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10K viewsJntuk r23 Introduction To Programming
Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving
History of Computers, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory, program counter, Introduction to Programming Languages, Basics of a Computer Program- Algorithms, flowcharts (Using Dia Tool), pseudo code. Introduction to Compilation and Execution, Primitive Data Types, Variables, and Constants, Basic Input and Output, Operations, Type Conversion, and Casting.
Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, characteristic
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93% found this document useful (14 votes)
10K viewsJntuk r23 Introduction To Programming
Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving
History of Computers, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory, program counter, Introduction to Programming Languages, Basics of a Computer Program- Algorithms, flowcharts (Using Dia Tool), pseudo code. Introduction to Compilation and Execution, Primitive Data Types, Variables, and Constants, Basic Input and Output, Operations, Type Conversion, and Casting.
Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, characteristic
Uploaded by
uday TMCCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 42
INTRODUCTION
TO
PROGRAMMING
Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving
History of Computers, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output
units, memory, program counter, Introduction to Programming Languages,
Basics of a Computer Program- Algorithms, flowcharts (Using Dia Tool),
pseudo code. Introduction to Compilation and Execution, Primitive Data
‘Types, Variables, and Constants, Basic Input and Output, Operations, ‘Type
Conversion, and Casting.
Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, characteristics of
algorithm, Problem solving strategies: Top-down approach, Bottom-up
approach, Time and space complexities of algorithms
UNIT 2
Control Structures
Simple sequential programs Conditional Statements (if, if-else, switch),
Loops (for, while, do while) Break and Continue
UNIT 3
Arrays and Strings
Arrays indexing, memory model, programs with array of integers, two
dimensional arrays, Introduction to Strings.
UNIT 4
Pointers & User Defined Data types
Pointers, dereferencing and address operators, pointer and address
arithmetic, array manipulation using pointers, User-defined data types-
Structures and Unions.
UNIT 5
Functions & File Handling
Introduction to Functions, Function Declaration and Definition, Function
call Return Types and Arguments, modifying parameters inside functions
using pointers, arrays as parameters. Scope and Lifetime of Variables,
Basics of File Handling
SEaM/ Mc Uday Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving
1.1. History of Computers, fs)
1.2, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory,
program counter,
1.3. Introduction to Programming Languages,
1.4, Basics of Computer Program- Algorithms, Flowcharts (Using Dia.
Tool), pseudo code.
1.5. Introduction to Compilation and Execution,
1.6. Primitive Data Types,
1.7. Variables, and Constants,
1.8. Basic Input and Output, Operations,
1.9. Type Conversion, and Casting.
1.10, Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, Characteristics of
algorithm,
1.11, Problem solving strategies: Top-down approach, Bottom-up approach,
1,12. Time and space complexities of algorithms
SEaM/ Mc Uday What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic machine that
collects information, stores it, processes it ~
according to user instructions, and then —
returns the result.
A computer is a programmable electronic
device that performs arithmetic and logical
operations automatically using a set of
instructions provided by the user.
1.1.1, Early computing devices/
Evolution of a Computer:
People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before computers
were invented. Let us look at a few of the early-age computing devices
used by mankind.
© In order to simplify the process of counting, people in Asia
Minor built a counting device called abacus. This device
allowed users to do calculations using a system of sliding
beads arranged on a rack.
© With the passage of time, many computing devices such as Napier
bones and slide rule were invented.
© In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal
invented the first functional automatic
calculator.
This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline,
used eight movable dios to adds sums eight figures
long.
© In 1694, german mathematician Gottfried wilhem von Leibniz
extended pascal’s design to perform multiplication, division and to
find square root. This machine is known as Stepped Reckoner.
© The real beginnings of computers as we know
them today, however, lay with an English Charles Babbage
mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. Seen
In 1822, he proposed a machine to perform
differential equations, called a Difference
Engine.
(M/ tM Uday © In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy of developed ENIAC
(electronic numerical integrator and calculator)
© Thus computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make internal
parts of the computer
o Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC
(electronic discrete variable automatic computer. *)
©. It was the first electronic computer to use the stored program Ys
concept introduced by John von Neumann.
o In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed
EDSAC (electronic delay storage automatic calculator)
© This machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum
tubes for logic.
