悪人のまねとて人を殺さ
ば、悪人なり
Kyōjin no mane tote ōji o hashiraba, sunawachi kyōjin nari. akunin no mane
tote hito o korosaba, akunin nari (Tsurezuregusa, 85)
He who in imitation of a madman runs onto the highway, is a madman straight
out. And he who in imitation of a villain murders someone, is a villain.

我死なば汝指揮を取れ
Ware shinaba nanji shiki o tore
You take command if I should perish.

友来ば酒汲まむ
Tomo koba sake kumamu
If my friends were to come, we would have a drink.

夏山に鳴く郭公心あらば物思ふ我に声な聞かせそ
Natsuyama ni naku hototogisu kokoro araba monoomou ware ni koe na
kikase so (Kokinwakashū, 3:145)
If you have a heart, little cuckoo singing in the summer mountains, spare me
your voice, distressful as I am.

Instances of ba following the IZK, can be distributed over five specific uses.

▪ Indicating a cause/reason; causal premise:

父死ぬれば都に帰りぬ
Chichi shinureba Miyako ni kaerinu
I returned to the capital for my father had died.

友来れば酒を汲まむ
Tomo kureba sake o kumamu

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We'll have a drink, as my friends have arrived.

いと幼ければ、籠に入れて養ふ
Ito osanakereba, ko ni irete yashinau (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no
oitachi")
As she was very young, they kept her in a basket and brought her up.

京には見えぬ鳥なれば、みな人見知らず
Miyako ni wa mienu tori nareba, mina hito mishirazu (Ise monogatari, 9)
Since it was a bird one doesn't spot in the capital, no-one recognized it.

▪ Indicating a chance connection:

それを見れば、三寸ばかりなる人、いと美しうて居たり
Sore o mireba, sanzun bakari naru hito, ito utsukushūte itari (Taketori
monogatari, "Kaguyahime no oitachi")
As he looked closer, he found a very cute creature, about three inches tall.

▪ Indicating a universal statement:

水掛くれば、火消ゆ
Mizu kakureba, hi kiyu
Fire dies out when you put water on it.

疑ひながらも念仏すれば、往生す
Utagainagara mo, nenbutsu sureba, ōjō su (Tsurezuregusa, 39)
If you pray to Amitābha, even doubtfully, you will go to Paradise.

ね (IZK of the negation particle zu ず):

▪ Indicating concession in combination with ne

我が宿の萩の下葉は秋風もいまだ吹かねばかくぞ紅葉てる
Wagayado no hagi no shitaba wa akikaze mo imada fukaneba kaku zo
momiteru (Man'yōshū, 8:1628)
The lower leaves of the bush clover near my abode have turned this scarlet
even though the autumn wind has not yet started to blow.

天の川浅瀬しら波たどりつつ渡り果てねば明けぞしにける
Amanogawa asase shiranami tadoritsutsu watarihateneba ake zo shinikeru
(Kokinwakashū, "Aki jō", 177)
Not knowing the shallows of the Milky Way, and following the white-crested
waves, the day had dawned before my passage was finished.

▪ Indicating contrast:

古き都は荒れゆけば、今の都は繁盛す
Furuki miyako wa areyukeba, ima no miyako wa hanjō su (Heike
monogatari, 5, Tsukimi)

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The old capital got dilapidated, and the current capital flourished.

鏑は海へ入りければ、扇は空へぞ上がりける
Kabura wa umi e irikereba, ōgi wa sora e zo agarikeru (Heike monogatari,
11, Nasu no Yoichi)
The humming-bulb arrow entered the sea, and the fan went up into the sky.

c. baya ばや
This hybrid particle is composed of the conjunctive ba ば や
and the case particle ya ,
and is considered to be the prototype of the homonymic final particle. Baya expresses
doubt, and quite commonly a rhetorical question, either following a hypothetical
condition (= MZK base), or a conclusive fact or reality (= IZK base).

▪ Doubt following a hypothesis

君に問はばやこう問はむ
Kimi ni towabaya kō towamu
If I were to ask you, would I ask it this way?

千夜も見ばや飽くことあらむ
Chiyo mo mibaya aku koto aramu
If I were to see you even one thousand nights, would I grow weary of you?

心当てに折らばや折らむ初霜の置きまどはせる白菊の花
Kokoroateni orabaya oramu hatsushimo no oki madowaseru shiragiku no
hana (Kokinwakashū, "Aki ge", 277)
Would I pluck one if I happened to want to? The first rime-covered white
chrysanthemum blossoms confuse me.

▪ Doubt following a conclusive fact

久方の月の桂も秋はなほ紅葉すればや照りまさるらむ
Hisakata no tsuki no katsura mo aki wa nao momiji surebaya
terimasaruramu (Kokinwakashū, "Aki jō", 194)
Is it because the katsura trees on the celestial moon too turn crimson, that it
shines ever brighter?

思ひつつ寝ればや夢にて人に会はむ
Omoitsutsu nurebaya yume nite hito ni awamu
Am I to meet him in my dreams, now that I fell asleep in longing?

d. to と

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The setsuzokujoshi to is attached to several flexional forms. It can be connected to the

SSK of dōshi or keiyōdōshi, to the RYK of keiyōshi, and to the RYK of the negation
ず
particle zu . Its main use as a concessive particle is limited to the Classical Japanese
language, and hardly differs from the conjunctive particle tomo. Instances of this use,
which emerged in the Heian period, are rare and usually occur in tanka passages. The
two remaining uses, however, took root during the Muromachi era.

▪ Indicating concession:

嵐のみ吹くめる宿に花薄穂に出でたりとかひやなからむ
Arashi nomi fuku meru yado ni hanasusuki ho ni idetari to kai ya nakaramu
(Kagerō nikki, Jō, 957)
Although the flowering eulalias have come into ears at home where only storms
seem to be raging, it won't be of any avail.
Note: The particle here expresses in other words the combination of a hypothesis and a
non-related circumstance.

▪ Indicating a hypothetical condition:

母さまを悪う言ふと、たたくぞよ
Kakasama o warō iu to, tataku zo yo (Keisei Asamagadake 傾城浅間嶽, Chū
中)
If you speak ill of my ma, I'll beat you!

▪ Indicating a condition, the consequences of which occur frequently or usually:

私の留守になると、酒ばかり飲うで
Watashi no rusu ni naru to, sake bakari nōde (Domori 吃り)
When I am away, they're bound to be at my liquors.

e. tomo とも
As regards the bases to which it can be attached, the particle tomo parallels the
particle to. Although etymologically often read as a combination of the case particle to
and the inductive particle mo, which typically follows perceptive verbs (that is, verbs
giving a statement about the external world) including shiru 知る 言ふ
, iu , omou 思
ふ , miru 見る , and kiku 聞く, the particle tomo is best regarded as one lexical unit. A
peculiar Old Japanese combination is mitomo 見とも
, in which the particle contrary
to the rule connects to the RTK. Moreover, some medieval texts mention tomo being
attached to RTK bases.

あしひきの八峰の椿つらつらに見とも飽かめや植ゑてける君
Ashihiki no yatsuo no tsubaki tsuratsura ni mitomo, akame ya uetekeru kimi
(Man'yōshū, 20:4481)
Gazing at the camellias on the long range of mountains, how can I grow tired of
them? 'Twas you who planted them.

かばかりになりては、飛び降るるとも降りなむ
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Ka bakari ni narite wa, tobioruru tomo orinamu (Tsurezuregusa, 109)

Having come so far, you might even jump down to descend it.

▪ Indicating a concessive hypothetical condition:

千年を過ぐすとも、一夜の夢の心地こそせめ
Chitose o sugusu tomo, hitoyo no yume no kokochi koso seme (Tsurezuregusa,
7)
Even if we lived for over one thousand years, it would feel like a dream of a
single night!

▪ Hypothetic rendering of a conclusive fact (emphatic use):

かくさし籠めてありとも、かの国の人来ば、皆開きなむとす
Kaku sashikomete aritomo, ka no kuni no hito koba, mina akinamu to su
(Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
Even if you lock me up this way, all [doors] will fly open when the people from
yonder land come along.

わが身は女なりとも、敵の手にはかかるまじ
Wagami wa onna nari tomo, kataki no te ni wa kakaru maji (Heike
monogatari, 11, "Sentei minage" 先帝身投)
Woman as I may be, I would rather not fall into enemy hands.

f. do ど
Both in meaning and use, this particle, which originated in the Nara period, is very
similar to the conjunctive particle domo. That particle mainly appeared in kanbun
kundoku texts from the Heian period, whereas the joshi do predominantly features in
monogatari and diary literature. During subsequent literary periods, domo gradually
increased its presence to the detriment of do, which steadily dropped out of use. The
setsuzokujoshi do ど is attached to the IZK. The oldest examples of do include
instances of the particle being attached to -ke and -shike (the archaic IZK forms of the
ku and shiku flexions respectively):

あをによし奈良の大路は行きよけどこの山道は行き悪しかりけり
Aoni yoshi Nara no ōji wa yukiyokedo, kono yamamichi wa yukiashikarikeri
(Man'yōshū, 15:3728)
Though the great avenues of blue-earth Nara were smoothly passable, these
mountain paths were difficult to traverse.

▪ Indicating a concession:

いとはしたなきこと多かれど、かたじけなき御心ばへのたぐひなきを頼みに
てまじらひ給ふ
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Ito hashitanaki koto ōkaredo, katajikenaki mikokorobae no tagui naki o

tanomi nite majiraitamau (Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Despite massive troubles, she continued in court service, trusting in his
gracious favour that was beyond description.

二人行けど行き過ぎがたき秋山をいかにか君が一人越ゆらむ
Futari yukedo yukisugigataki akiyama o ikanika kimi ga hitori koyu ramu
(Man'yōshū, 2:106)
How will you manage to cross the autumn mountain by yourself, when it was
so difficult to get past although we went together?

g. domo ども
The particle domo consists of the conjunctive particle do, combined with the
inductive particle mo, and like do expresses concession. The particle is attached to the
IZK, and, as is illustrated by the following example, can also be preceded by -ke and
-shike as archaic IZK forms of the ku and shiku flexions.

陸奥の真野の草原遠けども面影にして見ゆといふものを
Michinoku no Mano no kayahara tōkedomo omokage nishite miyu to iu
mono'o (Man'yōshū, 3:396)
Although the cogon fields of Mano in the northeastern provinces are distant,
you can see them in your imagination, so they say.

The construction toiedomo といへども covers practically the same meaning as domo,
and originated in the kanbun kundoku literature of the Kamakura period. The
ensuing Muromachi Period witnessed the emergence of the expression keredomo け
れども , which in modern times altogether replaced the particle domo. Classical
examples illustrating the use of domo are:

親のあはすれども、聞かでなむありける
Oya no awasuredomo, kikade namu arikeru (Ise monogatari, 23)
Although her parents tried to match her, she would not listen.

いかなる大事あれども、人の言ふこと聞き入れず
Ikanaru ōgoto aredomo, hito no iu koto kikiirezu (Tsurezuregusa, 60)
No matter how important their business might be, he [= Archdeacon Jōshin 盛
親 ] would not listen to what people said.

h. ga が
The use of ga, which follows an RTK, can express both co-ordination and concession.

▪ Indicating co-ordination:

木曽は、越後国府にありけるが、これを聞いて五万余騎で馳せ向かふ1
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Kiso wa, Echigo no kofu ni arikeru ga, kore o kiite goman amari ki de
hasemukau (Heike monogatari, 7, "Hiuchi gassen" 火打合戦
)
Kiso was in the provincial office of Echigo, and when he heard this, he dashed
off towards them with over 50,000 horsemen.

▪ Indicating concession:

昔より多くの白拍子ありしが、かかる舞はいまだ見ず
Mukashi yori ōku no shirabyōshi arishi ga, kakaru mai wa imada mizu
(Heike monogatari, 1, "Giō" 祇王)
From ancient times, there have been numerous shirabyōshi sword dances, but
I have never seen such dancing before.

たとへ、唐人であらうが、阿蘭陀であらうが、滅多にほかへはやらぬ
Tatoe, Tōjin de arō ga, Oranda de arō ga, metta ni hoka e wa yaranu (Kanjin
Kanmon tekuda no hajimari 韓人漢文手管始, 1)
Whether they are Chinese or Dutch, we absolutely do not let them go anywhere
else.
Note: This example is an illustration of the so-called hypothetical concession, which is
う
first attested in Edo period texts, and always preceded by the jodōshi u , yō よう , or
mai まい .

i. ni に
This particle is directly derived from the homonymous kakujoshi, and is attached to
the RTK. This joshi's most common uses are:

▪ Indicating cause/reason:

この事を嘆くに、鬚も白く、腰もかがまり、目もただれにけり
Kono koto o nageku ni, hige mo shiroku, koshi mo kagamari, me mo
tadarenikeri (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
Grieving about it, his beard had turned white, his back was bowed down, and
his eyes were swollen.

▪ Indicating a consecutive relation:

火の中にうちくべて焼かせ給ふに、めらめらと焼けぬ
Hi no naka ni uchikubete yakasetamau ni, meramera to yakenu (Taketori
monogatari, "Hinezumi no kawaginu")
As they threw it into the fire to burn it, it went up in licking flames.

▪ Indicating concession:

方違へに行きたるに、あるじせぬ所
Katatagae ni yukitaru ni, aruji senu tokoro (Makura no sōshi, "Susamajiki
mono")
An inhospitable place, although visited in order to avoid unlucky directions.

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▪ Indicating concessive co-ordination:

霧も深く露けきに、すだれをさへあげ給へれば、御袖もいたう濡れにけり
Kiri mo fukaku tsuyukeki ni, sudare o sae agetamaereba, onsode mo itō
nurenikeri (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
Although the mist was thick and everything was damp with dew, he raised the
bamboo blind, getting his sleeves soaked.

j. o を
This particle is put after RTK forms, but it sometimes appears after taigen, as is
illustrated by the second example. Although it is not always possible to name the
specific use, about three functions can be discerned. In comparison to the similar
particles ba, do, and domo, o generally indicates a relation in a more obvious and less
ambiguous way.

▪ Indicating a concession:

大納言に会はむとて参りたるを会はれず
Dainagon ni awamu tote mairitaru o awarezu
He came round intending to meet the chief councillor of state, but it was not
possible.

八重桜は奈良の都にのみありけるを、このごろぞ世に多くなり侍るなる
Yaezakura wa Nara no miyako ni nomi arikeru o, konogoro zo yo ni ōku nari
haberu naru (Tsurezuregusa, 139)
Though the double-flowered cherry tree used to be found only in the capital of
Nara, they nowadays abound in the world!

白露の色は一つをいかにして秋の木の葉を千々に染むらむ
Shiratsuyu no iro wa hitotsu o ika nishite aki no konoha o chiji ni somuramu
(Kokinwakashū, "Aki ge", 257)
The colour of white dew is solid, how come it dyes the autumnal leaves in
thousands of ways?