© The Eckert ~ mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal
automatic computer) in 1951 and its implementation marked the real
beginning of the computer era
1.1.2. Computer Generations :
1st Generation: Vacuum Tube (1940 - 1956)
o. First generation computer were vacuum
tubes/thermionic value based machines these computers
used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory.
o Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and
output was in the form of printouts.
o Example: ENIAC, EDVAC AND UNIVAC.
© Characteristics of 1st Generation of a computer:
* These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
+ These were the fastest computing devices of their time.
* These computers were very large, and required a lot of
space for installation.
* These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
24 Generation: Transistors (1959 - 1965)
© A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like
germanium and silicon. It usually had three leads and
performed electrical functions such as voltage, current
or power amplification with low power requirement.
© Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-
efficient and more reliable than their predecssors.
(M/ tM Uday 34 Generation: Integrated Circuits (1965 - 1971)
°
© Magnetic cores- were used as primary memory and magnetic
disks as secondary storage devices.
© Example: PDP -8 , IBM 1401 and IBM 7090
© Characteristics of 2° Generation of a computer:
* These machines were based on transistor technology
+. These were smaller as compared to the first generation
computers,
* These were more portable and generated less amount of
heat.
‘Second Generation
A= eo ~
Third Generation Fourth Generation Fifth Genera
‘The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third
generation computer.
Also called an ic, an integrated circuit consists of a
single chip with many components such as
transistors and resistors fabricated on i
Integrated circuit replaced several individually
wired transistors. This development made
Computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced
with operating system.
example : NCR 395 and B6500
Characteristics of 3" generation computer:
+ These computers were based on integrated circuit (ic)
technology.
+ They were able to reduce computational time from micro
seconds to nano seconds.
+ Extensive use of high — level language became possible
(M/ tM Uday 4* Generation: Microprocessors (1971 - 1980)
°
‘The technology of this generation was still based on the integrated
circuit, these have been made readily available to use because of the
development of the microprocessor.
‘The fourth generation computers led to an era of
large scale integration (LSI) and very large
scale integration (visi) technology. LSI
technology allowed thousands of transistors to
be constructed on one small slice of silicon
material whereas visi squeezed hundreds of
thousands of components
ULTRA - large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into
millions the fourth generation computer became more powerful
compact, reliable and affordable.
example: apple ii, attair 8800 and CRAY-1
Characteristics of 4th generation computer:
* Fourth generation computers are microprocessor based systems
+ These computers are very small
* Interconnection of computers leads to better communication
and resource sharing.
5t Generation: AI and ULSI (1980 - till date)
°
‘These computers have been utilized since 1980 and
continue to be used now. This is the present and the
future of the computer world
‘The defining aspect of this generation is artificial
intelligence. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of scope
for the future
Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology. These are the most recent and
sophisticated computers. C, C++, Java,.Net, and more
programming languages are used
Example: IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook,
Ultra book, and so on.
Characteristics of 5% Generation :
+ They used ULSI and Al Technology
+ Ituses advanced computing technologies
(M/ tM Uday According to Von Neumann, The basic organization of computer diagram
has the following units Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
Von Neumann architecture is based fs)
on the stored-program computer Cet cei
concept, where instruction data and erent
program data are stored in the same —————
memory. This design is ot Attest —
still used in most computers Reiter C= C= J}
produced today. E1tJCe)}
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
the electronic circuit responsible for executing the instructions of a
computer program.
It is sometimes referred to as the microprocessor or processor.
The CPU contains the ALU, CU and a variety of registers.
Registers
Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored
in a register before it can be processed.
Memory Address Holds the memory location of data that needs to
MAR <
Register be accessed
Holds data that is being transferred to or
MDR Memory Data Register io snemory
Where intermediate arithmetic and logic results
AC Accumulator
are stored
Contains the address of the next instruction to
PC Program Counter ee
Current Instruction Contains the current instruction during
Rn i
CIR Register processing
(M/ tM Uday Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract etc) and logic (AND, OR, NOT etc)
operations to be carried out.
Control Unit (CU)
()
The control unit controls the operation of the computer's ALU, memory and. 7
input/output devices, telling them how to respond to the program
instructions it has just read and interpreted from the memory unit.