▪ Indicating a consecutive relation:

心にしも従はず苦しきを、さりぬべき折見て、対面すべくたばかれ
Kokoro ni shimo shitagawazu kurushiki o, sarinu beki ori mite, taimen
subeku tabakare (Genji monogatari, "Utsusemi")
In very spite of myself, it hurts, so find an appropriate occasion, and arrange
that we can meet.

▪ Indicating co-ordination:

「汝が姓は何ぞ」と仰せられしかば、「夏山となむ申す」と申ししを、やが
て繁樹となむ付けさせ給へりし
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"Kimuji ga sō wa nani zo" to ōserareshikaba, "Natsuyama to namu mōsu" to

mōshishi o, yagate Shigeki to namu tsukesasetamaerishi (Ōkagami, "Jo")
When he asked, "What's your family name?" I said "My name is Natsuyama,"
and at once he gave me the name Shigeki.

k. monono ものの
Originated from the combination of the nominal noun (keishikimeishi) mono, and the
case particle no as a concession marker, monono follows RTK forms and expresses
concession.

なべての月には見えぬものの、師走のつごもりのみ時めきて
Nabete no tsuki ni wa mienu monono, shiwasu no tsugomori nomi tokimekite
(Makura no sōshi, "Hana no ki naranu wa")
Flourishing only at the end of the twelfth month, while unseen in ordinary
months...

つれなくねたきものの、忘れがたきに思す
Tsurenaku netaki monono, wasuregataki ni obosu (Genji monogatari,
"Yūgao")
Though she was cold and jealous, he believed he could not forget her.

君来むと言ひし夜ごとに過ぎぬれば頼まぬものの恋ひつつぞ経る
Kimi komu to iishi yorugoto ni suginureba tanomanu monono koi tsutsu zo
furu (Ise monogatari, 23)
Every night you promised to come has passed, so though I no longer count on
it, I wear it through in longing.

l. monoo ものを
Another example of conjunctive particles having mono as a component is monoo,
which is also attached to the RTK. The second part consists of the exclamatory
particle o. Monoo has two primary functions, the second of which was introduced
during the Azuchi/Edo period:

▪ Indicating concession:

来むと言ふも来ぬ時あるを来じと言ふを来むとは待たじ来じと言ふものを
Komu to iu mo konu toki aru o koji to iu o komu to wa mataji koji to iu
mono'o (Man'yōshū, 4:527)
Sometimes you don't come even though you said you would; but if you say you
would't come and nevertheless do, I needn't be anticipating since you said you
would't come.

都出でて君に逢はむと来しものを来しかひもなく別れぬるかな
Miyako idete kimi ni awamu to koshi mono'o koshi kai mo naku wakarenuru
kana (Tosa nikki, 26.12)

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Even though I left the capital and came here to meet you, it was all in vain. I
guess we have broken up...

▪ Indicating a consecutive relation:

日がな一日ゐたり立ったりするものを、腹も減らぢゃあねえか
Hi gana ichinchi itari tattari suru mono'o, hara mo herajānē ka (Ukiyoburo
浮世風呂, 3 Jō)
All day long sitting down and getting up, that really makes you hungry!

m. monokara ものから
This particle equally takes an RTK base, and is compounded of mono and the case
particle kara. Monokara, which traditionally expresses a concessive sense, could also
be read in medieval texts as a marker of a consecutive or causal relation. This use
originated from confusion with the conjunctive particle kara, which, as one of its
primary functions, indicates reason or cause. In Edo literature, this particle
prominently features in gikobun 擬古文 (that is, writings modeled in pseudoclassical
style).

▪ Indicating concession:

月は有明けにて、光をさまれるものから、影さやかに見えて
Tsuki wa Ariake nite, hikari o samareru monokara, kage (ke)sayakani miete
(Genji monogatari, "Hahakigi")
Even though the moonlight has grown wan in the morning sky, its beams
appear brightly.

いたましうするものから、下戸ならぬこそ、男はよけれ
Itamashū suru monokara, geko naranu koso, onoko wa yokere
(Tsurezuregusa, 1)
You make a good showing by not being a teetotaler, albeit reluctantly.

▪ Indicating reason/cause:

さすがに辺土の遺風忘れざるものから、殊勝に覚えらる
Sasugani hendo no ifū wasurezaru mono kara, shushō ni oboeraru (Oku no
hosomichi, "Sue no Matsuyama")
I highly appreciated it, because he had not forgotten the traditions that still
existed in this remote region.

n. monoyue ものゆゑ
The same pattern ruling the previous particles applies to monoyue: it takes an RTK
base and is a compound word, in that it combines the noun mono with yue, a nominal

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noun. Incidentally, the expression monoyueni ものゆゑに can be mentioned as a

variant of this particle.

▪ Indicating a concession:

恋すれば我が身は影となりにけりさりとて、人には添はぬものゆゑ
Koi sureba wagami wa kage to narinikeri, saritote, hito ni wa sowanu
monoyue (Kokinwakashū, "Koi 1", 528)
Being in love, my body became a mere shadow, and for all that, though, I
cannot join him.

▪ Indicating a reason/cause:

事ゆかぬものゆゑ、大納言をそしり合ひたり
Koto yukanu monoyue, dainagon o soshiri aitari (Taketori monogatari,
"Tatsu no kubi no tama")
They criticized the Grand Counsellor, for they were not satisfied.

o. te て
て
The conjunctive particle te derived from the RYK te て
of the perfective flexion
morpheme tsu, and accordingly connects to the RYK. Taking everything into
consideration, there is little difference with the modern Japanese particle te, which in
its primary function equally expresses a simple conjunction or co-ordination. It
sometimes happens that resulting from a certain interpretation the RYK base is
qualified as a hojodōshi or a taigen.

この上の山へ花摘みに入らせ給ひて候ふ
Kono ue no yama e hanatsumi ni irasetamaite saburō (Heike monogatari,
Kanjō 灌頂, Oharagokō 大原御幸)
She has gone uphill to pick flowers.

雨降りて後、いまだ庭のかわかざりければ
Ame furite ato, imada niwa no kawakazarikereba (Tsurezuregusa, 177)
Since it had rained, and the garden hadn't dried yet.

Initially, attachment to other forms than RYK yōgen was possible. The combination
with such adverbs as kaku かく さ , sa , and nado など produced the eventual stock
phrases kakute かくて , sate さて , and nadote などて (all also adverbs), but in the
particles tote とて and nite にて too, the addition of te to the joshi to と and ni に
remained visible. It is not always easy to set the particle apart from the RYK of the
む
perfective jodōshi tsu, but when te is preceded by the jodōshi mu , mashi まし , ki
き , keri けり , and tari たり , it is usually construed as the RYK of tsu, and in the
remaining cases as the conjunctive particle te.

▪ Indicating co-ordination:

同じ小柴なれど、うるはしうしわたして、清げなる屋・廊など続けて
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Onaji koshiba naredo, uruwashū shiwatashite, kiyoge naru ya, rō nado

tsuzukete (Genji monogatari, "Wakamurasaki")
There was a similar wattled fence, of better workmanship, though, and further
on tidy pavilions and halls.

▪ Indicating an adverbial conjunction/modification:

三寸ばかりなる人、いと美しうて居たり
Sanzun bakari naru hito, ito utsukushūte itari (Taketori monogatari,
"Kaguyahime no oitachi")
He found a very cute creature, about three inches tall.

ただ涙にひちて明かし暮らさせ給へば
Tada namida ni hichite akashi kurasasetamaeba (Genji monogatari,
"Kiritsubo")
As he spent his nights entirely in tears, ...

▪ Indicating a cause/reason:

八日、障ることありて、なほ同じ所なり
Yōka, sawaru koto arite, nao onaji tokoro nari (Tosa nikki, 8.1)
Since there was some inconvenience the eighth day, we were still stranded in
the same place.

花の名は人めきて、かうあやしき垣根になむ、咲き侍りける
Hana no na wa hitomekite, kō ayashiki kakine ni namu, saki haberikeru
(Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
Those flowers have a human-like name, and they're blooming on such a mean
fence!

p. shite して
This particle too was originally a compounded form, of the words shi (RYK of su) and
the conjunctive particle te. Shite is attached to the RYK of keiyōshi and keiyōdōshi,
the RYK of jodōshi having a keiyō(dō)shi-like flexion, and the RYK of the negation
morpheme zu. The following four functions can be discerned:

▪ Indicating co-ordination:

ゆく河の流れは絶えずして、しかも、もとの水にあらず
Yuku kawa no nagare wa taezu shite, shikamo, moto no mizu ni arazu
(Hōjōki, "Yuku kawa")
The stream of the flowing river never ceases, and its water too isn't as before.

▪ Indicating a adverbial conjunction/modification:

我が御家へも寄り給はずしておはしたり
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Waga oie e mo yoritamawazu shite owashitari (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai

no tama no eda")
He has come here without even stopping at his own abode.

▪ Indicating a reason:

いたり賢くして、時の人に思すなりけり
Itari kashikoku shite, toki no hito ni obosu narikeri (Makura no sōshi,
"Aridōshi myōjin" 蟻通明神)
As he was extremely intelligent, he was deemed to be the man for the time.

▪ Indicating concession:

格子どもも、人はなくして開きぬ
Kōshidomo mo, hito wa naku shite, akinu (Taketori monogatari,
"Kaguyahime no shōten")
The latticed windows also opened, although there was no one there.

q. tsutsu つつ
す
The particle is attached to the RYK of dōshi, and of the jodōshi su , sasu さす ,
shimu しむ る
, ru , and raru らる . This joshi suggests repetition/duration, and can
morphologically be read as a reduplication of the SSK of the perfective morpheme tsu
つ .

▪ Indicating repetition:

野山にまじりて竹を取りつつ、よろづの事に使ひけり
Noyama ni majirite take o toritsutsu, yorozu no koto ni tsukaikeri (Taketori
monogatari, "Kaguyahime no oitachi")
He used to enter into the fields and mountains to gather bamboo, which he
used for a myriad of things.

▪ Indicating simultaneity:

人ごとに折り挿頭しつつ遊べどもいやめづらしき梅の花かも
Hitogoto ni ori kazashitsutsu asobedomo iya mezurashiki ume no hana kamo
(Man'yōshū, 5:828)
Everyone picks them, sticks them in the hair, and plays with them; what
exceptional ume flowers!

水の上に遊びつつ魚を食ふ
Mizu no ue ni asobitsutsu io o kuu (Ise monogatari, 9)
Frolicking on the water, they ate fish.

▪ Indicating a continuous process

天離る鄙に五年住まひつつ都の手振り忘らえにけり
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Amazakaru hina ni itsutose sumaitsutsu miyako no teburi wasurae nikeri

(Man'yōshū, 5:880)
I have lived for five years in this far-away countryside; I have completely
forgotten the customs and traditions of our capital.

て):
▪ Indicating a simple conjunction (synonymous with conjunctive particle te

「やがて参らむ」とて、にはかに精進始めつつ、厳島へぞ参られける
"Yagate mairamu" tote, niwakani shōjin hajimetsutsu, Itsukushima e zo
mairarekeru (Heike monogatari, 2, "Tokudaiji no sata" 徳大寺之沙汰)
He said, "I'll go right away," and at once he started purifying himself, and set
out for Itsukushima.

r. nagara ながら
The setsuzokujoshi nagara ながら is put after the RYK of dōshi and certain jodōshi,
including the negation morpheme zu. The particle can further be attached to taigen,
and to the stem of keiyōshi and keiyōdōshi. Nagara may be considered to derive from
the homonymous suffix, and both forms also often correspond in meaning. To set
both forms apart, nagara is generally identified as a setsubiji when it follows taigen
and constitutes an adverbial modification. In cases where it comes after the RYK
stressing the continuity or coordination of actions, however, it concerns a
setsuzokujoshi. The primary meaning of the particle imparts the nuance of
invariability, constancy, and unchanged condition.

日は照りながら雪の頭にかかりけるを
Hi wa terinagara yuki no kashira ni kakarikeru o (Kokinwakashū, "Haru jō",
8)
The sun keeps shining, but snow started falling on my head.

When attached to the RYK, the following uses may apply:

▪ Indicating a continuity:

取りつきながらいたう睡りて、落ちぬべき時に目を醒ますこと、たびたびな
り
Toritsukinagara itō neburite, ochinu beki toki ni me o samasu koto, tabitabi
nari (Tsurezuregusa, 41)
Clung to it, he got dead tired, and awoke time and again just as he was about to
fall.

▪ Indicating a co-ordinative relation between two simultaneous actions:

食ひながら文をも読みけり
Kuinagara fumi o mo yomikeri (Tsurezuregusa, 60)
He even reads Scripture while eating.

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▪ Co-ordinative presentation of two non-simultaneous events / concessive mood:

かしこき御蔭をば頼み聞こえながら、おとしめ疵を求め給ふ人は多く
Kashikoki okage oba tanomikikoenagara, otoshime kizu o motometamau hito
wa ōku (Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Putting up with his gracious favour, there were many ladies who looked down
on her, and found fault with her.

▪ Additionally, the particle can be put after taigen and the stem of keiyō(dō)shi. The
following example equally illustrates a concessive use:

身はいやしながら、母なむ宮なりける
Mi wa iyashinagara, haha namu miya narikeru (Ise monogatari, 84)
His status was low, even though his mother was of imperial birth.

s. de で
This particle is thought to be derived from the combination zute ずて
, that is, the RYK
of the negation morpheme zu, followed by the setsuzokujoshi te. The particle is
attached to the MZK, and expresses a negation of the previous thought, while
conjoining to the subsequent phrase.

食べで行きたり
Tabede yukitari
He has left without having eaten.

遠からで道よし
Tōkarade michi yoshi
It is not far and the roads are fine.

鬼ある所とも知らで、・・・・・・あばらなる倉に、女をば奥に押し入れて
Oni aru tokoro tomo shirade, ...... abaranaru kura ni, onna oba oku ni
oshiirete (Ise monogatari, 6)
Not knowing that it was a place where an ogre lived, [...] he put the woman at
the back of the dilapidated storehouse.

t. kara から
Closely related to the case particle kara から
is the conjunctive particle kara, which is
attached to the RTK or to the conjunctive particle te, and which, in meaning, has a lot
in common with the modern variants kara and dakara. The conjunctive reading of
kara was first attested in Muromachi texts.

▪ Indicating cause, reason, motive, occasion (can directly be followed by wa は):

汐時がよう御座りますから、舟はたちまちで御座ります
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Shiodoki ga yō gozarimasukara, fune wa tachimachi de gozarimasu

(Yūshihōgen 遊子方言 , "Hottan" 発端 )
Since the tide is favourable, the ship will arrive any moment now.

見付けられたからは、ありやうに言はう
Mitsukerareta kara wa, ariyōni iō (Chikamatsu 近松, Amidagaike
Shinteramachi 1 阿弥陀が池新寺町)
Let us, as it has been found out, tell the truth.