The control unit also provides the timing and control signals required by
other computer components.
Buses
Buses are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another, connecting all major internal components to the CPU
and memory.
A standard CPU system bus is comprised of a control bus, data
bus and address bus.
Carries the addresses of data between the processor and
memory
Address Bus
Carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the
Data Bi
ata Bus | input/output devices
Carries control signals/commands from the CPU (and status
Control Bus __ signals from other devices) in order to control and coordinate all
the activities within the computer
Memory Unit
‘The memory unit consists of RAM, sometimes referred to as primary or main
memory. Unlike a hard drive (secondary memory), this memory is fast and
also directly accessible by the CPU.
RAM is split into partitions. Each partition consists of an address and its
contents (both in binary form)
The address will uniquely identify every location in the memory.
(M/ tM Uday Loading data from permanent memory (hard drive), into the faster and
directly accessible temporary memory (RAM), allows the CPU to operate
much quicker.
Input/output Devices
Program or data is read into main memory from the input device or -
secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output >)
devices are used to output information from a computer. If some results
are evaluated by the computer and it is stored in the computer, then
with the help of output devices, we can present them to the user.
Program:
The set of instructions are called a program. For Example, Programmers
create programs by writing code that instructs the computer what to do and
execute it on special software designed for it such as turbo C for executing
‘C’ Programs.
Programming:
We can say that the process of writing a program is called Programming.
A programming language is a set of rules that provides a way of telling a
computer what operations to perform
“A programming language is a notational system for describing computation in
@ machine - readable and human — readable form “
English is a natural language. It has words, symbols and grammatical rules
Similarly a programming language also has words, symbols and rules of
grammar. The grammatical rules are called SYNTAX.
First programming language is developed in 1950s. Since then thousands of
languages have been developed because different programming languages
are designed for different types of programs.
Why many programming languages?
Different programming languages are designed for different types of
applications
Levels of programming languages:
High level:
High-level language is a computer language which can be understood by the
users. The high-level language is very similar to human languages and has a
set of grammar rules that are used to make instructions more easily.
SEaM/ Mc Uday Computer Languages
Ceres) rege)
-
Use 1" 5&0" sto ‘Use mnemonics to Similar to 11)
create instructions create instructions human langugas _
Ex: Binary Language ‘Assembly Language COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC
6. C++, JAVA
Middle level:
instructions are created using symbols such as letters, digits and special
characters Assembly language is an example of middle-level language. In
assembly language, we use predefined words called mnemonics.
Low level:
Low-Level language is the only language which can be understood by the
computer. Low-level language is also known as Machine Language. The
machine language contains only two symbols 1 & 0.
mov sec ebx winclude
int maint) (
nee Sec printf CHello World";
(1000110111101 mov rax rdx return 0;)
Machine Assembly High-level
language language language
of a Cie
java
The principle paradigm:
Programming paradigms are different ways or styles in which a given
program or programming language can be organized.
Imperative programming ( Ex: C, Forton , Basic )
Procedure oriented programming ( Ex: C, Pacal )
Object oriented programming (Ex: Java, Python)
Logical programming( Ex: Prolog }
SEaM/ Mc Uday Traditional Programming languages:
FORTRAN:
— FORmula TRANslation
> Developed by IBM in mid 1950s
-> Designed for scientific and mathematical applications .
COBOL: S
+ COmmon Business Oriented Language
> Developed in 1959
—> Used to develop business applications
BASIC:
> Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
> Developed at Dartmouth college in mid 1960s
— Written by students to interact with terminals
C Programming languag
Cis a general purpose, simple and procedural programming language. It
was initially developed by Dennis Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT & T Bell
labs.
It was mainly developed as a system programming language to write an
operating system. UNIX is written in C
C was first designed by Dennis Ritchie for use
with UNIX on DEC PDP-11 computers. The
language evolved from Martin Richard's BCPL, Demis ce
and one of its earlier forms was the B language; —
first book on C was “The C Programming :
Language “by Brian Kernighan and Dennis ‘
Ritchie, published in 1978.
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a
committee to standardize the definition of C. The resulting standard is
known as ANSI C, and it is the recognized standard for the language,
grammar, and a core set of libraries
There is also an ISO (International Standards Organization) standard that
is very similar to the ANSI standard.