▪ Indicating a concession when adopted in the construction -te kara てから or -te
kara ga てからが :

折角さび落としてから、ごまめ一ぴき切ることにはあらねども
Sekkaku sabiotoshite kara, gomame ippiki kiru koto ni wa aranedomo
(Saikaku, Sekenmunesan'yō 世間胸算用, 2:4)
Even if you went to the trouble of removing the rust from it, it wouldn't serve
to cut a small dried sardine.

▪ Indicating a contrast:

旅の旦那どの、旅の旦那どのと言うてから、帰らず
Tabi no dannadono, tabi no dannadono to iute kara, kaerazu (Keiseikintanki
傾城禁短気, 4:4)
He said, "Mister traveler, mister traveler," but he didn't come back.

u. gatera がてら
The particle gatera がてら is attached to yōgen RYK, and indicates that an action is
concomitant, or implies an additional objective.

梅の花咲き散る園に我行かむ君が使ひをかた待ちがてら
Ume no hana sakichiru sono ni ware yukamu kimi ga tsukai o
katamachigatera (Man'yōshū, 18:4041)
I want to go to the garden where ume flowers blossom and scatter; and
meanwhile impatiently await your messenger.

v. gateri がてり
The Old Japanese particle gateri がてり is connected to the RYK of verbs, and reveals
simultaneous or cumulative actions.

山辺の御井を見がてり神風の伊勢娘子ども相見つるかも
Yamanohe no mii o migateri kankaze no Ise otomedomo aimitsuru kamo
(Man'yōshū, 1:81)
Having arrived to inspect the well near the mountain, I took the opportunity to
meet the divine priestess of Ise.

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2.2.3. Inductive particles: kakarijoshi/keijoshi 係助詞

This category of particles was equally coined by Yamada Yoshio, and collects joshi
that exert a specific influence on other constituents of the sentence. It may concern
emphasis put on words preceding the particle, or transforming the flexion forms of
subsequent yōgen into another flexion form (see kakarimusubi). Inductive particles
are found in declarative sentences, (rhetorical) question sentences, or sentence-final
position, and they mark a specific topic, impart emphasis, frame a question, and so
on. The particles namo なも (afterward evolved into namu なむ かも
), and kamo can
be mentioned as the most ancient specimens of this group. Middle Japanese
は も ぞ
kakarijoshi include the particles wa , mo , zo , namu/nan なむ なん や
/ , ya , ka
か こそ
, koso , and kawa かは .

a. namo なも

Subject words (shugo 主語 ), adverbial modifiers (ren'yōshūshokugo 連用修飾語 ), and

接続詞
conjunctions (setsuzokushi ) are the most common bases of the particle.

何時はなも恋ひずありとはあらねどもうたてこのころ恋し繁しも
Itsu wa namo koizu ari to wa aranedomo utate konokoro koishishigeshimo
(Man'yōshū, 12:2877)
Though I didn't feel, who knows how long, disinclined to her, it is oddly
enough only now that I am becoming infatuated.

b. kamo かも
This joshi originated from the combination of the kakarijoshi ka and mo, and just like
namo is put after subject words, adverbial modifiers, and conjunctions. Inflecting
words following this particle take the RTK due to kakarimusubi; a rule which lapsed
since the particle's shift (as is observable in modern Japanese) to a sentence-final
position. Nara literature produced instances in which the IZK or a combination IZK
plus ba is followed by kamo, as is illustrated in the next example:

冬ごもり春の大野を焼く人は焼きたらねかも我が心焼く
Fuyu gomori haru no ōno o yaku hito wa yakitarane kamo agakokoro yaku
(Man'yōshū, 7:1336)
Hasn't he got enough to burn, the man who burns the wide fields in this wintry
spring; for he sets my heart on fire.

▪ Indicating a rhetorical question:

あしひきの山鳥の尾のしだり尾の長々し夜をひとりかも寝む
Ashihiki no yamadori no o no shidario no naganagashi yo o hitori kamo
nemu (Man'yōshū, 11:2802)
Shall I sleep this night alone, ever so long as the tail of the copper pheasant,
trailed along the tiresome mountains?

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c. wa は
Subject words, adverbial modifiers, and conjunctions once more operate as basis for
the particle. Wa primarily serves as a topic marker. Additionally, it is inserted to
indicate a contrast between two phrases, or to emphatically mark the content of the
predicate. Further, wa may express a hypothetical relation when it follows the RYK of
ず
keiyōshi or zu . In this function, incidentally, the hypothetical nuance is not always
plainly visible. Morphologically interesting is the expression oba をば which has
な
evolved from the connection of wa to o. Other sound contractions are na and ta , た
which respectively derived from the combinations n ん+ wa は っ
and -tt + wa , は
and additionally there is ippa いっぱ , a variant of iuwa いうは .

▪ Indicating the topic:

これは勇める馬なり
Kore wa isameru uma nari (Tsurezuregusa, 185)
This is a prancing horse.

▪ Indicating contrast:

敵の手にはかかるまじ
Kataki no te ni wa kakaru maji (Heike monogatari, 11, "Sentei minage" 先帝
身投)
I would rather not fall into enemy hands.

古京はすでに荒れて、新都はいまだ成らず
Kokyō wa sude ni arete, shinto wa imada narazu (Hōjōki, "Miyakoutsuri" 都
遷り)
The old capital was already ruined, and the new capital was not yet finished.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

尋ぬる人の琴の音か、おぼつかなくは思へども、駒を速めて行くほどに
Tazunuru hito no koto no ne ka, obotsukanaku wa omoedomo, koma o
hayamete yuku hodo ni (Heike monogatari, 6, "Kogō" 小督)
Although I was doubtful whether it was the sound of the koto from the person I
was looking for, I sped up my horse's pace.

▪ Indicating a supposition:

鶯の谷より出づる声なくは春来ることを誰か知らまし
Uguisu no tani yori izuru koe naku wa haru kuru koto o tareka shiramashi
(Kokinwakashū, "Haru jō", 14)
Without the bush warbler's song coming out of the valley, who would know
that spring has arrived?

まろ、格子上げずは、道なくて、げにえ入り来ざらまし
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Maro, kōshi agezu wa, michi nakute, geni eirikozaramashi (Genji

monogatari, "Yokobue")
If I don't lift the latticework, they have no access, and indeed cannot come in.

d. mo も
This particle attaches just like the previous kakarijoshi, and marks—like its modern
Japanese equivalent—an enumeration or addition. The particles zo or koso may be
put after mo, and thus express concern or lamentation about something bad that is
going to happen. Mo does not modify flexion forms further down the sentence. The
uses of wa and mo have substantial overlap, but wa rather exclusively emphasizes the
topic, whereas mo stresses its topic's inclusiveness.

▪ Indicating enumeration:

行きも帰りも供にす
Yuki mo kaeri mo tomo ni su
To make the journey there and back together.

鬚も白く、腰もかがまり、目もただれにけり
Hige mo shiroku, koshi mo kagamari, me mo tadarenikeri (Taketori
monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
His beard had turned white, his back was bowed down, and his eyes were
swollen.

男も女も恥ぢかはしてありけれど
Otoko mo onna mo hajikawashite arikeredo (Ise monogatari, 23)
Even though both the man and the woman were embarrassed with each other...

▪ Indicating an addition/a connective relation:

潮満ちぬ。風も吹きぬべし
Shio michinu. Kaze mo fukinu beshi (Tosa nikki, 27.12)
The tide is in. And the wind is surely getting up.

ただ一つ二つなど、ほのかにうち光りて行くもをかし。雨など降るもをかし
Tada hitotsu futatsu nado, honokani uchihikarite yuku mo okashi. Ame nado
furu mo okashi (Makura no sōshi, "Haru wa akebono")
It is lovely to see them pass, faintly glimmering all alone or paired. Rain falling
is also delightful.

▪ Indicating a suggestion:

熟田津に船乗りせむと月待てば潮も適ひぬ今は漕ぎ出でな
Nigitatsu ni funanori semu to tsuki mateba shio mo kanainu ima wa kogiide
na (Man'yōshū, 1:8)

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At Nigitatsu, we abided the moon before leaving, let us row out now, as the tide
is favourable.

我も、一日も見奉らぬは、いと苦しうこそあれど
Ware mo, hitohi mo mitatematsuranu wa, ito kurushū koso aredo (Genji
monogatari, "Momijinoga")
It is indeed very hard for me too, not to see you for even one single day.

▪ Indicating an extreme point of reference:

帳の内よりも出ださず、いつき養ふ
Chō no uchi yori mo idasazu, itsuki yashinau (Taketori monogatari,
"Kaguyahime no oitachi")
Not even letting her pass her curtained home, they brought her up with much
care.

心なしと見ゆる者も、よき一言は言ふものなり
Kokoro nashi to miyuru mono mo, yoki hitokoto wa iu mono nari
(Tsurezuregusa, 142)
Even someone who looks heartless may say something nice.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

限りなく速くも来にけるかな
Kagiri naku hayaku mo kinikeru kana (Ise monogatari, 9)
How extremely fast had he arrived!

「御覧ぜよ」と言へど、聞きも入れ給はず
"Goran zeyo" to iedo, kiki mo iretamawazu (Genji monogatari, "Tenarai")
She said, "Have a glance," but she didn't bother to comply.

▪ Indicating a lower limit:

家に行きて何を語らむあしひきの山ほととぎす一声も鳴け
Ie ni yukite nani o kataramu ashihiki no yamahototogisu hitokoe mo nake
(Man'yōshū, 19:4203)
Back home, what story shall I recount? O, mountain cuckoo, do raise your
voice!

思ふ事を、まほならずとも、片端にても、うちかすめつべき女親もおはせず
Omou koto o, mao narazu tomo, katahashi nite mo, uchikasumetsubeki
onnaoya mo owasezu (Genji monogatari, "Fujibakama")
She had no mother to whom she could have confided if not all then at least part
of her troubles.

▪ Indicating, in combination with question words, an exhaustive enumeration:

誰も、少しよろしき者どもは、見おこせ、居寄りなどしけり
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Taremo, sukoshi yoroshiki monodomo wa, miokose, iyori nado shikeri

(Ōkagami, "Jo")
The rather distinguished people all looked this way, and moved closer.

何も何も、小さきものは皆うつくし
Nanimo nanimo, chiisaki mono wa mina utsukushi (Makura no sōshi,
"Utsukushiki mono")
In every respect, small things in particular are lovely.

e. zo ぞ
This emphatic particle can be put after shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, and setsuzokushi.
そ
The active use of the variant particle so is only found in Nara literary sources.

▪ Indicating emphasis or concession; induces the RTK:

万の遊びをぞしける
Yorozu no asobi o zo shikeru (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no oitachi")
We have enjoyed ourselves with all sorts of musical plays.

緑なる一つ草とぞ春は見し秋は色々の花にぞありける
Midori naru hitotsu kusa to zo haru wa mishi aki wa iroiro no hana ni zo
arikeru (Kokinwakashū, "Aki jō", 245)
I saw the same green grasses in spring; but in autumn they had become flowers
of every kind.

時なくそ雪は降りける。間なくそ雨はふりける。
Toki naku so yuki wa furikeru. Ma naku so ame wa furikeru (Man'yōshū,
1:25)
Timelessly the snow is falling down. And ceaselessly the rain is falling down.

▪ Indicating concern in combination with the inductive particle mo も; induces the

RTK:

雨もぞ降る。御車は門の下に
Ame mozo furu. Mikuruma wa kado no shita ni (Tsurezuregusa, 104)
Oh dear, it is raining. Put the carriage under the gate.

▪ Indicating an ellipsis [the omitted part may tentatively be reconstructed as the RTK
にぞある
phrases nizo aru とぞ言ふ・聞く
or tozo iu/kiku ]:

中将の君はいづくにぞ。人げ遠き心地して、もの恐ろし
Chūjō no kimi wa izuku ni zo. Hitoge tōki kokochi shite, mono osoroshi (Genji
monogatari, "Hahakigi")
Where is the Lady Chūjō? Feeling deserted makes me frightened.

たびたび強盗に会ひたるゆゑに、この名を付けにけるとぞ
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Tabitabi gōtō ni aitaru yue ni, kono na o tsukenikeru to zo (Tsurezuregusa,

46)
Since he had repeatedly encountered robbers, he was given that name [that is,
the appellation "The Most Reverend The Highwayman" Gōdō no hōin 強盗法
印 ]

▪ Indicating a conjunction between clauses:

桐の木の花、紫に咲きたるは、なほをかしきに、葉の広ごりざまぞ、うたて
こちたけれど、異木どもと等しう言ふべきにもあらず
Kiri no ki no hana, murasaki ni sakitaru wa, nao okashiki ni, ha no
hirogorizama zo, utate kochitakeredo, kotokidomo to hitoshū iu beki ni mo
arazu (Makura no sōshi, "Konohana wa")
The purply flowering of the blossoms of the empress tree is very appealing, but
although the way its leaves spread out is utterly grotesque, one cannot say it is
a tree on a par with other trees.

Note: In Nara texts, zo ぞ

often followed IZK forms, expressing a reason/cause. In
this respect, it can be compared to the construction bazo ばぞ
, in which ba
corresponds to the aforementioned conjunctive particle ba. For example:

朝髪の思ひ乱れてかくばかり汝ねが恋ふれぞ夢に見えける
Asakami no omoimidarete kaku bakari na ne ga koure zo ime ni miekeru
(Man'yōshū, 4:724)
I have seen you in my dreams, since you yearned so much for me in your
thoughts as tangled as morning-hair.

In tanka, the combination zoari ぞあり ぞ

, which joins the particle zo and the verb ari
あり , is contracted to zari ざり . No contraction but rather fossilization is observed
when zo follows question words. Such combinations were current practice in
medieval texts, and should be read as emphatic variants, although some accordingly
categorized zo as a question particle. For example:

あれへ参り、何ぞ食ふ物をもらうて、食べうと存ずる
Are e mairi, nani zo kuu mono o morōte, tabyō to zonzuru (Setsubun, 節分)
I think I will go there, get some lunch, and eat it.

It is often maintained that zo ぞ そ

originated in the unvoiced particle so , and that
both variants were used indiscriminately in Nara texts. Since the Heian period, zo ぞ
eventually prevailed and so そ faded away, only lingering in such standard
expressions as taso 誰そ . Incidentally, the modern Japanese tasogare 黄昏 ("twilight
誰そ彼
") derived its origin from tasokare ("Who is there?"), indicating the difficuty of
clearly distinguishing people from one another in the dusk.
Among kakari particles, namu なむ and koso こそ have similar functions, albeit that
the deictic or emphasizing aspect has a more prominent place in the particle koso. In
comparison with namu, zo effects a much stronger emphasis, and is further adopted
in a very large variety of genres (covering prose [narrative texts (ji no bun 地の文 )
including monogatari], dialogues, and tanka), whereas namu is particularly used in

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dialogue texts (kaiwa no bun 会話の文 ). This aspect equally pertains to koso, which
together with namu primarily gives expression to a subjective or emotional emphasis,
while zo rather entails an objective or logical accentuation.

f. namu/nan なむ/なん
Namu, or its more recent eroded variant nan, mainly has an emphasizing function.
Its emphasis is somehow less articulate than the one conveyed by zo . ぞ
▪ Indicating emphasis; induces the RTK:

都へなむ参らむ
Miyako e namu mairamu
I want to go to the capital.