It appears that there will be yet another ANSI C standard officially dated
1999 or in the early 2000 years; it is currently known as "C9X."
SEaM/ Mc Uday Features of C:
Cis the widely used language. It provides many features that are given
below.
1
2.
2.
Simple
Machine Independent
or Portable
structured
programming
language
Memory Management
Fast Speed
Pointers
Recursion
Extensible
Simpl
Cis a simple language in the sense that it provides a structured
approach (to break the problem into parts), the rich set of library
functions, data types, etc.
Machine Independent or Portable
Unlike assembly language, c programs ean be executed on different
machines with some machine specific changes
. structured programming language
C is a structured programming language in the sense that we ean
break the program into parts using functions. So, it is easy to
understand and modify. Functions also provide code reusability.
|. Rich Library
C provides a lot of inbuilt functions that make the development
fast.
. Memory Management
It supports the feature ofdynamic memory allocation. In C
language, we can free the allocated memory at any time by calling
the free() function. Fast Speed
The compilation and execution time of C language is fast
7. Pointers
C provides the feature of pointers. We can directly interact with the
memory by using the pointers fia)
Recursion
In C, we ean call the function within the function. It provides code
rel
‘ability for every function
9. Extensible
C language is extensible because it can easily adopt new features.
A typical programming task can be divided into 2 phases
~» Problem solving phase:
Produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe solution of problem.
This sequence of steps is called algorithm.
~» Implementation phas
Implement the program in some programming language
1.4.1. Steps in Problem solving phase (Algorithm and pseudo code)
©. First produce a general algorithm (one can use pseudo code)
©. Refine the algorithm successively to get step by step detailed
algorithm that is very close to a computer language.
© Pseudo code is an artificial and informal language that helps
programmers develop algorithms.
o Pseudo code is very similar to everyday English.
Example 1:
Write an algorithm to determine a student to indicate whether he is passing
or failing using average of four marks. i.e., if he is failed to get average less
than 50 then he is failed
(M/ tM Uday Pseudo code:
Input a set of 4 marks
Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
if average is below 50
Print “FAIL” fe
oe &)
Print “PASS”
Algorithm:
step 1: Start
step 2: Take 4 integer inputs for the different 4 subject like math, english,
physics, chemistry.
step 3 :Then calculate
average = ( math + english + physics + chemistry) / 4
step 4: if the value of average is below 50 , it will print fail otherwise it
shows pass
step 5: END
Algorithm Pseudocode
It is a step-by-step Tt is an easy way of writing
description of the solution. | algorithms for users to
understand.
It is always a real algorithm | These are fake codes,
and not fake codes.
They are a sequence of They are representations of
solutions to a problem. algorithms.
It is a systematically written | These are simpler ways of writing
code. codes
1.4.2. Flow chart:
Now we can also transform the algorithm to a flowchart
A flowchart is a graphical representation of the algorithm (again, a sequence
of instructions that reach an end). Different symbols are used to draw each
type of flowchart.
(M/ tM Uday ‘Symbols used in flow chart:
Name Function
Indicates any type of internal
Process operation inside the Processor
‘or Memory
‘Used for any Input / Output
(UO) operation. Indicates that
‘Symbol
Z___7_ | inmtloutpet | the computer is o obeain data
>)
‘or output results
Used to ask a question that can
Decision ‘be answered in a binary
format (Yes/No, True/False)
Predefined Process
‘Terminal of the program, process, or
to Flow Lines Shows direction of flow.
(M/ tM Uday Example 2:
Find algorithm and flow chart of Sum of Two Numbers Entered
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read the Integers n1,n2
Step 4: Perform the addition by using the formula: sum=n1+n2.
Step 5: Print the Integer sum
Step 6: Stop
Flow chart:
‘Sum of two numbers
ni, n2, sum
sum = nitn2
4 Write: sum
Z
1.4.3 Dia tool to draw Flow chart in computer:
Step 1. Select Flow Chart in the diagram tools window
Select the flow chart in diagram tools window as shown below, JS
“SM Mc Uday
© Fig. Select Flow Chart Menu Item from Dia
‘This will show the flow charting tools in the window.