父は直人にて、母なん藤原なりける。さてなん、あてなる人にと思ひける
Chichi wa naobito nite, haha nan Fujiwara narikeru. Sate nan, atenaru hito
ni to omoikeru (Ise monogatari, 10)
His father was an ordinary person, but his mother a Fujiwara. And therefore,
he intended her [= his daughter] for a nobleman.

光る竹なむ一筋ありける
Hikaru take namu hitosuji arikeru (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no
oitachi")
There was one shining bamboo stem.

橋を八つわたせるによりてなむ、八橋といひける
Hashi o yatsu wataseru ni yorite namu, Yatsuhashi to iikeru (Ise monogatari,
9)
Because they had spanned eight bridges, it was dubbed Eight Bridges.

▪ Indicating an ellipsis: verbs including iu 言ふ, kiku 聞く, and omou 思ふ are
omitted:

さて、この隣の男のもとよりかくなむ
Sate, kono tonari no otoko no moto yori kaku namu (Ise monogatari, 23)
Now, the boy next-door reported the following: ...

▪ Indicating an emphasized conjunction between phrases:

年ごろよくくらべつる人々なむ、別れがたく思ひて、日しきりにとかくしつ
つ、ののしるうちに夜更けぬ
Toshigoro yoku kurabetsuru hitobito namu, wakaregataku omoite, hi shikiri
ni tokaku shitsutsu, nonoshiru uchi ni yo fukenu (Tosa nikki, 21.12)
I found it difficult to part from the people with whom I had hit it off well for
years, doing all sorts of things all day long, and making a night of it while
gossiping.

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Notes:
● In Nara literature, we still come across traces of the Old Japanese variant
namo なも , but since the publication of the Man'yōshū, the notation namu
definitively seemed to have gained prevalence. The particle was particularly
seen as an element of the vernacular vocabulary, and appeared in written
dialogues and epistolary writings during the Heian period, whereas it was
absent in tanka. During the Middle Ages, it gradually entered the
written-language register, and was used frequently in gikobun 擬古文
(pseudoclassical writings or imitations moulded on Heian texts) and it occurs
once in a while in gunki monogatari 軍記物語 (war chronicles).
● If confusion with homophonic counterparts might arise, a scrupulous reading
of the clause preceding namu is called for.
1) consistent with other kakarijoshi, the inductive particle namu
connects to the RTK, shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, and setsuzokushi;
2) the shūjoshi namu is governed by a MZK base;
3) the combination na な ぬ
(MZK of the perfective particle nu ) + mu む
む
(SSK of the jodōshi ) is attached to the RYK, and expresses a strong
suspicion, obviousness, volition, possibility, or suggestion;
4) the Nara present conjecture jodōshi (cf. ramu) follows a SSK.

g. ya や
In addition to the usual bases (shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, setsuzokushi), the particle
may also occur in a sentence-final position; in which case it follows a SSK or IZK.

▪ Indicating a question or doubt; inducing the RTK:

人やある
Hito ya aru
Is anybody there?

「ほととぎすや聞き給へる」と問ひて
"Hototogisu ya kikitamaeru" to toitei (Tsurezuregusa, 107)
They asked, "Have you heard the little cuckoo?"

「御子はおはすや」と問ひしに
"Oko wa owasu ya" to toishi ni (Tsurezuregusa, 142)
When he asked, "Have you any children?" . . .

▪ Indicating a rhetorical question or irony; inducing the RTK:

かかる事ありや
Kakaru koto ari ya
Is something like this possible?

かかる人「否」とや言ふ
Kakaru hito "iya" to ya iu

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Would a person like this say "No"?

などか宮仕へをし給はざらむ。死に給ふべきやうやあるべき
Nado ka miyazukae o shitamawazaramu. Shinitamaubeki yō ya arubeki
(Taketori monogatari, "Mikado no kyūkon")
Why wouldn't you serve at Court? Does it seem to you something you will die
of?

そのとき悔ゆとも、かひあらむや
Sono toki kuyu tomo, kai aramu ya (Tsurezuregusa, 49)
By then, what would be the use of being regretful?

▪ Indicating a (rhetorical) question, doubt, or irony, following attachment to the IZK:

ももしきの大宮は暇あれや梅をかざしてここに集へる
Momoshiki no ōmiya wa hima are ya ume o kazashite koko ni tsudoeru
(Man'yōshū, 10:1883)
The court nobility of the stone palace must have time to spare. They join
together here wearing plum blossoms in their hair.

▪ Indicating doubt by using the coordinating construction … ya … ya:

君や来し我や行きけむ思ほえず夢か現か寝てかさめてか
Kimi ya koshi ware ya yukikemu oboezu yume ka utsutsu ka nete ka samete
ka (Ise monogatari, 69)
Did you come, or did I go to you? I cannot remember. Is it a dream or reality?
Was I asleep or awake?

Since this particle can be put in the middle or at the end of a sentence, some
grammarians qualify the latter variant as a shūjoshi. The absence of any semantic
difference between the sentence-final and non-final ya, however, justifies it being
treated within the kakarijoshi category.
In addition, there is a possibility of classifying this particle in the category of
kantōjoshi or heiritsujoshi. The criterion here is the extent to which ya can be read as
an exclamation, or the degree to which it may establish a coordinate conjunction.
As an interrogative particle, ya can be connected to the sentence-final interrogative
particle ka. The two joshi have the following differences:
1) ka is used in combination with question words, unlike ya (although some
medieval texts contain combinations of ya with question words);
2) ka usually expresses simple doubt/uncertainty, whereas ya implies a
question directly addressed to the interlocutor;
3) ka is attached to the RTK, limiting the question's extent to the word it
affects, whereas the question particle ya on the other hand is attached to the
SSK, and affects the entire preceding phrase. Overtones of irony, incidentally,
は
are much more explicit when both particles are followed by wa , producing
the compound particles kawa かは and yawa やは .

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h. ka か
This kakarijoshi is put after shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, and setsuzokugo, or follows
the RTK as a sentence-final particle.

▪ Indicating a question or doubt; induces the RTK:

いかなる所にか、この木はさぶらひけむ
Ikanaru tokoro ni ka, kono ki wa saburaikemu (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai
no tama no eda")
In what sort of place was this tree situated?

何事ぞや。童べと腹立ち給へるか
Nanigoto zo ya. warawabe to haradachitamaeru ka (Genji monogatari,
"Wakamurasaki")
What is the matter? Have you been arguing with the children?

▪ Indicating a rhetorical question or irony (often emphasized by adding wa は):

何せむにか、命も惜しからむ
Nani semu ni ka, inochi mo oshikaramu (Taketori monogatari, "Fuji no
yama")
What should we do? Why hold life dear?

心なき鳥にぞありけるほととぎす物思ふ時に鳴くべきものか
Kokoro naki tori ni zo arikeru hototogisu mono'omou toki ni naku beki mono
ka (Man'yōshū, 15:3784)
What a heartless bird you are! Little cuckoo, do you really need to sing this
instant that I am lost in thought?

Quite unlike its modern Japanese equivalent, the interrogative particle ka can also be
placed in the middle of a sentence. In this case, the particle is often combined with
fixed question words, such as nani and ikani 何 いかに
. The predicate is sometimes
omitted after ka, making the interrogative particle end the sentence in an abrupt way:
20

清げなる屋・廊など続けて、木立いとよしあるは、何人の住むにか
Kiyoge naru ya, rō nado tsuzukete, kodachi ito yoshi aru wa nanibito no
sumu nika (Genji monogatari, "Wakamurasaki")
It was a succession of tidy pavilions and halls, and there were very imposing
trees; who was living there, I wondered.
Note: The phrase omitted here is aramu あらむ, with mu as an RTK form.
i. koso こそ
20
Lehmann observes that the interrogative in Japanese is marked by placing ka after verbs in sentence­final
position.
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This particle connects to shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, and setsuzokushi, or comes at the

end of a sentence. As an emphatic particle, it moves the stress to the phrase preceding
it. As already mentioned, koso expresses the most powerful emphasis compared to
other emphatic particles. As a rule, koso induces the IZK, although this convention is
not always scrupulously respected in Nara texts, judging the fact that there are even
instances where sentence-final keiyōshi take the RTK despite being governed by koso:

難波人葦火焚く屋の煤してあれど己が妻こそ常珍しき
Naniwahito ashihi taku ya no su shite aredo ono ga tsuma koso toko
mezurashiki (Man'yōshū, 11:265)
Although sooty as a hut where Naniwa people kindle a fire using reed, my wife
is always the same beauty to me.

Overtones of concession were still prominent until the Heian period, but the particle
eventually lost its concessive connotation, and turned to conveying neutral emphasis.
If yodan verbs co-occur with koso, it will not be possible to distinguish between any
conceivable sentence-final MRK and IZK forms, making it necessary to check
carefully which of both forms is most applicable in the given context:

右近の君こそ、まづ物見給へ。中将殿こそこれより渡り給ひぬれ
Ukon no kimi koso mazu monomitamae. Chūjō­dono koso kore yori
wataritamainure (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
Please, quickly come and look, Lady Ukon. The lieutenant general himself has
gone by here.

▪ Indicating emphasis; inducing IZK:

野分のまたの日こそ、いみじうあはれにをかしけれ
Nowaki no mata no hi koso, imijū aware ni okashikere (Makura no sōshi,
"Nowaki no mata no hi koso")
I do enjoy the day after an early autumn typhoon, due to its very appealing
effect.

Note: The kakarimusubi rule is sometimes flagrantly disregarded. It is unclear

whether this is due to the author's slip of the pen, or the copyist's sloppiness:

さればこそ、異物の皮なりけり
Sareba koso, kotomono no kawa narikeri (Taketori monogatari, "Hinezumi
no kawaginu")
And therefore, indeed, it is the fur of a different kind.

▪ Indicating concession; induces IZK (except when followed by a setsuzokujoshi):

昨日こそ早苗取りしかいつの間に稲葉そよぎて秋風の吹く
Kinō koso sanae torishika itsu no ma ni inaba soyogite akikaze no fuku
(Kokinwakashū, "Aki jō",172)
Only yesterday we planted the seedlings out; yet before we noticed, the rice
leaves were rustling in the blowing autumn breeze.

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たとひ耳鼻こそ切れ失すとも、命ばかりはなどか生きざらむ
Tatoi jibi koso kireusu tomo, inochi bakari wa nadoka ikizaramu
(Tsurezuregusa, 53)
Even if his ears and nose are lost, at least his life may be saved.

▪ Indicating concern in the construction mokoso もこそ (mo = kakari particle; cf.
mozo); induces IZK:

烏などもこそ見つくれ
Karasu nado mo koso mitsukure (Genji monogatari, "Wakamurasaki")
O dear, if the crows or the like were to discover it!

▪ Indicating ellipsis (the omitted part may be interpreted as are あれ, arame あらめ,
iwame 言はめ , and so forth):

「さすがにむくつけき御心にこそ」と聞こえ動かして
"Sasuga ni mukutsukeki mikokoro ni koso" to kikoeugokashite (Genji
monogatari, "Yume no ukihashi")
"Crude indeed is your heart," she said and she gave a poke.

あらばこそ:
▪ Indicating negative irony in the construction araba koso

世に数ならぬこの尼が、たとへ病で死したりとて、子に譲るものあらばこそ
Yo ni kazu naranu kono ama ga, tatoe yamai de shishitari tote, ko ni yuzuru
mono araba koso (Chikamatsu, Yōmei tennō shokunin kagami 用明天王職人
鑑, 2)
As if this nun, not counting for much in the world, has anything to bequeath to
her children should she die of illness.

j. kawa かは
This kakarijoshi is compounded of the kakari particles ka and wa, and is attached to
shugo, ren'yōshūshokugo, and setsuzokushi. In a sentence-final position, this particle
exclusively refers to a rhetorical question or irony, whereas in a sentence-medial
position, it additionally may indicate a neutral question.

▪ Indicating a rhetorical question/irony, induces RTK:

いと恥づかしき御けはひに、何事をかは答へ聞こえむ
Ito hazukashiki ōnkewai ni, nanigoto o kawa irae kikoemu (Genji
monogatari, "Wakamurasaki")
They felt very embarrassed in his presence, and didn't know what to respond.

ひがひがしからむ人の仰せらるる事、聞き入るべきかは
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Higahigashikaramu hito no ōseraruru koto kikiiru beki kawa

(Tsurezuregusa, 31)
How can I listen to what an eccentric man has to say?

花は盛りに、月は隈なきをのみ見るものかは
Hana wa mori ni, tsuki wa kuma naki o nomi miru mono kawa
(Tsurezuregusa, 137)
Should we only enjoy the flowers when they are in full bloom, and view the
moon when shining in full brightness?

▪ Indicating a question:

蓮葉の濁りに染まぬ心もて何かは露を玉とあざむく
Hachisuba no nigori ni shimanu kokoro mote nani kawa tsuyu o tama to
azamuku (Kokinwakashū, "Natsu", 165)
How is it that lotus leaves don't get touched with impurity, but still deceive us
into believing dewdrops to be gems?

2.2.4. Adverbial particles: fukujoshi 副助詞

Yamada Yoshio's fourth category comprises joshi which according to their behaviour
in the sentence show similarity to fukushi. Fukujoshi connect to yōgen-related words,
and adverbially modify subsequent inflecting words. Adverbial particles reinforce the
continuity of the constituents, and can be placed directly before or behind a
kakujoshi. In the Old Japanese vocabulary, only two representatives have been
い
documented, namely the emphatic particle i , and the prohibitory particle na . な
だに
More recent instances of adverbial joshi include: dani , sura すら, sae さへ
, nomi
のみ , bakari ばかり まで
, made , nado/nando など なんど
/ し
, shi , shimo しも
, gana
がな , and gateraがてら .

a. i い

The particle is preceded by taigen or RTK forms functioning as subject in the

sentence. They obtain added emphasis due to i.

我が背子が跡踏み求め追ひ行かば紀伊の関守い留めてむかも
Wa ga seko ga atofumi motome oiyukaba Ki no sekimori i todometemu kamo
(Man'yōshū, 4:545)
If I were to search and follow my husband's track, would the barrier keeper of
Ki stop me?