Process
Input/Output
Decision
Connector
Display
Start / stop
and so on..
SPP Se PS
Step 2. Select and draw using tools
Select the flow chart tool and start drawing. In the following example, I
started with the ‘Start’ flow-chart component Fig: “Start” Flow Chart Component in the Dia Program
In the following example, I quickly drew 5 flow chart components — Start,
Get Input, Process, Display Output, and Stop. At this stage, these flow chart
components are not aligned properly.
©
Fig: All Flow Chart Components in Dia Unaligned
Step 3. Align and Spread out the components
At this stage the flowchart may not look neat, as ))
the components are neither aligned nor spread-
out properly. [exvesnesarenn J
Before aligning and spreading-out the
components, select all the flow-chart components
on the screen using the mouse as shown below.
Fig: Select all Dia Flow Chart Components Using
Mouse
Align all the components to center
Click on Object Menu -> Align -> Center to center all the selected
components.
(M/ tM Uday Spread Out all the components to center
When you draw the flow chart, each component will have a different
distance from the other component. To make all the spaces equivalent use
the spread out option.
Click on Object Menu -> Align -> Spread Out Vertically.
‘am View Objects Select Tools i
/ ‘tnpitaand pions Jo
i rocesancrnsmiA.8) i
/ Dipay ope (son user
Fig: Dia Flow Chart after Spread Out Vertically
Step 4. Connect Flow Chart Components Using Arrows
Select the arrow from general tools window, and then connect the
components one by one. You can also change the arrow type, and the
thickness in the tools window.
(M/ tM Uday am Yew Qbjecs select Tos Ire
1
phy prc (am ower
Fig: Dia Flow Chart with the Arrows
Step 5. Export the Flow Chart as an Image
Finally you can export the flow chart to an image file using the export
option.
Click on File Menu -> Export -> Select the file type as png, or as what ever
you wanted -> Click export after specifying the file name.
Get Input A and B from user
¥
[receensrnim (a 8)
v
[ stey om to use 7
Fig: Final Flow Chart Image Export from Dia
(M/ tM Uday Generally coding is done in high level language or middle level language
(assembly language). For the computer to understand these languages, they
must be translated into machine level language.
The translation process is carried out by a compiler/interpreter (for high
level language) or an assembler (for assembly language program).
In an interpreted program, each program statement is converte’
machine code before program is executed. The execution occurs immediately
one statement at a time sequentially
A compiler converts a given source code into object code. Once an object
code is obtained, the compiled programs can be faster and more efficient
than interpreted programs.
Compilation process:
A source code must go through several steps before it becomes an
executable program.
In the first step the source code is checked for
anny syntax errors, After the syntax errors are [==] =]
traced out a source file is passed through a
compiler which first translates high level
language into object code (A machine code not
ready to be executed).
A linker then links the object code with pre-
compiled library functions, thus creating an
executable program.
This executable program is then loaded into
the memory for execution. General
compilation process is shown in Figure:>
qq Steps to Execute C program in Turbo C
@ compiler:
—> Enter the program in C editor
-» Save the program (File >Save) or F2. Also use
the extension “.c “ to save the program
o Ex: Sample.c
—» Compile the program (compile>compile) or
Alt+F9
— Run the program (Run>Run) or Ctrl+F9 to see
output
SEaM/ Mc Uday In C, each variable has a specific data type, where a data type tells us
the size, range and the type of a value that can be stored in a variable.
In G, there are about seven primitive data types. These data types are
short, int, long, char, float, double primitive data types are
categorized into these parts fs
+ integer data types, such as short, int, long.
+ floating-point data types, such as float, double.
+ ‘character data type, such as char.
Tnteaer ‘Character
Int Uunsignedint signed char
shortint _unsignedshort int ‘nsignedchar
longint —_unsignediong int
Floating Point Type
float | double | longdouble
Primitive data type’s size, range and format Specifier are given table
below:
Size Format
Data Type (bytes) Range Specifier
short int 1 byte =128 to 127 eh
unsigned short | 1 bytes Oto 255 %hu
int
int 2 bytes -32768 to 32767 %d
unsigned int | 2 bytes 0 to 65535 wu
-2147483648 to ,
long int 4 bytes apa sold
‘anatgest long | 4 bytes 0 to 4294967295 yu
SEaM/ Mc Uday signed char 1 byte -128 to 127 %e
unsigned char 1 byte Oto 255 %e
float 4 bytes -3.4€38 to +3.4e38 Ee
double 8 bytes -1.7e308 to 1.7e308 lt
long double 10 bytes | -1.7¢4932 to +1.7¢4932 LE
Note : The sizes given are compiler dependent , sizes given in the figure are
for 16- bit Compiler
"Primitive data types" may refer to the standard data types built into a
programming language (built-in types ~ already defined data types by
programming language developer).
Example code Output
#include int value is 10
#include float value is 88.88
main() char value is a
{
int a=10;
float b=88.88;
char c
clrser();
printf(“int value is %d\n”,a);
printf{“float value is %f\n",b);
printf{“char value is %c”,c);
getch();
return 0;
}
Data types which are not primitive are referred to as derived or non primitive
data types.
Non primitive data types in C:
These are the data types derived from primitive data types only.
SEaM/ Mc Uday Examples include Arrays, strings, Function, Pointers etc.,
fe)
User defined Data types in C:
Here one data type can store data of different data types under the same
variable name.
Examples include structure, union etc.,
1.7.1. Variables:
Variables are used to allocate memory and variables may take different
values during program execution
‘Syntax:
Datatype variable;
Example:
int a;
double b;
char c;
We can also provide values to variables directly using = operator
Called initialization
int a=100;
88.88;
float
char
Rules for defining a variable:
© variable cannot be a keyword
S@8M/ tMc Uday * Ex: int a; Vint float; X
© It can have sequence of letters and digits and must begin with a
alphabet only or _ symbol are allowed
* Ex: intal;v int 2n;X
© White spaces are not allowed.
* Ex: int sum; ¥ os
it s um; X os)
© variables are case sensitive
., Upper case and lower case alphabets treated as
different.
Note : Same rules applied for naming user defined functions also
‘Types of variables in C:
local: variables have scope with in a function
global: variables have scope more than one function
auto: default variable
static: to retain values between different function calls
external: have scope within entire program,
register: variables stored in register memory for faster access
(Note: in detailed explanation about types of variables will be discussed in
functions concept)
1.7.2. Constants:
As the name suggests, a constant in C is a variable that cannot be modified
once it is declared in the program.
We cannot make any change in the value of the constant variables after
they are defined.
Defining a constant in C:
‘There are 2 ways to define a constant
1. using const keyword
2. using #define preprocessor
1) Using const keyword:
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
E 1
-onst float PI
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed,
(M/ tM Uday Example code
#include
#include
main()
{
const float PI=3.14;
elrser();
printf{“PI=%f",PI);
getch();
return 0;
}
2) Using #define pre processor:
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.
This is also called macro substitution
Example code
Output
#include
#include
#define PI 3.14
main()
{
clrser();
print£(“PI=%f",PI);
getch();
return 0;
}
PIF3.14
List of Constants in C
SEaM/ Mc Uday Constant Example
Decimal Constant 10, 20, 450 ete.
Real or Floating-point Constant 10.3, 20.2, 450.6 etc. 28)
Octal Constant 021, 033, 046 etc.
Hexadecimal Constant 0x2a, Ox7b, Oxaa etc.
Character Constant ‘a’, 'b’, 'x' ete.
String Constant "c’, "c program’, "tme uday’” etc.
C provides a collection of library functions such
as getchar, putchar, scanf, printf, gets and puts. These functions enable the
transfer of data between the C program and standard input/output devices.
The standard input-output devices or the associated files or text streams, are
referred as —
«stdin - standard input file, normally connected to the keyboard
+ stdout - standard output file, normally connected to the screen/ console
+ stderr - standard error display device file, normally connected to the
screen/console
In order to be able to use the above mentioned input-output functions in your
C program, you must begin each C program with a pre-processor directive to
include these standard library functions.