Connection to an attributive modification (rentaishūshokugo 連体修飾語) is also

documented:

青柳の糸の細しさ春風に乱れぬい間に見せむ子もがも
Aoyagi no ito no kuwashisa harukaze ni midarenu i ma ni misemu ko
mogamo (Man'yōshū, 10:1851)

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If only I had a beloved, showing me the slenderness of green willow switches,

just before they are about to get entangled in the spring breeze.

b. na な
This adverbial particle precedes verbal RYK and certain jodōshi. Kahen and sahen
verbs, however, take the MZK behind the particle. There is also a final particle na
expressing a prohibition, but compared to the fukujoshi na, this specimen strikes a
less moderate tone.

▪ Indicating prohibition:

我が船は比良の湊に漕ぎ泊てむ沖へな離りさ夜更けにけり
Wagafune wa Hira no minato ni kogihatemu oki e na sakari sayofuke nikeri
(Man'yōshū, 3:274)
My boat rowed to Hira harbour to cast anchor. Do not set out to sea now, the
night is already far advanced.

そ
Note: As part of the brace construction ending in the particle so , na remained
preserved in later texts. This construction constitutes a twofold prohibition, in which
na introduces the prohibition and so conveys added emphasis. In the course of time,
so integrally assumed na's function, and developed as an independent prohibitory
particle. Incidentally, certain grammars treat this dual prohibitory construction
rather as one final particle, instead of considering it as a combination of a fukujoshi
and a shūjoshi.

や、な起こし奉りそ
Ya, na okoshitatematsuri so (Ujishūi monogatari, 1:12)
O, don't wake him up!

c. dani だに
This particle is put after subject words (shugo 主語) or adverbial modifiers
(ren'yōshūshokugo 連用修飾語 ).

▪ Indicating a minimal, albeit often unrealistic desire. It is typically followed by a

predicate expressing an order, volition, desire, or hypothesis.

我に今一度、声をだに聞かせ給へ
Ware ni ima ichido, koe o dani kikasetamae (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
Let me once again hear your voice.

▪ Indicating a sharp contrast between an example and a particular point of reference;

always combined with a final negation:

かぐや姫、光やあると見るに、蛍ばかりの光だになし
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Kaguya­hime, hikari ya aru to miru ni, hotaru bakari no hikari dani nashi
(Taketori monogatari, "Hotoke no miishi no hachi")
When Princess Kaguya inspected whether it radiated, there was not so much as
the glow of a firefly.

Note: In Nara texts, only the first use prevails. The second use, expressed in Nara
texts principally by sura すら , originated in the beginning of the Heian period.
Together with sae さへ , sura すら belongs to the same semantic field as dani.
Mutually, however, a number of subtle nuance differences exist. Sura すら , which in
meaning closely corresponds with the modern Japanese particle sae さえ , indicates
that the concept to which it is attached, is subjected to the predicate, and suggests the
existence of many other alternatives. The second use of dani reveals close
resemblance to this particle. Sae さへ signals that the quoted example is an
extraordinary case, and can be compared to the Modern Japanese mademo までも .
Towards the close of the Heian era, dani in particular got to be used in a way closely
resembling sae:

如夢僧都は、大井川の御幸に、三衣箱の底に烏帽子をだにも用意して
Nyomu sōzu wa, Ōigawa no miyuki ni, san'ebako no soko ni, eboshi o dani
mo yōi shite (Shasekishū 沙石集, 8:22)
For his pilgrimage to Oigawa, priest Nyomu had even packed a black-lacquered
crown in the bottom of his robe case.

Eventually the nuances of both particles blurred, and sae さへ

came to be
predominantly used from the Muromachi period onward, marking a process which
found its fulfilment in the present-day particle sae さえ
.

d. sura すら
The fukujoshi sura すら is attached to shugo or ren'yōshūshokugo. Sura directs the
focus to the word to which it is connected.

▪ Indicating modality (amazement/surprise):

言問はぬ木すら妹と兄ありといふをただ独り子にあるが苦しさ
Koto towanu ki sura imo to se ari to iu o tada hitoriko ni aru ga kurushisa
(Man'yōshū, 6:1007)
It is hard to be an only child, while even trees, which have nothing to say, have
sisters and brothers.

聖などすら、前の世のこと夢に見るはいと難かなるを
Hijiri nado sura, saki no yo no koto yume ni miru wa ito kataka naru o
(Sarashina nikki, "Miyazukae")
Even for a virtuous priest it is very hard to see one's previous existence in a
dream.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

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越を治めに出でて来し大夫われすら世の中の常しなければうちなびき床に臥
い伏し
Koshi o osame ni idetekoshi masura ware sura yononaka no tsune
shinakereba uchinabiki toko ni koifushi (Man'yōshū, 17:3969)
Warrior as I may be, I left to govern Koshi, but as the way of the world is
inconstant, I lie here writhing abed.

Note: While sura was frequently used in Nara texts, it gradually lost currency and was
only used sporadically during the Heian period in Wabun monogatari or diaries
(nikki) or appeared as an archaism in Kanbun kundoku texts and waka. During the
process, its content was absorbed by the semantically related particles dani だに and
sae さへ . Incidentally, a variant reading, soraそら , was used at the end of the Heian
period, for example in Konjaku monogatarishū 今昔物語集 .

e. sae さへ
This particle also follows shugo or ren'yōshūshokugo. In terms of etymology, this
word probably has its origin in soe 添へ ("addition"), which immediately illustrates
the initially additive nuance of the particle. This primary meaning survived until
about the Heian period. Subsequently, it increasingly included meanings of the
kindred joshi sura and dani. Initially, sura was consistently replaced by sae and dani
(2nd use), and eventually sae assumed the function expressed by dani (3rd use).
Since the Muromachi period, parenthetically, made adopted the primary meaning of
sae, starting to suggest addition.

▪ Indicating an addition:

雨風、岩も動くばかり降りふぶきて、神さへ鳴りてとどろくに
Amakaze, iwa mo ugoku bakari furifubukite, kami sae narite todoroku ni
(Sarashina nikki, "Hatsuse")
Rain and wind raged so hard that even rocks were about to move, and the gods
roared with peals of thunder.

▪ Indicating modality (gradation):

まさしき兄弟さへ似たるは少なし。まして従兄弟に似たるものはなし
Masashiki kyōdai sae nitaru wa sukunashi. Mashite itoko ni nitaru mono wa
nashi (Soga, 4:4)
Only few resemble their very own brother; and there is still no-one resembling
one's full cousin.

▪ Indicating a hypothetical condition:

頭丸めしとて、金さへあれば、色里の太夫も、それにはかまはず、自由にな
る
Kashira marumeshi tote, kane sae areba, irozato no taifu mo, sore ni wa
kamawazu, jiyū ni naru (Saikaku, Honchō nijū fukō 本朝二十不孝, 4:2)

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Though you have shaved your head, you can do as you please, without the
courtesans of the red-light district caring about it, as long as you have money.

f. nomi のみ
Nomi is equally attached to shugo or ren'yōshūshokugo. This particle expresses
limitation or exclusivity. Furthermore, some emphatic effect is involved. This joshi
would have its origins in … no mi の身 ("the … itself"), from which the meaning
"limited to the matter itself" and consequently the implication of limitation, emphasis
evolved.

何事も辺土は賤しく、かたくななれども、天王寺の舞楽のみ、都に恥ぢず
Nanigoto mo hendo wa iyashiku, katakuna naredomo, Tennōji no bugaku
nomi, Miyako ni hajizu (Tsurezuregusa, 220)
Although everything in the remote regions is vulgar and stale, only the court
dance and music at Tenno Temple would not shame the Capital.

御心をのみ惑はして去りなむことの、悲しく耐へがたく侍るなり
Mikokoro o nomi madowashite sari namu koto no, kanashiku taegataku
haberu nari (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
Leaving you causing so much worries to your heart, is a grief almost too much
to bear.

g. bakari ばかり
The adverbial particle bakari connects to various parts of speech, including taigen,
taigen-like words, fukushi, RTK and SSK forms, and specific particles. As can still be
seen in the first use, bakari traces back to hakari, the RYK of the verb hakaru計る 量
/
る ("to measure, to gauge"). The limitative implication of bakari only emerged during
the Heian period, and has much in common with nomi, which however implies a
much stricter limitation.

▪ Indicating an extent/degree/intensity:

髪、丈に三尺ばかり余りて
Kami, take ni sanjaku bakari amarite (Ochikubo monogatari, 1)
Her hair was about three feet longer than her height.

望月の明かさを十合はせたるばかりにて、在る人の毛の穴さへ見ゆるほどな
り
Mochizuki no sayakasa o tō awasetaru bakari nite, aru hito no kenoana sae
miyuru hodo nari (Taketori monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
It was almost as bright as ten full moons combined, so bright that one could
see even the pores of a man's skin.

まことに、かばかりのは見えざりつ
Makoto ni, ka bakari no wa miezaritsu (Makura no sōshi, "Chūnagon
mairitamaite")

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Really, I have never seen anything like that before.

人の亡きあとばかり悲しきはなし
Hito no naki ato bakari kanashiki wa nashi (Tsurezuregusa, 30)
There is nothing as sad as the period following someone's death.

▪ Indicating a limitation:

頼みたる方のことは違ひて、思ひよらぬ道ばかりはかなひぬ
Tanomitaru kata no koto wa tagaite, omoi yoranu michi bakari wa kanainu
(Tsurezuregusa, 189)
The things you rather expected fall short, and only the ways you didn't
anticipate are fulfilled.

月影ばかりぞ、八重葎にも障らずさし入りたる
Tsukikage bakari zo, yaemugura nimo sawarazu sashiiritaru (Genji
monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
Only the moonlight shines without hindrance on the luxuriant growth of wild
grass.

Note: The combination of the fukushi ka かand bakari is in its entirety often
construed as a fukushi. Particularly in Nara texts, moreover, bakari is often attached
か さ
to deictic fukushi, including ka , sa , and kaku かく, and examples can further be
pointed out in which it occurs after the fukushi yume ゆめ
and tsuyu つゆ , which
express a degree or intensity.

h. made まで
Much like bakari, the particle made is connected to a variety of parts of speech,
including taigen, RTK forms, fukushi, and joshi. The following functions apply to
made:

▪ Indicating a spatio-temporal limitation:

夜ふくるまで酒飲み、物語して
Yo fukuru made sake nomi, monogatari shite (Ise monogatari, 82)
While we were drinking sake and recounting stories till late at night...

▪ Indicating an ultimate degree; used as a reinforcement:

かの友だち、これを見て、いとあはれと思ひて、夜の物まで贈りて
Ka no tomodachi, kore o mite, ito aware to omoite, yoru no mono made
okurite (Ise monogatari, 16)
His friend saw this, felt great pity, and gave him gifts, even including
nightwear.

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あやしの法師ばらまで喜びあへり
Ayashi no hōshibara made yorokobi aeri (Genji monogatari, "Sakaki")
They all rejoiced, down to the most humble Buddhist priest.

ほめののしりける声、かしがましきまでなむ聞こえける
Homenonoshirikeru koe, kashigamashiki made namu kikoekeru (Ujishūi
monogatari, 7:6)
You could hear exuberantly cheering voices, almost deafeningly loud.
Note: This example illustrates that attachment to an RTK expressing degree/limitation is
possible.

▪ Indicating concession in the construction made mo までも and followed by a

negation:

折よくは見に来ぬまでも我が宿の桜咲きぬと告げましものを
Oriyoku wa mi ni konu mademo wagayado no sakura sakinu to tsugemashi
monoo (Izumishikibushū)
Had you not come and had a look at the right moment, I would have let you
know that the cherry trees were blossoming in my garden.

i. nado/nando など/なんど
This fukujoshi is put after taigen, RYK and RTK forms, and may also follow
quotations. Nado's origin goes back to the combination of the question word nani 何
と
and the kakujoshi to :

これかれ、酒なにと持て追ひ来て
Korekare, sake nanito moteoikite (Tosa nikki, 27.12)
All sorts of people ran after each other bringing sake and such things.

Gradually, the compound eroded and, through the intermediate form nando , なんど
it ultimately consolidated as nado. Since the case particle to was factually already
integrated in the particle, it was not usual to add an extra to と
after nado until the
Heian period. In contrast to the setsubigo domo ども
, the particle nado does not
necessarily make a noun plural.

女どもなどを具して、食物などせさせて
Onnadomo nado o gushite, shokumotsu nado sesasete (Konjaku
monogatarishū, 29:36)
Accompanying the ladies and others, we offered them a meal, and so on.

▪ Indicating the redundancy of any further enumeration of examples:

親しき女房、御乳母などをつかはしつつ、ありさまを聞こしめす
Shitashiki nyōbō, o­menoto nado o tsukawashitsutsu, arisama o kikoshimesu
(Genji monogatari, "Kiritsubo")
He despatched his trusted court ladies, including his wet nurse among others,
to inquire after the situation.
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▪ Indicating a paraphrase:

「様もよき人におはす」など言ひゐたり
"Sama mo yoki hito ni owasu" nado ii itari (Taketori monogatari, "Hōrai no
tama no eda")
"Moreover it is someone making a good impression," he said and took a seat.

▪ Indicating a vague reference:

いと寒きに、火など急ぎ起こして、炭持て渡るも、いとつきづきし
Ito samuki ni, hi nado isogi okoshite, sumi motewataru mo, ito tsukizuki shi
(Makura no sōshi, "Haru wa akebono")
How appropriate it is to quickly light the fires and bring over the charcoal,
when it is very cold.

▪ Indicating emphasis, especially used in combination with negative, pejorative, or

deprecatory expressions:

かくのごとくの優婆夷などの身にて、比丘を堀へ蹴入れさする、未曽有の悪
行なり
Kaku no gotoku no ubai nado no mi nite, biku o hori e keiresasuru, mizō no
akugyō nari (Tsurezuregusa,106)
For such a person as an upāsikā [= Buddhist lay-sister] to kick a bhikkhu [=
Buddhist priest] into the ditch is an unprecedented wickedness!

j. shi し
This particle follows shugo or ren'yōshūshokugo, and primarily fulfils an emphatic
role. As is illustrated by the first example, shi appears within Nara texts in sentences
ending in the SSK, but in the Heian periode, it could only be used in conditional
constructions such as … shi … ba, or it evolved due to attachment of a kakarijoshi into
a compound particle, such as shimo しも しぞ
, shizo しこそ
, and shikoso .

大和は国のまほろば畳なづく青垣山隠れる大和しうるはし
Yamato wa kuni no mahoroba tatanazuku aokaki yamagomoreru Yamato
shi uruwashi (Kojiki, "Chū", Keikō 景行)
Yamato is the most blissful land of all provinces; how lovely Yamato is,
surrounded by mountains layered with green hedges!

取り立ててはかばかしき後見しなければ
Toritatete hakabakashiki ushiromi shi nakereba (Genji monogatari,
"Kiritsubo")
Since she didn't have a decent guardian in particular...

k. shimo しも
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This adverbial particle originated from the combination of shi (fukujoshi) plus mo
(kakarijoshi), and follows shugo or ren'yōshūshokugo.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

今日しも端におはしましけるかな
Kyō shimo hashi ni owashimashikeru kana (Genji monogatari,
"Wakamurasaki")
And today of all days you are seated on the veranda?