«This can be done with a line entry - #include
This input and output functions categorized into 2 types:
— Formatted - printf() , scanf()
> Un formatted — getchar(), putchar() , gets(), puts()
1.8.1, Formatted output statement: printf)
printf) acts as a formatted output statement in C programming language
it is used to output data on standard output device
This can be done in 2 ways,
On 1** way used to show message,
SEaM/ Mc Uday Syntax 1:
printff"message”);
whatever you write in between that double quotes (*) will be printed on
console
Example code Output
#include Hello world
#include
main()
{
cirser();
printf{‘Hello world”);
getch();
return 0;
1
On 2n4 way used to access a value in a variable,
Syntax 2:
Printf{* ”, variable);
Here it will print value in variable in place of format specifier in console
We can print values of multiple variables also
Example code
Output
#include
#include
main()
{
int
00;
clrser();
printf{‘value in a is %d”,a);
getch();
return 0;
1
value in a is 100
1.8.2. Formatted input statement: scanf{)
SEaM/ Mc Uday scanf{) acts as formatted input statement in C programming language.
It is used to read value from console and store it in the specified location
ie., variable
Syntax:
scanf{“formatspecifier” variable);
format specifier can be %d for int, %f for float etc., already discussed in data ©
types concept
&wvariable tells address of variable.
Example code ‘Output
‘include Enter a value: 100
include
#include
main()
t
char ch;
clrscr();
printf{‘Enter a character:”);
ch=getchar();
printf(“Given character:”);
putchar(ch);
getch();
return 0;
}
Enter a character : a
Given character: a
1.8.4. Escape Sequences:
Character combinations consisting of a backslash (\) followed by a letter or
by a combination of digits are called "escape sequences.”
Typical use of escape sequences are listed below
Escape Sequence
\a
\b
\t
\n
\r
\t
Ww
\
.
.
Meaning
‘Alarm or Beep
Backspace
Form Feed
New Line
Carriage Return
Tab (Horizontal)
Vertical Tab
Backslash
Single Quote
Double Quote
Example code
Output
SEaM/ Mc Uday #include Helloworld
; Hellworld
#include
world
main() Hello
Fi world
: Hello'world’
clrser();, Hello”world”
printf(‘Hello\a world”); 2
printf{‘Hello \ bworld”);
printf{*Hello\rworld’);
printf{*Hello\nworld”);
printf{‘Hello\‘world\”);
printf{*Hello\"world\””);
getch();
return 0;
}
In programming languages sometimes expressions contains different data
types then they must be converted to the single data type of destination data
type.
For example, the multiplication of an integer data value with the float data
value and storing the result into a float variable. In this case, the integer
value must be converted to float value
In a C programming language, the data conversion is performed in two
different methods as follows...
a. Type Conversion
b. Type Casting
1.9.1. Type Conversion:
It is also called widening conversion. Here destination type is larger than
source type.
For example
float
SEaM/ Mc Uday Here int variable a takes 2 bytes where float variable b takes 4 bytes so
destination type is larger than source type.
1.9.2. Type casting:
It is also called a narrowing conversion,
Here the destination data type must be
smaller than the source data type.
‘Syntax:
Destination_datatype = (target_datatype) variable;
For Example,
float =9.6;
int d= (int) ¢; // b=9
here float variable c takes 4 bytes where as int variable d takes 2 bytes
so destination type is smaller than source type
Example code Output
#include 20.000
#include 2
main()
{
int ad;
float b,c}
clrscr();
a=20;
b=a;
6;
d-(int)c;
printf(“%f\n",b);
printf{*%d",d);
getch();
cs
return 0;
}
SEaM/ Mc Uday As we discussed earlier in topic 1.4, writing algorithm is initial step in
problem solving Let us see definition of algorithm 1st
Algorithm:
Algorithm is step by step process of a given problem to solve it which defines /
a set of instructions to be executed in a certain order to get the desired
output.
An algorithm can be implemented in more than one programming language
Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the
following characteristics -
+ Unambiguous ~ Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of
its steps (or phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and
must lead to only one meaning.
+ Input ~ An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
+ Output - An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs,
and should match the desired output.
+ Finiteness ~ Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of
steps.
+ Feasibility - Should be feasible with the available resources.
+ Independent ~ An algorithm should have step-by-step directions,
which should be independent of any programming code.
From the data structure point of view, following are some important
categories of algorithms -
Search - Algorithm to search an item in a data structure
Sort ~ Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.
Insert ~ Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.
Update ~ Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.