▪ Indicating a partial negation

この人、国に必ずしも言ひ使ふ者にもあらざなり
Kono hito, kuni ni kanarazushimo iitsukau mono ni mo arazanari (Tosa
nikki, 23.12)
This person doesn't seem to be someone one would necessarily like to engage
for the province.

みな人、物侘びしくて、京に思ふ人なきにしもあらず
Mina hito, monowabishikute, Miyako ni omou hito naki ni shimo arazu (Ise
monogatari, 9)
They all felt lonely, and not because there was no-one in the Capital thinking of
them.

▪ Indicating concession, preceded by the RTK or the RTK plus ni:

ことさらに、田舎びもてなし給へるしも、いみじう見るに笑まれて清らなり
Kotosarani, inakabi motenashi tamaeru shimo, imijū miru ni emarete kiyora
nari (Genji monogatari, "Suma")
He deliberately made it so rustic that seeing its appeal made you smile heartily.

l. gana がな
This joshi occurs in the middle of phrases expressing surmise, doubt, or intention,
and is put after taigen, question words, the combination taigen plus kakujoshi, the
RYK or the setsuzokujoshi te. This particle was presumably directly derived from the
final particle gana がな . Evidence of comma intonation after the particle (that is, the
use of this particle as a caesura marker) or the implication of desideration that still
lingers on in this particle, somewhat betray the existence of a link between both
particles.

▪ Identifying the word with which it is connected as an example:

愚僧も、ただいまひとりごとに、似合はしい連れがなほしいと申してござる
Gusō mo, tadaima hitorigoto ni, niawashii tsure gana hoshii to mōshite
gozaru (Shūron 宗論)

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Priest as I am, I just said to myself how I wished for some suitable company.

▪ Indicating indefiniteness (in combination with question words):

何がな取らせんと思へども、取らすべきものなし
Nani gana torasen to omoedomo, torasu beki mono nashi (Ujishūi
monogatari, 9:3)
I considered giving some sort of thing, but there was nothing I could give.

m. gatera がてら
Attachment occurs after taigen indicating a certain activity. The particle (and its
variant gaterani がてらに ) suggests that an action involves an additional act or
ulterior motive. In Nara texts, the same role was fulfilled by gateri がてり
(etymologically derived from the combination kate, the RYK of katsu 糅つ
["to mix"]
and ari あり ).

三条の宮に、御とぶらひがてら渡り給ふ
Sanjō no miya ni, otoburaigatera wataritamau (Genji monogatari, "Miyuki")
Ostensibly to make a courtesy call, he went over to Sanjō Palace.

2.2.5. Final particles: shūjoshi 終助詞

This category of particles indicate the end of a sentence, and may add supplemental
information (command, question, irony, desire, prohibition, exclamation) or mark
emphasis. The subset of Old Japanese final particles is limited to the following joshi:
なも な ね
namo しか も もが がね
, na , ne , shika , mo , moga , gane , kamo かも, koso
こそ てしか てしが
, and teshika/teshiga / . Less ancient shūjoshi include baya ばや ,
なむ
namu がな しが
, ganaしがな もがな
, shiga , shigana , mogana な そ
, na , so , ka
か かな
, kanaかし は ぞ てしがな
, kashi , wa , zo , teshigana , and nishigana にしがな .
Special reference is made to the particle na, which may concern three different joshi,
including one Old Japanese instance.

a. namo なも
This particle can be considered as a precursor of namu なむ
. Namo is preceded by a
MZK, and the entire phrase communicates a desire uttered by the speaker.

三輪山をしかも隠すか雲だにも情あらなも隠さふべしや
Miwayama o shikamo kakusu ka kumo dani mo kokoro aranamo
kakusōbeshi ya (Man'yōshū, 1:18)
Why hiding Mount Miwa like that? I wish at least the clouds were sensible. Do
they really need to keep hiding it?
Note: kakusa 隠さ is a MZK form; fu ふ expresses continuity.

b. na な

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The MZK-based particle na has the following uses:

▪ Indicating first-person desire/intention:

帰るさに妹に見せむにわたつみの沖つ白玉拾ひて行かな
Kaerusani imo ni misemu ni, watatsumi no oki tsu shiratama hiriite yukana
(Man'yōshū, 15:3614)
On my way home, I want to gather pearls in the offing, to show them to my
wife.

家聞かな名告らさね
Ie kikana na norasane! (Man'yōshū, 1:1)
I want to know your family, tell me your name.

▪ Indicating an exhortation/invitation, addressed to the speaker's in-group:

熟田津に船乗りせむと月待てば潮も適ひぬ今は漕ぎ出でな
Nigitatsu ni funanori semu to tsuki mateba shio mo kanainu ima wa kogiide
na (Man'yōshū, 1:8)
At Nigitatsu, we abided the moon eager to leave, let us row out now, as the tide
is favourable!

▪ Indicating a request/desire addressed to a third person:

この御足跡八万光を放ち出だし諸々救ひ渡し給はな救ひ給はな
Kono miato yayorozu hikari o hanachiidashi moromoro
sukuiwatashitamawa na sukuitamawa na (Bussokuseki no uta 仏足石歌 , 4)
This footprint emits infinite light, save and deliver all creatures; save us!

c. ne ね
Just as the particle na, with which it is often combined, ne is attached to the MZK. It
そ
is also sometimes preceded by the sentence-final prohibitive particle so . Using ne,
a speaker expresses the wish that someone does something for him, or, in the case of
the prohibitive particle, refrains from doing something.

この丘に菜摘ます児家聞かな名告らさね
Kono oka ni na tsumasu ko ie kikana na norasane (Man'yōshū, 1:1)
Lass picking greens on this hill, I want to know your family, tell me your name.

高円の野辺の秋萩な散りそね君が形見に見つつ偲はむ
Takamato no nobe no akihagi na chiri so ne kimi ga katami ni mitsutsu
shinowamu (Man'yōshū, 2:233)
Autumn bush clover near the fields of Takamato, please don't scatter.
Beholding you as my Lord's memento, I want to remember him.

小松が下の草を刈らさね
Komatsu ga shita no kaya o karasane (Man'yōshū, 1:11)

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I want you to cut the grass beneath the little pine.

Note: kara 刈らis the MZK of karu 刈る; sa さ is the MZK of su す.
d. shika しか
This archaic particle, which follows the RYK of verbs and jodōshi including tsu and
nu, expresses an infeasible or impossible individual desire.

まそ鏡見しかと思ふ妹も逢はぬかも玉の緒の絶えたる恋の繁きこのころ
Maso kagami mishika to omou imo mo awanu kamo tama no o no taetaru koi
no shigeki konokoro (Man'yōshū, 11:2366)
Doesn't she want to see me, the girl I long for, thinking, "If only I could see
her"? Just now that my interrupted love ardently resurges.
Note: Maso kagami まそ鏡 is the makurakotoba or epithet modifying miru 見る; tae 絶
え, the RYK of 絶ゆ
is also connected to a makurakotoba: tama no o 玉の緒 .

Note: Shika has its origin in the RTK of the jodōshi ki き

combined with the joshi ka
which articulates a desire. Shika often subtly, and especially in the construction
teshika てしか , hints at the unfeasibility of the desire. That phrase can be extended by
adding the joshi mo, producing teshikamo てしかも . The Heian-period variant shiga
しが , incidentally, is the outcome of a process of vocalization.

e. mo も
This Old Japanese particle is attached to the SSK or the MRK. If kakarimusubi is
involved, it can also be connected to the RTK or IZK. The particle lays emphasis on an
exclamation or emotion, and is often supplemented in Nara texts by other particles,
such as ka, zo, ha, and ya, having kamo かも
, zomo ぞも
, hamo はも
, and yamo やも
as a result. In Heian literature, the particle had already completely vanished in favour
な
of the final particle na .

春の野に霞たなびきうら悲しこの夕影に鶯鳴くも
Haru no no ni kasumi tanabiki ura kanashi kono yūkage ni uguisu naku mo
(Man'yōshū, 19:4290)
A haze hangs over the spring fields, how wistful… And there! A bush warbler
sings in the light of the evening sun.
Note: naku 鳴く represents a SSK.
ひさかたの天の香具山このゆふべ霞たなびく春たつらしも
Hisakata no ama no Kaguyama kono yūbe kasumi tanabiku haru tatsurashi
mo (Man'yōshū, 10:1812)
A mist lies over celestial Kaguyama this evening. Spring seems to be in the air.

f. moga もが
This Nara joshi is attached to taigen, the RYK of keiyōshi and of the copula nari,
adverbs, and joshi. It expresses lamentation, an unrealistic wish, or frustrated desire
against the backdrop of an unwelcome state or situation.

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都辺に行かむ船もが刈り菰の乱れて思ふこと告げやらむ
Miyakohe ni yukamu fune moga kari komo no midarete omou koto
tsugeyaramu (Man'yōshū, 15:3640)
If only there were ships bound for the capital, then I could impart my feelings
confused as I am.

あしひきの山はなくもが月見れば同じき里を心隔てつ
Ashihiki no yama wa naku moga tsuki mireba onajiki sato o kokoro hedatetsu
(Man'yōshū, 18:4076)
If only that mountain wasn't there, then we could enjoy the moon in the same
village, but now it separates our hearts.

君が行く道の長手を繰りたたね焼き滅ぼさむ天の火もがも
Kimi ga yuku michi no nagate o kuritatane yakihorobosamu ame no hi
mogamo (Man'yōshū, 15:3724)
If only there was a heavenly fire, furling, burning, and destroying the long way
you walked.

Note: The origin of the particle presumably goes back to the combination of the case
particles mo も か
and ka . In the oldest documentation, the construction mogamo も
がも , which combines moga with the final particle mo, was still widely used, and from
the Heian period, the variants mogana もがな or gana がな were used as
substitutions.

心あらん友もがな、と都恋しう覚ゆれ
Kokoro aran tomo mogana, to miyako koishū oboyure (Tsurezuregusa, 137)
If only my considerate friend was here, I thought, and then I longed for the
capital.

g. gane がね
For connecting this particle, an RTK base is used. Gane expresses that an expectation
is going to be fulfilled.

梅の花我は散らさじあをによし奈良なる人も来つつ見るがね
Umenohana ware wa chirasaji aoniyoshi Nara naru hito mo kitsutsu miru
gane (Man'yōshū, 10:1906)
I don't want the plum blossoms to scatter away, because I foresee that even
people from Nara are on their way.

h. kamo かも
The Nara final particle kamo emerged from the combination of the shūjoshi ka and
the kakarijoshi mo. It is attached to taigen, or to the RTK. Sometimes, as is
illustrated by the third example sentence, the IZK may function as a base. The particle
kamo covers the following distinctive uses:

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▪ Interrogative particle (often rhetorical or exclamatory):

梅の花しだり柳に折りまじへ花に供へば君に逢はむかも
Ume no hana shidariyanagi ni orimajie hana ni sonaeba kimi ni awamu
kamo (Man'yōshū, 10:1904)
If I made a floral offering of plum blossoms interwoven with weeping willow,
would I be able to meet you?

わが園に梅の花散る。ひさかたの天より雪の流れくるかも
Waga sono ni ume no hana chiru. Hisakata no ame yori yuki no nagare kuru
kamo (Man'yōshū, 5:822)
Plum blossoms are scattering in my garden. Is it a drift a snow hailing from the
heavens?

▪ Indicating emotion/exclamation:

み吉野の象山の際の木末にはここだも騒く鳥の声かも
Miyoshino no Kisayama no ma no konure ni wa kokodamo sawaku tori no
koe kamo (Man'yōshū, 6:924)
How ebulliently boisterous, that twittering by birds in the treetops of Kisayama
Valley in fair Yoshino!

Note: In some cases, it is not possible to draw a distinct line between both previous
uses. See, for example, the next sentence in which, even given the contextual details,
both an exclamatory and interrogative sense can be read.

天の原ふりさけ見れば春日なる三笠の山に出でし月かも
Amanohara furisakemireba Kasuga naru Mikasa no yama ni ideshi tsuki
kamo (Kokinwakashū, "Kiryo" 羇旅, 406)
Peering into the distance of the firmament, is it the moon which just appeared
past Mount Mikasa in Kasuga?

Both the shūjoshi kamo and the kakarijoshi kamo belong to the Nara vocabulary, and
were only used sparingly during the Heian era, almost exclusively in tanka. In time,
they would definitively be superseded by kana かな
.

▪ Indicating a rhetorical question, preceded by me め, the IZK of the jodōshi mu む, or

in the construction monokamo ものかも ["is it perhaps the fact that"]:

古を仰ぎて、今を恋ひざらめかも
Inishie o aogite, ima o koizarame kamo (Kokinwakashū, "Kanajo" 仮名序)
Does one in respecting the past, unlove the present?

Note: The particle's appearance in a younger text, the introduction to the Kokinshū,
has much to do with the nature of this text, which is larded with tanka-style and
pseudo-classical expressions (gikobun 擬古文 ).

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▪ Indicating a lamentation/request having exclamatory overtones (preceded by nu ぬ,

ず
the RTK of the negation particle zu ):

ぬばたまの夜渡る月は早も出でぬかも海原の八十島の上ゆ妹があたり見む
Nubatama no yo wataru tsuki wa haya mo idenu kamo unabara no
yasoshima no ue yu imo ga atari mimu (Man'yōshū, 15:3651)
If only the moon, passing by the dark night, appeared at once! Across the
countless islets in the ocean, I want to see the place where my wife is dwelling.

i. koso こそ
The Nara final particle koso こそ , which some grammarians read as a variant MRK of
こす
the jodōshi kosu , expresses a wish. The particle is attached to the RYK.

現には逢ふよしもなしぬばたまの夜の夢にを継ぎて見えこそ
Utsutsu ni wa au yoshi mo nashi nubatama no yoru no ime ni o tsugite
miekoso (Man'yōshū, 5:807)
I do not expect to meet you in reality. So do keep appearing in my nocturnal
dreams!

j. baya ばや
Originated as a compound of the setsuzokujoshi ba (connected to the MZK) and the
kantōjoshi ya, this particle follows the MZK of dōshi and jodōshi.

▪ Indicating desire:

かの人に問はばや
Kano hito ni towabaya
I'd like to ask the person over there.

ほととぎすの声尋ねに行かばや
Hototogisu no koe tazune ni ikabaya (Makura no sōshi, "Satsuki no misōji no
五月の御精進のほど
hodo" )
I want to go in search of the little cuckoo's song.

世の中に物語といふもののあんなるを、いかで見ばやと思ひつつ
Yononaka ni monogatari to iu mono no annaru o, ikade mibaya to
omoitsutsu (Sarashina nikki, "Kadode")
In this world, things called "tales" do exist. How I wish I could read them,
somehow or other.