Delete - Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.
Example Algorithm for Addition of 2 numbers:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read the Integers n1,n2
Step 4: Perform the addition by using the formula: sum=n1+n2.
Step 5: Print the Integer sum
Step 6: Stop
SEaM/ MC Uday In the top-down approach, a bigger module/problem is divided into smaller
modules.
In the bottom-up approach, the smaller problems are solved and then they
are integrated to find the solution of a bigger problem. 5)
1.11.1. Top-down approach:
Top-Down Approach is an approach to design algorithms in which a bigger
problem is broken down into smaller parts.
‘Thus, it uses the decomposition approach. This approach is generally used
by structured programming languages such as C, COBOL, FORTRAN
The drawback of using the top-down approach is that it may have
redundancy since every part of the code is developed separately.
Also, there is less interaction and communication between the modules in
this approach.
The implementation of algorithm using top-down approach depends on the
programming language and platform.
1.11.2. Bottom-up approach:
Bottom-Up Approach is one in which the smaller problems are solved, and
then these solved problems are integrated to find the solution to a bigger
problem. Therefore, it uses composition approach.
It is generally used with object oriented programming paradigm such
as C++, Java, and Python.
It requires a significant amount of communication among different modules.
Data encapsulation and data hiding is also implemented in this approach.
The bottom-up approach is generally used in testing modules.
SEaM/ MC Uday 1.11.3. Difference between Top - down and Bottom - up approaches:
The following table highlights all the major differences between top-down
approach and bottom-up approach
S.No. ‘Top-Down Approach Bottom-Up Approach Fe)
1. | inthis approach, the problem is broken | In this approach, the smaller problems are |
down into smaller parts solved.
2. | Itis generally used by structured It is generally used with object oriented
programming languages such as C,
COBOL, FORTRAN, ete.
programming paradigm such as C+,
Java, Python, ete.
3. | Itis generally used with documentati
of module and debugging code.
It is generally used in testing modules.
4, | It does not require communication
between modules.
It requites relatively more communication
between modules.
It contains redundant information,
It does not contain redundant information.
Decomposition approach is used here.
Composition approach is used here.
The implementation depends on the
programming language and platform
Data encapsulation and data hiding is
implemented in this approach
The Complexity of an Algorithm
The algorithm's performance can be measured in two ways:
Time Complexity
+ The amount of time required to complete an algorithm's execution is
called time complexity.
+ The big O notation is used to represent an algorithm's time
complexity.
SEaM/ Mc Uday + The time complexity is calculated primarily by counting the number of
steps required to complete the execution. Let us look at an example of
time complexity.
iS)
mul
// Suppose you have to calculate the multiplication of n numbers.
for i=1 ton.
mul = mul *1;
// when the loop ends, then mul holds the multiplication of the n
numbers
return mul;
The time complexity of the loop statement in the preceding code is at least n,
and as the value of n escalates, so does the time complexity. While the
code's complexity, i.e., returns mul, will be constant because its value is not
dependent on the importance of n and will provide the result in a single
step. The worst-time complexity is generally considered because it is the
maximum time required for any given input size.
Space Complexity
* The amount of space an algorithm requires to solve a problem and
produce an output is called its space complexity.
* Space complexity,
notation.
ike time complexity, is expressed in big O
The space is required for an algorithm for the following reasons:
1. To store program instructions.
(M/ tM Uday 2. To store track of constant values.
3. To store track of variable values.
4. To store track of function calls, jumping statements, and so on.
Space Complexity
= Auxiliary Space + Input Size
(M/ tM Uday
- Assignment 1:
Q: Write an Algorithm and flow chart for calculate simple interest?
ANS:
Signature of the faculty
SEaM/ Mc Uday
- Assignment 2
Q: write algorithm and flow chart for Determining the Largest Number
Among All the Entered Integers
ANS:
Signature of the faculty
SEaM/ Mc Uday Assignment 3
Q: write algorithm and flow chart for Work Out All the Roots of a Quadratic
Equation ax? +bx+c=0
ANS:
Signature of the faculty
SEaM/ Mc Uday
- Assignment 4
Q write a C program to illustrate sizeof in data types?
ANS:
Signature of the faculty
SEaM/ Mc Uday
-