五月来ば鳴きも旧りなん郭公まだしき程の声を聞かばや
Satsuki koba naki mo furinan hototogisu madashiki hodo no koe o kikabaya
(Kokinwakashū, 138)
By the fifth month, your song will be an old tune, little cuckoo. I want to hear
your song before your prime!

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▪ Indicating lamentation (preceded by rahen verbs such as ari and haberi):

一つあらばやと思ふ
Hitotsu arabaya to omou
I wish there was one available.

「今様一つあらばや」と仰せければ
"Imayō hitotsu arabaya" to ōsekereba (Heike monogatari, 6, "Shiwagaregoe"
嗄声)
Having said, "If only there was a ballad"

▪ Indicating volition:

あれを見れば、舟が出で候ふ。急ぎ乗らばやと存じ候ふ
Are o mireba, fune ga idesaburau. Isoginorabaya to zonjisaburau
(Sumidagawa 隅田川)
Gazing in the distance, I noticed that the boats were sailing out. I wanted to
embark in a hurry.

高砂の浦をも一見せばやと存じ候
Takasago no ura o mo ikken sebaya to zonjisōrau (Zeami, Takasago)
I wanted to have a look at Takasago Beach!

Note: This use, the function of which is comparable to mu む, is first recorded in

medieval literature.

▪ Indicating a firm negation:

客人を留め参らすとも、参らすべき物もあらばや
Marebito o todomemairasu tomo, mairasubeki mono mo arabaya (Oritaku
折焚く柴の記
Shiba no Ki , Jō)
Even if we lodge our guests, there is nothing we can offer at all.

Note: This use as firm negation, and particularly the phrase arabaya あらばや,
started in the Muromachi period. Uses 2 and 3 too are derivative functions, making
baya's primary meaning limited to the first use: indicating a desire. To avoid
confusion, baya can also refer to the compound of the setuszokujoshi ba ばand
や
kakarijoshi ya , a combination which is attached to the MZK and indicates a
conditional question (or when following an IZK: a firm condition).

k. namu なむ
This particle takes the MZK as its base, and co-occurs with a number of spelling
alternatives, namely namo なもin Nara texts and nan なん in subsequent literature.
Namu has an optative meaning, articulating a wish or desire addressed to second or
third persons.

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雪降らなむと思ふ
Yuki furanamu to omou
I wish it would snow.

いつしか梅咲かなむ
Itsushika ume sakanamu (Sarashina nikki, "Ume no tachie" 梅の立枝)
May the plum blossoms bloom soon!

惟光、とく参らなん
Koremitsu, toku mairanan! (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
If only Koremitsu would come rapidly!

今年より春知りそむる桜花散るといふことはならはざらなむ
Kotoshi yori haru shirisomuru sakurabana chiru to iu koto wa
narawazaranamu (Kokinwakashū, 49)
Cherry blossoms who have just begun to understand spring this year, may you
never learn the concept of scattering!

l. gana がな
The particle is attached to taigen or to the combination of a taigen and the kakujoshi
を
o . As for its origin, gana goes back to mogamo もがも , which is compounded of
the Nara final particle moga もが も
, supplemented with the final particle mo . During
the Heian period, this compound corrupted into mogana もがな , which was readily
interpreted as mo­gana. Semantically related particles include teshigana てしがな
and nishigana にしがな .

▪ Indicating a wish/desire:

「かの君だちをがな。つれづれなる遊びがたきに」など、うち思しけり
"Kano kimidachi o gana. Tsurezure naru asobigataki ni," nado, uchi
oboshikeri (Genji monogatari, "Hashihime")
"If only those princesses were here! As companions in play when I'm bored,"
he let slip suddenly.

▪ Indicating a wish phrased as an imperative (attached to the MRK):

橋へ廻れば人が知る湊の川の潮が引けがな
Hashi e mawareba hito ga shiru minato no kawa no shio ga hikegana
(Kanginshū 閑吟集)
If you take a detour to the bridge, people will find out; if only the tide near the
river mouth would recede!

Note: This combination of gana with an MRK only emerged during the Muromachi
era.

▪ Indicating emphasis or affirmation:

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有る所には有らうがな。世界は広し、二百匁などは、誰ぞ落としさうなもの
ぢゃ
Aru tokoro niwa arō gana. Sekai wa hiroshi, nihyaku monme nado wa, tare
zo otoshisō na mono ja (Chikamatsu, Onnagoroshiabura no jigoku 女殺油地
獄)
It [= the money] should be somewhere. And in this wide world, there should be
someone willing to give 200 monme [= about 750 g in silver] for it.

Note: This use of gana appeared no earlier than in the Edo literature. The particle is
often preceded by words indicating conjecture or doubt.

m. shiga しが
This shūjoshi, the vocalized counterpart of the Old Japanese shūjoshi shika , しか
て に
connects to verbal RYK, or to te and ni , the RYKs of the jodōshi tsu and nu つ ぬ
respectively. Shiga, which expresses the speaker's personal desire, is most frequently
represented in the following Heian-literature formations: teshiga てしが
, teshigana
てしがな にしが
, nishigaにしがな , and nishigana (see below).

思ふどち春の山辺にうち群れてそことも言はぬ旅寝してしが
Omoudochi haru no yamabe ni uchimurete soko tomo iwanu tabine shite
shiga (Kokinwakashū, "Haru ge", 126)
How I would like to gather with a few good friends near the spring mountains,
passing a night on the road without arranging any destination.
Note: See also the variant interpretation s.v. "x. teshika てしか" below.
n. shigana しがな
Developed out of the combination of the final particles shiga and na, the particle
shigana is connected to the RYK of dōshi, or to te て に
and ni , the RYK forms of the
jodōshi tsu つ and nu ぬrespectively. Similar to the previous particle, shigana
expresses a personal desire.

いかで、このかぐや姫を得てしがな、見てしがな
Ikade, kono Kaguya­hime o ete shigana, mite shigana (Taketori monogatari,
"Kikōshitachi no kyūkon")
At any rate, they wanted to win over this Princess Kaguya, and meet her.

o. mogana もがな
This joshi, which entered into use during the Heian period, consists of the final
particles moga and na. Taigen, keiyōshi, nari, the RYK of negation marker zu, and a
number of particles can be used as bases of attachment. The particle expresses a
desire or lamentation.

世の中にさらぬ別れのなくもがな千代もと祈る人の子のため
Yononaka ni saranu wakare no naku mogana chiyo mo to inoru hito no ko no
tame (Ise monogatari, 84)

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If only we were free in this world from the inevitable parting; for the benefit of
the children who pray that one may live for a thousand years.

男も女も、いかでとく京へもがなと思ふ心あれば
Otoko mo onna mo, ikade toku miyako e mogana to omou kokoro areba (Tosa
nikki, 11.1)
Since both the men and the women had the desire to return as swiftly as
possible to the capital.

み吉野の山のあなたに宿もがな
Miyoshino no yama no anata ni yado mogana (Kokinwakashū, "Zō ge")
If only I had a home at the other side of Mount Miyoshino.

p. na な
This particle is attached to the SSK, MRK forms and other final particles. It may
equally come after the kakujoshi to, which marks a quote.

▪ Indicating an exclamation:

花の色は移りにけりないたづらにわが身世にふるながめせし間に
Hana no iro wa utsurinikeri na itazura ni wagami yo ni furu nagameseshi
ma ni (Kokinwakashū, "Haru ge", 113)
The blossoms have discoloured, alas. While thinking, in staring at the long
rains, how I have spent my life in vain.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

かぐや姫に住み給ふとな
Kaguya­hime ni sumitamau to na (Taketori monogatari, "Hinezumi no
kawaginu")
They say that he cohabits with Princess Kaguya, don’t they?

憎しとこそ思ひたれな
Nikushi to koso omoitare na (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
You surely must dislike me.

q. na な
The SSK of (jo)dōshi is used as a base for this particle, except when rahen flexions are
concerned, in which case the RTK is put before na. It should be noted that certain
grammars classify this prohibitory particle under the category of kakarijoshi.

竜の首の玉取り得ずは、帰り来な
Tatsu no kubi no tama toriezu wa, kaeriku na (Taketori monogatari, "Tatsu
no kubi no tama")
Don't come back if you don't manage to get the dragon's head jewel.

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あやまちすな、心して降りよ
Ayamachi su na, kokoro shite ori yo (Tsurezuregusa, 109)
Do not hurt yourself! Come down carefully!

r. so そ
そ
The shūjoshi so connects to verbal RYK, and to the jodōshi su, sasu, shimu, ru, and
raru; in the case of kahen and sahen flexions, however, it follows the MZK.

▪ Indicating a prohibition (in fixed combination with the fukujoshi na: na … so な…

そ ):

なにか射る。な射そ。な射そ
Nanika iru. na i so. na i so (Ōkagami, "Michinaga", Jō)
Why the shooting? Don't shoot, don't shoot!

Note: During the period of the cloistered government (inseijidai 院政時代

, ca.
1087-1192), na な
was gradually omitted, and only the prohibitory particle so
remained:

今はかく馴れぬれば、何事なりとも隠しそ
Ima wa kaku narenureba, nanigoto naritomo kakushi so (Konjaku
monogatarishū, 29:28)
Now that we are so well acquainted you must hide nothing from me.

s. ka か
The final particle ka, which is believed to be derived of the homonymic kakarijoshi, is
attached to taigen or to RTK forms.

▪ Indicating an exclamation:

苦しくも降り来る雨か三輪の崎狭野の渡りに家もあらなくに
Kurushiku mo furikuru ame ka Miwa no saki Sano no watari ni ie mo
aranaku ni (Man'yōshū, 3:265)
Painfully enough, it is beginning to rain! And there is no shelter at Cape Miwa
or Sano transit.

▪ Indicating a desire/lamentation (always preceded by nu, negation marker zu's RTK)

我が命も常にあらぬか昔見し象の小川を行きて見むため
Wagainochi mo tsune ni aranu ka mukashi mishi kisa no ogawa o yukite
mimu tame (Man'yōshū, 3:332)
Is my life not everlasting? So that I could go and see the streamlet of Kisa
which I saw long ago.

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t. kana かな
The origin of this joshi is situated in the combination of final particle ka and the
exclamatory final particle na. Kana, which accompanies an emotional or exclamatory
utterance, is preceded by taigen or RTK forms.

「限りなく遠くも来にけるかな」とわびあへるに
"Kagirinaku tōku mo kinikeru kana" to wabiaeru ni (Ise monogatari, 9)
"How extremely distant a place we have come!," they lamented among
themselves.

Note: Since the Heian period, this particle gradually superseded its Nara equivalent
kamo. The vernacular character of this joshi is suggested by its frequent appearance
in dialogues, but additionally, it is also recurrently used in tanka.

u. kashi かし
This particle, which is sometimes classified in the kantōjoshi, firmly concludes a
whole sentence, or indicates, that a message is specifically directed to the
interlocutor(s). Morphologically, the particle is compounded of the kakarijoshi ka
and the fukujoshi shi, which have an exclamatory and emphatical function
respectively. As part of the vernacular register, kashi is often encountered in Heian
conversational (kaiwa 会話 ) style. The particle also featured in post-Heian literature,
in such constructions as zo + kashi or MRK forms + kashi.

▪ Indicating assertion (requesting the listener's consent, and therefore to be compared

ね よ なのだ
with the modern equivalents ne , yo or nanoda ):

翁のあらむ限りは、かうてもいますかりなむかし
Okina no aramu kagiri wa, kōtemo imasukari namu kashi (Taketori
monogatari, "Kikōshitachi no kyūkon")
As long as this old chap [= the speaker] is alive, you will without doubt
continue like this.

▪ Indicating self-confidence:

これは知りたることぞかし
Kore wa shiritaru koto zo kashi (Makura no sōshi, "Seiryōden no" 清涼殿の)
This is something I surely know by heart!

v. wa は
As a joshi indicating an emotion or exclamation, wa follows taigen, RTK forms, and
the final particle ya.

さるさがなきえびす心を見ては、いかがはせむは
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Saru saganaki ebisu kokoro o mite wa, ikaga wa semu wa (Ise monogatari,
15)
What shall I do now, considering such a nasty barbarous heart!

「年立ちかへる」など、をかしきことに、歌にも文にも作るなるは
"Toshi tachikaeru" nado, okashiki koto ni, uta ni mo fumi ni mo tsukuru naru
wa (Makura no sōshi, "Tori wa")
"Having the start of another year" is made into something elegant, both in
Japanese poems and Chinese odes.

w. zo ぞ
This particle concludes a taigen or RTK phrase, and adds emphasis to an utterance.
Especially in older Nara texts, this particle may appear in the form of the devoiced
variant so .そ
▪ Indicating assertion/ decisiveness:

うまし国ぞ秋津島大和国は
Umashikuni so; Akizushima Yamato no kuni wa (Man'yōshū, 1:2)
What a splendid country, this land of Yamato!
Note: Akizushima 秋津島 is the fixed makurakotoba preceding Yamato.
犬君がこれをこぼち侍りにければ、つくろひ侍るぞ
Inuki ga kore o kobochi haberinikereba, tsukuroi haberu zo (Genji
monogatari, "Momijinoga")
Since Inuki has broken it, I am mending it.

Note: This use shows correspondence with the jodōshi nari なり, which among many
other meanings may also imply decisiveness.

▪ Indicating an emphatic question (invariably in combination with a question word):

吾が仏、何事思ひ給ふぞ。思すらむこと、何事ぞ
A ga hotoke, nanigoto omoitamau zo. obosu ramu koto, nanigoto zo (Taketori
monogatari, "Kaguyahime no shōten")
My sweetheart, what are you thinking? What is it that you're musing on?

x. teshika てしか
The old Japanese final particle teshika てしか
is derived of the RYK of the jodōshi tsu,
supplemented with the final particle shika, which expresses a wish. In Heian
literature, the variant teshiga てしが
also occurs. Teshika is connected to the RYK of
dōshi and jodōshi, and indicates a wish or desire which is difficult to realize.

朝なさな上がるひばりになりてしか都に行きてはや帰り来む
Asanasana agaru hibari ni narite shika miyako ni yukite haya kaerikomu
(Man'yōshū, 20:4433)

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Every morning again, I want to become a lark mounting in the sky; having
come to the capital, I'd like to return home already.

思ふどち春の山辺にうち群れてそことも言はぬ旅寝してしが
Omoudochi haru no yamabe ni uchimurete soko tomo iwanu tabine shi
teshiga (Kokinwakashū, "Haru ge", 126)
How I would like to gather with a few good friends near the spring mountains,
passing a night on the road without arranging any destination.
Note: See also the variant interpretation under "m. shiga しが" above.
ほととぎす無かる国にも行きてしか その鳴く声を聞けば苦しも
Hototogisu nakaru kuni ni mo yukiteshika sono naku koe o kikeba kurushi mo
(Man'yōshū, 8:1467)
If only I could go to a province without cuckoos. How hard it is, every time I
hear his singing voice.

y. teshigana てしがな
This compound combines the final particles teshiga てしが and na な.
▪ Indicating a wish:

いかで、このかぐや姫を得てしがな、見てしがな
Ikade, kono Kaguya Hime o eteshigana, miteshigana (Taketori monogatari,
"Kikōshitachi no kyūkon")
Anyhow they wanted to fetch this Princess Kaguya and meet her.

z. nishiga にしが
This particle did not appear before the Heian period. It follows the RYK, and
expresses a wish or desire. Morphologically, it goes back to the combination of ni (the
ぬ
RYK of the jodōshi nu ), and the final particle shiga. Related particles include
nishigana, teshiga and teshigana.

伊勢の海に遊ぶ海人ともなりにしが波かき分けて海松藻潜かむ
Ise no umi ni asobu ama tomo narinishiga nami kakiwakete mirume
kazukamu (Gosenwakashū, "Koi", 5)
I want to become a diver enjoying himself in the sea of Ise, ploughing through
the waves, I want to dive for seaweed.

aa. nishigana にしがな

Coined in the Heian period, this particle combines nishiga (a desiderative final
particle) and na (an exclamatory final particle). It connects to the RYK, and expresses
a wish or desire.

いかで、鳥の声もせざらむ山に籠りにしがな
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Ikade, tori no koe mo sezaramu yama ni komori nishigana (Utsubo

monogatari, "Toshikage" 俊蔭
)
I would so love to seclude myself in the mountains where not even a bird's
voice is heard.

2.2.6. Exclamatory particles: kantōjoshi 間投助詞

This category comprises particles which may occur after any part of speech, and
which often mark a caesura, or assume the character of an exclamation, order, claim,
ゑ
wish, etc. This group of particles include the Nara joshi e , as well as the particles ya
や よ を な
, yo , o , na , and kashi かし . Exclamatory particles conclude a well-rounded
phrase, but they are usually to be found at the end of a period. Accordingly, they may
on the whole be considered as a subset of the shūjoshi (final particles).

a. e ゑ
This Nara particle is put after SSK forms, adverbs, and interjections (kandōshi), and
expresses emotion or awe. Remnants of this particle can be seen in such
縦え
constructions as yoshie 縦えやし and yoshieyashi .

山の端にあぢ群騒き行くなれど我は寂しゑ君にしあらねば
Yamanoha ni aji mura sawakiyuku naredo ware wa sabushi e kimi nishi
araneba (Man'yōshū, 4:486)
On the brow of hill, there's a clamorous flock of teals, about to fly up, but still, I
feel lonely, for you aren't there.

b. ya や
Diverse words in the middle or at the end of a sentence can precede this particle.

▪ Indicating emotion or exclamation:

げに面白き春の気色や
Geni omoshiroki haru no keshiki ya
It is really a fine spring scenery!

あはれ、いと寒しや
Aware, ito samushi ya (Genji monogatari, "Yūgao")
My goodness, how cold it is!

Note: In tanka, ya is usually preceded by an attributive modification (rentai

shūshokugo 連体修飾語 ), and adds a subtle emotion, or modulates the intonation.

ほととぎす鳴くや五月のあやめ草あやめも知らぬ恋もするかな
Hototogisu naku ya satsuki no ayamegusa ayame mo shiranu koi mo suru
kana (Kokinwakashū, "Koi 1", 469)

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What tender feelings I have, which I'm unable to figure out, like irises in the
fifth month, when the little cuckoo sings!

In linked verses (renga 連歌 ) or haiku, ya rather conveys a caesura, and generates

allusion. It can be read as what is called a cut-off word (kireji切れ字).

夏草や兵どもが夢の跡
Natsukusa ya tsuwamonodomo ga yume no ato (Oku no hosomichi,
"Hiraizumi")
Summer grass is all that remains of the dreams of the warriors.

この道や行く人なしに秋の暮れ
Kono michi ya yuku hito nashi ni aki no kure (Bashō)
On this thoroughfare, nobody is passing by, at this close of fall.

▪ Indicating a call (thus following a personal name or a word referring to a person):

あが君や。いづ方にかおはしましぬる。帰り給へ
Agakimi ya. Izukata ni ka owashimashinuru. Kaeritamae (Genji monogatari,
"Kagerō")
Milady, where are you? Please come back.

c. yo よ
Several words can be used as a base for this particle. Yo can both come in the middle
and at the end of a sentence, without implying any semantic difference.

▪ Indicating emotion/exclamation:

人の言ふらむことをまねぶらむよ
Hito no iu ramu koto o manebu ramu yo (Makura no sōshi, "Tori wa")
He [= the parrot] would imitate what people said.

「人には木の端のやうに思はるるよ」と清少納言が書けるも
"Hito ni wa ki no hashi no yō ni omowaruru yo" to Sei Shōnagon ga kakeru
mo (Tsurezuregusa, 1)
Sei Shōnagon would even write: "People regard them as if they were worthless
fellows." [literally 'chips of wood']

▪ Indicating an articulate call (often following an MRK form) or vocative marker:

今、秋風吹かむ折ぞ来むとする。待てよ
Ima, akikaze fukamu ori zo komu to suru. Mate yo (Makura no sōshi, "Mushi
wa")
Since the autumn wind is blowing at this moment, I will try to come. Do wait
for me.

あひ思せよ。いと心憂くつらき人の御さま、見ならひ給ふなよ
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Ai oboseyo. Ito kokorouku tsuraki hito no misama, minaraitamau na yo

(Genji monogatari, "Agemaki")
"Remember me. And don't imitate her coldhearted and harsh ways!"

少納言よ、香炉峰の雪、いかならむ
Shōnagon yo, Kōrohō no yuki, ika naramu (Makura no sōshi, 299)
Tell me, Shōnagon, how is the snow on Incense-Burner Peak?

Note: If yo follows an MRK, this particle can be mistaken for the ending morpheme
yo which is part of the MRK form. This ending, however, only occurs in the MRKs of
ichidan, nidan, or sahen verbs, and is unrelated to the present exclamatory particle.
Still, a common prototypical form yo is believed to underlie both homonymic words.
Incidentally, it is only following the Heian period that the kahen imperative is
来
supplemented with an ending. The original MRK of ku read "ko" . こ
▪ Indicating decisiveness or assertion:

「我こそ山だちよ」と言ひて
"Ware koso yamadachi yo" to iite (Tsurezuregusa, 87)
He said, "I am the robber!"

d. o を
This joshi too may occur in medial or sentence-final position, and conveys emotion or
を
exclamation. This particle can originally be traced back to the interjection o . This
in turn was at the origin of case particle o, and from the construction joining this
particle with the RTK, the conjunctive particle o finally emerged.

▪ Indicating emotion/exclamation:

つひに行く道とはかねて聞きしかど昨日今日とは思はざりしを
Tsui ni yuku michi towa kanete kikishikado kinō kyō towa omowazarishi o
(Ise monogatari, 125)
I had already heard about the road that one is eventually bound to go [=
death], but I never expected my time should come so soon as yesterday or now.

▪ Indicating emphasis:

いかでなほ少しひがごと見つけてをやまむ
Ikade nao sukoshi higagoto mitsukete o yamamu (Makura no sōshi,
"Seiryōden no")
I'll call it off, if you were to find a passage where I'm rather mistaken.

何事も心のどかにを思しなせ
Nanigoto mo kokoro nodokani o oboshinase (Genji monogatari, "Yadorigi")
Remember to stay calm in everything.

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e. na な
This exclamatory particle comes in the middle of a sentence or in final position, and
may convey emphasis or a subdued exclamation. Its use somewhere corresponds to
ね
the modern Japanese particle ne .

野べにてたびたび会ふよりはな、いざ給へ聖こそ
Nobe nite tabitabi au yori wa na, iza tamae hijiri koso (Ryōjinhishō 梁塵秘抄 ,
302)
Instead of meeting each other in the fields again, do come over to my house,
my holy one!

2.2.7. Coordinating particles: heiritsujoshi 並立助詞 / heiretsujoshi 並列助

詞
Hashimoto Shinkichi 橋本進吉 (1882-1945) applied this category to a range of
particles that connect words having equality of value. Individual particles may display
a certain variation of meaning, including coordination, accumulation, or alternation.

a. ya や
This Heian particle is attached to taigen and delimits parts of a series.

御修法や何やなど、わが御方にて、多く行はせ給ふ
Mizuhō ya nani ya nado, waga onkata nite, ōku okonawasetamau (Genji
monogatari, "Aoi")
In his residence, he ordered many services and other such things.

b. to と
This particle expresses a simple coordination.

彼は肉を犬と猫とに与えき
Kare wa niku o inu to neko to ni ataeki
He gave meat to the dog and the cat.

白き鳥の、嘴と脚と赤き、鴫の大きさなる
Shiroki tori no, hashi to ashi to akaki, shigi no ōkisa naru (Ise monogatari, 9)
A white bird with red beak and legs, having the size of a snipe.

同じ人ながらも、心ざしあるをりと、変はりたるをりは、まことに異人とぞ
覚ゆる
Onaji hito nagara mo, kokorozashi aru ori to, kawaritaru ori wa, makoto ni
kotohito to zo oboyuru (Makura no sōshi, "Tatoshienaki mono")
Although I am the same person, I really find myself a different person every
time I feel affection or when I'm giddy.

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c. ka か
Coordinating particle ka primarily occurs in the construction … ka …ka, and
expresses doubt. In other grammars, it is sometimes listed under the category of
kakarijoshi.

立つ波を雪か花かと吹く風ぞ寄せつつ人をはかるべらなる
Tatsu nami o yuki ka hana ka to fuku kaze zo yose tsutsu hito o hakaru
beranaru (Tosa nikki, 18.1)
The wind seems to deceive people, as it keeps blowing along snow or perhaps
blossoms over the choppy billows.

d. ni に
Although this joshi is sometimes integrated under setsuzokujoshi, this grammar
treats it as a particle articulating co-ordination between two entities.

竹に雀
Take ni suzume
sparrow and bamboo
Note: This refers to the name of a Japanese heraldic charge, used for family crests
(kamon 家紋 ).

ただ冷えに冷えいりて息は早く絶えはてにけり
Tada hie ni hieirite iki wa hayaku taehatenikeri
He got colder and colder, and his breath soon halted altogether.

ころは二月十八日の酉の剋ばかりのことなるに、をりふし北風激しくて、磯
打つ浪も高かりけり
Koro wa nigatsu jūhachinichi no tori no koku bakari no koto naru ni, orifushi
kitakaze hageshikute, iso utsu nami mo takakarikeri (Heike monogatari, 11,
Nasu no Yoichi)
It was the eighteenth day of the second month, about 6 in the evening. At
times, there was a fierce north wind, and the waves too were high as they beat
the beach.

2.2.8. Nominalizing particles: juntaijoshi 準体助詞

This category comprises those particles which fulfil a nominalizing function, that is
constitute a unity with the word they modify, creating an expression that in terms of
function can be considered a taigen. Typical examples are the Nara particle raku ら
く く
, and the Heian particle ku , which some authors classify as suffixes. Although
still frequently used in the most ancient literary texts, from the Heian era they were
retained only in a number of standard expressions, including iwaku /言はく 云はく
(saying: "..."), omowaku 思はく ("a thought; an opinion"), and negawaku 願はく
("I
pray; I hope").

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a. raku らく
This substantivizing particle is attached to the SSK of kaminidan, shimonidan,
つ ぬ
kahen, and sahen verbs, as well as to the SSK of the jodōshi tsu , nu , and shimu
しむ , and to the MZK of kami'ichidan verbs. There is often an emotional or
exclamatory shade of meaning involved.

潮満てば入りぬる磯の草なれや見らく少なく恋ふらくの多き
Shio miteba irinuru iso no kusa nare ya miraku sukunaku kouraku no ōki
(Man'yōshū, 7:1394)
I seldom see you, but very much long for you; it's not that you are seaweed on
the beach, submerged when the tide comes in.

思ひつつ眠も寝がてにと明かしつらくも長きこの夜を
Omoitsutsu i mo negateni to akashitsuraku mo nagaki kono yo o (Man'yōshū,
4:485)
Longing for you, I was not able to get to sleep, and spent a wakeful night. A
very long night that is.

Note: This particle should be distinguished from the peculiar construction in which
yodan IZKs are followed by -ra (i.e. the MZK of ri), supplemented with the particle
ku. Instances are omoeraku 思へらく and ieraku 言へらく .

b. ku く
The MZK of yodan or rahen verbs precede this particle. The entire expression then
can be considered as a taigen group.

梅の花散らまく惜しみ我が園の竹の林に鶯鳴くも
Ume no hana chiramaku oshimi wagasono no take no hayashi ni uguisu naku
mo (Man'yōshū, 5:824)
Lamenting the scattering of the plum blossoms, a bush warbler is singing, in
the bamboo thicket in my garden.

Note: Following the verbs iu 言ふ, omou 思ふ, and so forth, the particle can be used to
introduce direct speech.

建速須佐之男命に詔り給ひしく、『汝命は海原を知らせ』と事依さしき
Takehaya Susano'o no mikoto ni noritamaishiku "Imashi mikoto wa unabara
o shirase" to kotoyosashiki (Kojiki, Jō, "Izanagi no mikoto to Izanami no
mikoto")
Thus he commissioned Takehaya Susano'o no mikoto, saying, "Thou shalt rule
the seas."

When it comes at the far end of a sentence, it expresses, just like phrases ending in a
taigen (taigendome 体言止 ), an emotional suggestion, exclamation, or lamentation.

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草枕旅去にし君が帰り来む月日を知らむすべの知らなく
Kusamakura tabi inishi kimi ga kaerikomu tsukihi o shiramu sube no
shiranaku (Man'yōshū, 17:3937)
Trying to find out the date that you will be back from the journey you went on,
I don't know what to do.

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List of works consulted:

● Naomi Fukumori. "Sei Shōnagon's Makura no sōshi: A Re-visionary History."
The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 31:1 (Apr. 1997), pp.
1-44.
● Amy Vladeck Heinrich. "On Attempting the Impossible: Translating the
Kokinshū." The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 21:1 (April
1987), pp. 59-76.
● Donald Keene. The Manyōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai Translation
of One Thousand Poems. New York/Londen: Columbia University Press, 1969.
● Bruno Lewin. Abriss der japanischen Grammatik. 2e dr. Wiesbaden:
Harassowitz, 1975.
● Hisako Matsubara. Die Geschichte vom Bambussammler und dem Mädchen
Kaguya. Ebenhausen bei München: Langewiesche-Brandt, 1968.
● William N. Porter. The Miscellany of a Japanese Priest. Londen: Humphrey
Milford, 1914.
● Laurel Rasplica Rodd. Kokinshū: A Collection of Poems Ancient and Modern.
Boston, MA: Cheng & Tsui Company, 1996.
● Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2005.
● Mildred Tahara. "Yamato Monogatari." Monumenta Nipponica 27:1 (Spring
1972), pp. 1-37.
● Ikeda Takashi. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. Tokio:
The Tōhō Gakkai, 1975.

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